Lesson 9: The Impact of Science and Technology on

Society during the Industrial Revolution

In much of modern science the idea of progressive change, or evolution, has been
of fundamental importance. In addition to biological evolution, astronomers have been
concerned with stellar and galactic evolution, and astrophysicists and chemists with
nucleosynthesis, or the evolution of the chemical elements. Geologists have discovered
that the continents are not static entities but are also evolving; according to the theory
of plate tectonics, some continents are moving away from each other while others are
moving closer together.
Physics in particular was shaken to the core around the turn of the century. The
atom had been presumed indestructible, but discoveries of X-rays (1895), radioactivity
(1896)' and the electron (1897) could not be explained by the classical theories. The
discovery of the atomic nucleus (1911) and of numerous subatomic particles in addition
to the electron opened up the broad field of atomic and nuclear physics. Atoms were
found to change not only by radioactive decay but also by more dramatic processes—
nuclear fission and fusion— with the release of large amounts of energy.
 Albert Einstein — theory of relativity
 Radioactive Isotopes have been used as tracers in complicated chemical and
biochemical reactions and have also found application in geological dating.
 Introduction of microscope by the Janssen team that paved way for the
establishment of the cell theory and study of minute things. Charles Darwin
proposed the natural selection as an explanation of evolution. Darwin's complete
theory is published in "On the Origin of Species" in 1859. Gregor Mendel's theory
of Genetics, he observed and studied the pattern of inheritance using a pea plant
and developed the Mendelian Principles of Heredity.
 Louis Pasteur a French scientist known as the father of microbiology. He
pioneered pasteurization, a process of heating milk to a high temperature and
pressure to eliminate souring caused bacteria. He also proposed the germ theory
of disease, in which diseases arise from naturally existing microorganisms not from
spontaneous generation. He developed a vaccine for rabies and disproved
spontaneous generation theory.
 Hugo de Vries around the turn of the century biological evolution came to be
interpreted in terms of mutations that result in a genetically distinct species; the
survival of a given species was thus related to its ability to adapt to its environment
through such mutations,
 The development of biochemistry and the recognition that most important
biological processes take place at the molecular level led to the rapid growth of
 the field of molecular biology, with such fundamental results as the discovery of
the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the molecule carrying the genetic
code.
 Modern medicine has profited from .this explosion of knowledge in biology and
biochemistry, with new methods of treatment ranging from penicillin, insulin, and
a vast array of other drugs to pacemakers for weak hearts and implantation of
artificial or donated organs.
 In astronomy ever larger telescopes have assisted in the discovery that the sun is
a rather ordinary star in a huge collection of stars, the Milky Way, which itself is
only one the galaxies, that in general are expanding away from each other.
Through space travel astronomers were able to study and discover the nature of
the universe beyond Earth. The space age began with the launch of the first
artificial satellites in 1957. A human first went into space in 1961. Since then
cosmonauts and astronauts have ventured into space for further study of the
universe.
 The study of remote objects, billions of light-years from the earth, has been carried
out at all wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, with some of the most notable
results being made in radio astronomy, which has been used to map the Milky
Way, study quasars, pulsars, and other unusual objects, and detect relatively
complex organic molecules floating in space.
 The electronics industry, born in the early 20th cent., has advanced to the point
where a complex device, such as a computer, that once might have filled an entire
room can now be carried in an attaché case. The electronic computer has become
one of the key tools of modern industry. Electronics has also been fundamental in
developing new communications devices (radio, television, laser).
 A Watt steam engine. The steam engine, made of iron and fueled primarily by
coal, became widely used in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution.
Important Technological Developments:
Metallurgy: A major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial
Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given
amount of heat, coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting
it to charcoal, and coal was more abundant than wood. The substitution of coke for
charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron and wrought iron production. Using
coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron
blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting,
which allowed higher furnace temperatures.
James Watt and Matthew Boulton, had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam
engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of
the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of
the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate
steam condenser chamber.
Machine tools: created a demand for metal parts used in machinery. This led to the
development of several machine tools for cutting metal parts.
Chemicals: The large scale production of chemicals such as sulphuric acid by the lead
chamber process was invented by the Englishman John Roebuck. Sulphuric acid is used
for pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth. Nicolas Leblanc, in
1791 introduced a method for the production of sodium carbonate. Sodium carbonate
had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. The development of
bleaching powder calcium hypochlorite, revolutionized the bleaching processes in the
textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required for the traditional process then
in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the
textiles with alkali or sour milk.

Cement: In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical
process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building
trades This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400
degree celcius, then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand
and gravel to produce concrete. Cement was used on a large scale in the construction.
Gas lighting: Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale
introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton and Watt,
the Birmingharn steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large-scale
gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia,
and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities
were established in London between 1812 and 1820.
Glass making: A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process, was
developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832, this process was used by
the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window
and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without
interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of
buildings.
Paper machine: A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire
fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert.
Agriculture: improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors
of the economy. Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill, the
Dutch plough, which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine. Jethro Tull
invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder which distributed
seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth.
Transportation: At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by
navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea.
Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment. From astounding
automobile and the early airplane to the modern supersonic jet and the giant rocket that
has taken astronauts to the moon. Transportation improvements, such as canals and
improved roads, also lowered food costs. Railroads were introduced near the end Of the
Industrial Revolution.
Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be economically
transported long distances inland. Building of canals dates to ancient times. The Grand
Canal in China, "the world's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence,"
parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, is 1,121 miles (1,804
km) long and links Hangzhou with Beijing.
Food and nutrition: food supply had been increasing and prices falling before the
Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices;
Housing: Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from splendor for
factory owners to squalor for workers.
The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of professionals, such as
lawyers and doctors, who lived in much better conditions.
Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health
acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene and home construction.
Clothing and consumer goods: Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing
and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades,
stoves for cooking and space heating.
Reference:

Aldea, K.I., Caronan, H. P., Candido, M.B. (2018), Science, Technology, and Society (OBE
Ready). Philippines. Books ATbp. Publishing Corp.