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The Skill Approach
in Education:

From Theory to Practice

Edited by

and
The Skill Approach in Education: From Theory to Practice

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-1086-7

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1086-9
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE...................................................................................................... x

EDITORS .................................................................................................... xii

Part I: Concept of Skill Understanding

Editor: Sabri Sidekli

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................. 2

Skill Based Approach and Teaching Skill

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................... 19

Lifelong Learning Skills:
A Comprehensive Approach to Meaningful and Effective Learning
Tanju Deveci

CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................... 35

Creative Thinking Skills
e Derya I

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................... 48

Comprehension Skills
Sabri Sidekli

CHAPTER FIVE........................................................................................... 65
Measurement and Evaluation of Skill
Sema Sulak

Part II: Basic Skills in Education

Editor:

CHAPTER SIX............................................................................................. 78
Group Work Skills in the First Literacy
vi Table of Contents

CHAPTER SEVEN ....................................................................................... 93

Cursive Handwriting Skills
Ruhan Karada

CHAPTER EIGHT ...................................................................................... 104

Fluency Reading Skills
Yasemin Ku demir

CHAPTER NINE ........................................................................................ 124

The Role of Riddles in the Development of Reading Skills
ad Yangil

CHAPTER TEN ......................................................................................... 141

Fluent Speaking Skills
O uzhan Kuru

CHAPTER ELEVEN ................................................................................... 157

Screen-Reading Skills and Teaching
Sayim Aktay

CHAPTER TWELVE................................................................................... 172

Story Writing Skills of Children
Beyhan Can

Part III: Language Comprehension Skills

Editor: Yusuf

CHAPTER THIRTEEN ................................................................................ 188

Creative Reading Skill
Nevin Akkaya

CHAPTER FOURTEEN ............................................................................... 206

Creative Writing Skills
Fatma Susar

CHAPTER FIFTEEN ................................................................................... 229

Rapid Reading Skills
Bilge Ayranc
 The Skill Approach in Education: From Theory to Practice vii

CHAPTER SIXTEEN .................................................................................. 247

Voice and Diction in Speech

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN ............................................................................. 268

Listening Skills

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN ................................................................................ 285

Inference Skills

CHAPTER NINETEEN ................................................................................ 297

Critical Thinking and Writing

CHAPTER TWENTY .................................................................................. 312

Problem Solving Skills in Language Education
kaya

Part IV: Science and Mathematics Skills

Editor: Y lmaz Kara

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE .......................................................................... 326

Inquiry Skills in Science Education
Nil Duban

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO ......................................................................... 340

Science Process Skills: Learning through Scientific Method
Y lmaz Kara

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE ...................................................................... 359

Entrepreneurial Skills in Science Education
sa Deveci

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR ........................................................................ 370

Analytical Thinking Skills in Teaching Science
Murat Okur
viii Table of Contents

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE ......................................................................... 381

Mathematical Understanding and Reading Skills
Aysun

CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX ........................................................................... 394

Problem-Solving Skill
Neslihan Usta

CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN ...................................................................... 412

Geometrical Thinking Skill
ba Uygun

Part V: Psychosocial and Visual Arts Skills in Education

Editor:

CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT ....................................................................... 424

Counselor Skills

CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE ......................................................................... 429

Gratitude Skills Training

CHAPTER THIRTY .................................................................................... 443

Space Perception Ability in Social Studies Education

CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE............................................................................ 450

Maps in Geography Education

CHAPTER THIRTY-TWO ........................................................................... 461

Visual Perception Skills in Art Education

CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE ........................................................................ 477

Art Work Reading Skills
 The Skill Approach in Education: From Theory to Practice ix

CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR .......................................................................... 487

Teaching Skills

Contributors ............................................................................................ 506

 CHAPTER SEVEN

CURSIVE HANDWRITING SKILLS

RUHAN K

Introduction
Writing can be defined as the action of transferring words and sentences
onto paper by using some shapes and drawings; however, it is rather a
complex skill. Indeed, it is a quite complex action requiring the use of
kinesthetic and perceptual motor skills (Bonny, 1992; Carmona-Duarte et
al., 2017; Hagin, 1983; Rosenblum et al., 2003; Tseng & Cernak, 2000). It
is a process that occurs as a result of the interaction of linguistic,
psychomotor and bio mechanic factors, and which is dependent on physical
maturation, cognitive development and learning (Accardo et al., 2013). This
skill develops in parallel to the psychomotor, perceptual, cognitive and
physical development of children (Chartrel & Vinter, 2008; Thompson,
2011).
The process of cursive writing occurs in two stages; the first one is at
the cognitive level, and the second one is at the neuromuscular system level
(Carmona-Duarte et al, 2017). Cursive writing is a complex skill requiring
the use of perceptual (learning the shape of letters), motor (learning how to
write the letters), cognitive and linguistic skills (Chartrel & Vinter, 2008;
Graham & Weintraub, 1996; Longcamp et al., 2003). Cursive handwriting
requires recalling and visualizing the shape of a letter and transferring it
onto paper by using motor skills. Therefore, developing cursive handwriting
skill involves learning the visual representation of letters and turning them
into symbols by using motor skills. At the beginning of writing instruction,
hand movements are gradually directed by visual and kinaesthetic feedback.
Through practice and repetition, writing becomes automatized (Bara &
Gentaz, 2011).
Successful handwriting (cursive/script) is considered as a precondition
of academic success (Chartrel & Vinter, 2008; Graham et al., 1997;
Rosenblum et al., 2003; Tseng & Cermak, 1993; Tseng & Hsueh, 1997). As
94 Chapter Seven

an important indicator of cognitive and psychomotor development, cursive

handwriting plays a crucial role in school performance (Accardo et al.,
2013). Sheffield (1996) considers handwriting an important skill because it
gives students the opportunity to express themselves, and it frees the brain
for in-depth thinking. Using cursive handwriting helps some connections in
the brain (Longcamp et al., 2003) and provides support to cognitive
development (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990; Marquardt et al., 2016);
hence it fosters the comprehension of students (Mueller & Oppenheimer,
2014). Failure in learning cursive handwriting is an important indicator of
learning problems that children may experience in their future lives
(Graham, 1990; Harvey & Henderson, 1997; Rosenblum et al., 2003; Smits-
Engelsman et al., 2001).

Types of Writing and Cursive Handwriting

Teaching how to write is a common issue among researchers and
practitioners (teachers) (Stevenson & Just, 2014). In Finland, decisions on
decreasing the time spent on cursive handwriting and increasing the time
allocated to typing have been made. Similarly, discussions on writing in
some states in the United States have led to the conclusion that typing has
contributed more to the success of students at school and in their careers
after school (Bara et al., 2016). Also, Shapiro (2013) states that more time
is allocated to typing than cursive handwriting at schools in the United
States. However, technology is not always an easily accessible tool to record
the thoughts and ideas in classrooms on a daily basis. Therefore, cursive
handwriting is an appropriate tool to record the information in a quicker and
easier manner. On that note, cursive handwriting is still a quite important
necessity in 21st century classrooms
(http://www.gov.pe.ca/photos/original/ eecd_printcurk6.pdf).
In addition to the discussions over typing and handwriting, another issue
long discussed in the history of education is whether to start teaching writing
with print or cursive handwriting. Research shows that different approaches
are held in different countries. For example, as Bara and Morin (2013) state,
print handwriting is taught in grade one in the United States and Canada;
and cursive handwriting in grade two and three. However, there is also
evidence showing that some laws have been enacted regarding the use of
cursive handwriting in primary schools in ten different states (Can You
Imagine, 2012).

thoughts. The ultimate outcome expected from cursive handwriting is only

possible if it occurs parallel to the speed of thought. Therefore, the system
 Cursive Handwriting Skills 95

of symbols must flow in a progressive and connected manner and avoid

sharp turns that undermine the process of thought in the course of the writing
process. Within this framework, the links presiding in character transitions
in cursive handwriting provide extraordinary opportunities in changing
sentences into symbols without slowing down the process of thinking. Via
handwriting, ideas stored in short-term memory but not yet registered in
long-term memory shall be shielded by writing language before they are lost
eternally
One of the basic principles of literacy education is to have students
develop fast and fluent writing skills. The most characteristic and
distinguishing feature of cursive handwriting is noting down the words in
left to right direction without any interruption (Fitzgerald, 2004). Graham
and Weintraub (1996) asserts that students writing in a slow manner may
forget their thoughts and plans. Being continuous, fluent and fast, cursive
handwriting makes it easier for students to put their ideas on paper in an
organized way. Cursive handwriting enables students to transfer their ideas
in writing without losing any of them.
There are studies in the literature indicating that reading and writing
mutually affect and develop one another. Therefore, the continuity, fluency
and attention gained through cursive handwriting respectively reflect in
reading and hence develop students' reading skills. This continuity and
speed in reading and writing unite and enhance the improvement of

2006).
Cursive handwriting as an indispensable part of education programs
helps students improve multi-dimensional perceptual skills (Ott, 1997). It is
known that cursive handwriting provides many advantages for cognitive
and physical development as well as language learning and education.
Cursive handwriting enhances thinking by supporting the development of
mental development. The speed and continuity in cursive handwriting also
affect the continuity and speed of thinking process. When the physical
development of children is taken into account, cursive handwriting is stated
to be m
children first start receiving literacy instruction, they make cursive and
circular movements; hence cursive handwriting is suitable for their
anatomic structure. The continuity, fluency and attention in cursive
handwriting have an impact on reading skills as well. When compared to
print, cursive handwriting is faster and makes writing exercises easier. It
also does not allow students to go back when writing, which helps writing
be fluent and in the correct direction. Cursive handwriting requires words
to be written as a whole, so it prevents syllabication. In cursive handwriting,
96 Chapter Seven

students start writing from one specific point and ends at another one
without stopping writing. This makes writing continuous and fluent without
any interruption, which helps students keep letters and ideas to be written in
their minds. Cursive handwriting is achieved by making connections
between letters. These connections make it easier for students to combine
and structure the information in their minds
2006; Fitzgerald, 2004; Mosse, 1982).

Developing Cursive Handwriting Skills

The period from birth to grade one is of crucial importance in developing
cursive handwriting skills of children so that teaching cursive handwriting
should start in the preschool period. Children who have not reached physical
maturity experience numerous problems when writing at school.
Developing cursive handwriting skills is usually slow and difficult so that

cursive handwriting skills. Therefore, visual perception and motor skills of

children should be developed in order to improve their cursive handwriting
skills. There are some skills to be developed in students as preconditions of
teaching cursive handwriting. These include fine motor skills, eye-hand
coordination, the ability to use writing tools, make simple circular shapes or
draw lines, recognizing similarities and differences between letters, and the
ability to make the right movements to write the letters.

Warm-up Activities to Develop

Cursive Handwriting Skills
Visual perception activities: To improve the visual perception of
students, activities helping students recognize things, pictures and parts of
a whole may be done. Also, activities regarding knowing the shapes of the
letters, distinguishing similar shapes from each other, guessing an item by
looking at half of it, understanding figure-ground relationship and realizing
the spatial relationships as well as shape consistency may be utilized.
Recalling and repetition activities: It helps children develop recalling
skills if they are asked to draw the same shape; to find an item among the
others that they have seen before; and to find the items among others whose
places have been changed.
Activities to improve hand skills: One of the important elements
affecting the development of cursive handwriting is to manage hand-arm
and eye coordination. In order to manage it, different activities and play
dough should be utilized. Activities can include playing with finger
 Cursive Handwriting Skills 97

muppets, tapping information with fingertips, or pressing wooden

clothespins to make thumbs and index fingers more flexible, which supports
the development of finger, wrist and arm-hand muscles of students. In
addition, crayons and toys like play dough and puzzles may be used.
Pencil grasping/holding activities: Utmost attention should be given to
the pencil grasp of students for legibility, speed and ease of handwriting.
Students should be led to hold the pencil between the thumb and index
finger, each touching one another, with the pencil resting on the middle
finger. The pencils used should be chosen in the appropriate size and with
the appropriate features, considering the finger muscles of students.
Activities about the shapes, direction and connections of letters:
n to the beginning of some letters in the
alphabet (e.g. b, p, d) and writing these letters should be practiced because
they may be confused due to lacking sense of direction. In teaching writing,
activities about the direction of letters, starting and ending points, practicing
strokes from up to down and from left to right should be included. Another
factor affecting cursive handwriting skills is related to the shapes and
connections of the letters. Students should be taught the shapes and writing
direction of letters.
Activities about maintaining line-straightness, leaving appropriate
space between letters and words: Maintaining line-straightness is one of the
important factors affecting cursive writing in terms of style. Students should
be encouraged to follow the borders above and below with outmost attention
given not to leave the borders to maintain line-straightness. Also, it is also
possible to allow students to leave space between sentences and words by
using their finger or pencils until they achieve the appropriate space-saving
ability.
Ensuring proper seating for writing: Care must be taken to ensure that
the table chosen and the chairs students sit in are appropriate for the physical
development of students so that they can write in a comfortable writing
position.
Teaching cursive handwriting with a visual, perceptual and kinaesthetic
approach is of crucial importance in developing literacy skills of students
(Vinter & Chartel, 2008). Below are four basic principles that should be
taken into consideration while teaching this skill (Bertin & Perlman, 2013):
Handwriting is taught and practiced under the direct supervision of
teachers. In this process, teachers give instant feedback to students
and act as a model for the correct writing of the letters. Students
should not be given homework, which they have to do without
supervision, until they fully learn and are able to write without seeing
a model.
98 Chapter Seven

The order to be followed in order to teach writing is as follows:

watching (observation), copying (writing by looking at a model) and
writing without a model (recalling from memory). With the
supervision and guidance of the teacher, students observe how the
teacher writes, then write by looking at the letter (copying) and
finally they write the letter without looking at a model.
While writing, students primarily use arm and shoulder muscles
instead of the small muscles in their hands. Using these large muscles
helps students move and change the direction of pencil in order to
write the letters.
Teachers make oral explanations while teaching students how to
write the letters, which are about how to move their hands and how
to form the letters.

It is of crucial importance for teachers to act as a model and introduce,

present and explain the letters clearly and consistently in the first stages of
the teaching process. In the course of time, activities under the guidance of

and learning speeds are different, sufficient time should be allocated to

students in the writing process. (http://www.gov.pe.ca/photos/original/
eecd_printcurk6.pdf). Handwriting exercises involve copying and dictating
letters by using a model. Oral presentation and explanation of letter forms
are also recommended in writing instruction (Vinter & Chartel, 2010). Clay
(1991), pointed out that during the introduction of the letters to the students,
after teachers present how to write a letter as a model, it is necessary for
students to write it 50 times, which helps develop their motor skills in
writing, so that they will be able to write it accurately and effectively. It is
important to note that repetition is an important part of the writing process
based on the idea that individual differences may exist.
Cursive letters have some similarities and differences in terms of shape
or writing style. Students need to analyse the shapes and writing directions
of the letters so that they can recognize cursive letters. In the development
of handwriting skills, the knowledge of letters is of great importance (Vinter
& Chartel, 2008). The most important thing for children is to know the

to the differences between letters. Students should be aware of the fact that
letters may have special features such as being vertical or curved, short and
long, or having a tail. They should also know that letters are in different
sizes and shapes, that they may have similarities and differences (b, d), and
that they have names and sounds (Fountas & Pinnell, 1998).
 Cursive Handwriting Skills 99

Evaluating Cursive Handwriting Skills

.
Handwriting is evaluated in terms of fluency and legibility (Graham et al.,
1998). Hammerschmidt and Sudsawad (2004) state that legibility is the
main factor in determining the acceptability of the handwriting. Legibility
is one of the most important criteria that can be used to determine whether
students develop cursive handwriting skills. Legibility depends on writing
the letters in the appropriate size correctly, linking the letters appropriately,
leaving sufficient space between letters, and maintaining the alignment of
the letters (Tseng & Chow, 2000). In evaluating cursive handwriting,
teachers may evaluate their students by observing their behaviour in the
writing process and by evaluating the texts they have written. The
development of students' cursive handwriting skills can be assessed by
observing which letters they can or cannot write, what mistakes they make
while writing the letters, how they hold the paper / notebook, if they use the
writing tools appropriately, and whether they write the letters without a
model, a visual or a clue.
It is also very important for students to self-evaluate in the evaluation of
handwriting. In the self-evaluation process, teachers must act as a model by
thinking aloud in order to implement this process effectively. There are also
some questions that students have to answer for themselves (Literacy Place
for the Early Years Writing Guide, Grade 2, p.252): Are all my letters
cursive in the same way? / Are all my letters on the same line? / Are the
letters the right size / Have I left enough space between letters or words? /
Can I read my own handwriting? / Can others read my handwriting?

Conclusion
It was stated that handwriting becomes automatized after grades 5 and 6
(Blote & Hamstra-Bletz, 1991; Karlsdottir & Stefansson, 2002); Feder and
Majnemer (2007) stated that the speed of handwriting increases with age.
In the literature, it is stated that cursive handwriting is usually applied after
third grade (Zachry et al., 2016). On the other hand, the results of the study
conducted by Vinter and Chartel (2008) show that there is an increase in the
visual perception of cursive letters of children aged 3-5. Therefore, at what
stage in the education process cursive handwriting should be taught to
children should be determined based on scientific research. In order to
develop cursive handwriting skills, cursive handwriting should be
integrated with other courses and should be a part of daily classroom
activities. Cognitive, psychological, physical and visual-perceptual support
100 Chapter Seven

should be individually given to the students who have problems in the

learning process. Teachers are required to write legibly and be a model for
their students in order to be able to teach cursive handwriting effectively.
Therefore, utmost importance should be given to teacher education in the
first

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