Introduction to

Electricityand
Magnetism
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 Introduction to
Electricityand
Magnetism
John Dirk Walecka
College of William and Mary, USA

World Scientific
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Walecka, John Dirk, 1932– author.
Title: Introduction to electricity and magnetism / John Dirk Walecka
(College of William and Mary, USA).
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018029050| ISBN 9789813272064 (hardcover : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9789813273108 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Electricity. | Magnetism.
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For John and Ann
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 Preface

The present author has published several physics textbooks: a graduate

nuclear theory book [Walecka (2004)], a modern physics series [Walecka
(2008); Walecka (2010); Walecka (2013)] that provides an introduction
to quantum mechanics and twentieth-century physics ranging from the
undergraduate to the advanced graduate levels, two graduate books on
statistical mechanics [Walecka (2000); Walecka (2011)], and a graduate-
level introduction to general relativity [Walecka (2007)]. There are also
problem solutions manuals for two of the latter texts [Walecka (2017);
Walecka (2017a)]. Published in collaboration, there are graduate texts
on classical mechanics and many-body theory [Fetter and Walecka (2003);
Fetter and Walecka (2003a); Fetter and Walecka (2006)] and a set of solu-
tions manuals for the modern physics series [Amore and Walecka (2013);
Amore and Walecka (2014); Amore and Walecka (2015)]. All of these books
are based on courses taught at either Stanford, where the author was on
the faculty from 1960-1986, or at the College of William and Mary, where
he served from 1992-2003.
There is one other course that I taught at Stanford in the spring of
1986 for which I have a good set of notes. This was the calculus-based
freshman physics course, Physics 53, on electricity and magnetism. It was
a big course with over 400 students, taught in two lecture sections, with
additional problem sessions taught by many good graduate teaching assis-
tants, overseen by an excellent head TA, Janet Tate.1 It was one of the
most enjoyable courses I ever taught, and what made it such fun was the
lecture demonstrations prepared by that master, Kurt Machein. I would
go in each night before a lecture and practice the demonstrations for the

1 Physics 54 was an optional one-credit lab, graded P/NC, that went along with the

course.

vii
viii Preface

next day under Kurt’s watchful eye. They always went well and really
enhanced and solidified the material. I vividly remember that Kurt and I
received a standing ovation after a particularly compelling final story and
demonstration.
There is an abundance of good introductory and more advanced elec-
tricity and magnetism texts. The one I used was [Ohanian (1985)], but see
also, for example, [Halliday and Resnick (2013); Freedman et al. (2013);
Purcell and Morin (2013); Griffiths (2017); Slater and Frank (2011);
Schwarz (1987); Abraham and Becker (1949); Stratton (2008); Panofsky
and Phillips (2005); Jackson (2009)], etc. The existence of all of these
texts, and the inability to include the wonderful demonstrations, made me
very reluctant to consider publishing these lectures.
On the other hand, these lectures do provide what in my opinion is a
clear, self-contained, calculus-based introduction to a subject that together
with classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, and modern physics lies at
the heart of today’s physics curriculum. A good introduction, even at the
cost of some repetition, does allow one to approach the more advanced texts
and monographs with better understanding and a deeper sense of appreci-
ation. Furthermore, these lectures, although relatively concise, do take one
from Coulomb’s law to Maxwell’s equations and special relativity in what
to me is a lucid and logical fashion. The principles of electromagnetism
have such an astonishing range of applicability. So, to round out the set
of physics texts,2 and for my own enjoyment, I have proceeded to convert
those lectures into the present book. I hope that in using this text, students
and teachers alike can share some of the pleasure I took in writing it.
I would, once again, like to thank Dr. K. K. Phua, Executive Chair-
man of World Scientific Publishing Company, and my editor Ms. Lakshmi
Narayanan, for their help and support on this project.

Williamsburg, Virginia John Dirk Walecka

April 30, 2018 Governor’s Distinguished CEBAF
Professor of Physics, emeritus
College of William and Mary

2 I was invited some time ago by my co-author Sandy Fetter to collaborate on a

graduate-level E&M text, based on a course he had taught so successfully many times
at Stanford, and for which he had a good draft manuscript. As I had never taught that
particular graduate course myself, I reluctantly declined the invitation.
 Contents

Preface vii

Electricity 1
1. Introduction 3
1.1 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Gravitational Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Electrical Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2. Coulomb’s Law 7
2.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3. The Electric Field 11

3.1 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.1 Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.2 Lines of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.3 Dipole Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.4 Sheet of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.5 Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

ix
x Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

3.3 Electric Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4. Gauss’ Law 21
4.1 Gauss’ Law ⇒ Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Coulomb’s Law ⇒ Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.1 Sheet of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.2 Line of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3.3 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3.4 Charged Conducting Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4 Charged Particle Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5. The Electrostatic Potential 31

5.1 Work Done by a Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 Point Charge q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.1 Another Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2.2 Closed Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3 Collection of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4.1 Sheet of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4.2 Line of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5 Charged-Particle Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.6 Properties of Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.7 Some Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.7.1 Single-Variable Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.7.2 Multi-Variable Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.8 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.9 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.9.1 Sheet of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.9.2 Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.9.3 Collection of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.10 Surface of Conductor an Equipotential . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

6. Electric Energy 45
6.1 Pair of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.2 Collection of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 Charged Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4 Charged Parallel Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
 Contents xi

7. Capacitors and Dielectrics 51

7.1 Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.1.1 Charged Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.1.2 Parallel-Plate Capacitor (“Condenser”) . . . . . . . . 52
7.2 Capacitors in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.3 Capacitors in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.4 Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4.1 Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.4.2 Energy in Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.5 Gauss’ Law with Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

8. Currents and Ohm’s Law 61

8.1 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.2 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.3 Two Resistors in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.4 Two Resistors in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.5 Microscopic Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.5.1 Resistivity of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

9. DC Circuits 71
9.1 Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.1.1 Daniell Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.1.2 Lead-Acid Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2 Simplest Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.3 Work Done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.4 Kirchoff’s Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.4.1 First Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.4.2 Second Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.5.1 Single-Loop Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.5.2 Multi-Loop Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

10. Review of Electricity 79

10.1 Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.2 Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
10.3 Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.4 Electrostatic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.5 Electric Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
xii Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

10.6 Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10.6.1 Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.7 Circuits and Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10.7.1 Kirchoff’s Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Magnetism 91
11. Vectors 93
11.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.1.1 Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.1.2 Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
11.1.3 Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.2 Differential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
11.3 Gauss’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11.4 Stokes’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

12. The Magnetic Force and Field 101

12.1 Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
12.2 The Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
12.2.1 Analogy to Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
12.2.2 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
12.2.3 Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
12.2.4 Sources of Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
12.3 Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
12.3.1 Line of Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
12.3.2 Current Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.4 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

13. Ampere’s Law 111

13.1 Ampere’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
13.1.1 Line of Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
13.1.2 Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
13.1.3 Electrostatics and Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.2.1 Infinite Current Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.2.2 Two Opposing Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
13.2.3 Infinite Solonoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
13.3 Lorentz Force (continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
 Contents xiii

13.3.1 Uniform Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

13.3.2 Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.3.3 Velocity Selector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.3.4 Mass Spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
13.4 Force on a Current-Carrying Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

14. Electromagnetic Induction 123

14.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
14.1.1 AC Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.1.2 DC Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
14.1.3 DC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
14.2 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
14.2.1 Two Solonoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
14.2.2 One Solonoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
14.3 Energy in Solonoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

15. Magnetic Materials 135

15.1 Atomic Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.1.1 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.1.2 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.1.3 Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.2 Paramagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.3 Ampere’s Law with Magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 139
15.4 Ferromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15.5 Diamagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.6 Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

16. Time-Dependent Circuits 145

16.1 RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
16.2 RL Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
16.3 LC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
16.4 External EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.4.1 RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.4.2 RL Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
16.4.3 LC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
16.5 Alternating Current EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
16.5.1 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
16.5.2 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
xiv Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

16.5.3 Impedance and Phase Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

16.5.4 LCR (Series) Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
16.6 Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

17. Review of Magnetism 157

17.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
17.2 Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
17.2.1 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
17.2.2 Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
17.2.3 Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
17.2.4 Ampere’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
17.3 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
17.3.1 Current-Carrying Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
17.4 Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
17.4.1 Induced EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
17.4.2 Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
17.4.3 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17.5 Magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
17.5.1 Atomic Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
17.5.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
17.6 Time-Dependent Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
17.6.1 Decaying Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
17.6.2 Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
17.6.3 Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Electromagnetism 171
18. Maxwell’s Equations 173
18.1 The Displacement Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
18.2 Integral Form of Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
18.2.1 Gauss’ Law for Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
18.2.2 Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
18.2.3 Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
18.2.4 Ampere’s Law with Displacement Current . . . . . . 177
18.3 Time Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
18.4 Gauss’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
18.5 Stokes’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
18.6 Differential Form of Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . 179
 Contents xv

19. Waves 181

19.1 One-Dimensional Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
19.2 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
19.3 Travelling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
19.3.1 Snapshot at Fixed t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
19.3.2 Disturbance at a Fixed x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
19.4 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

20. Electromagnetic Waves 187

20.1 Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
20.2 Travelling Wave Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
20.3 Energy in Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
20.4 Energy Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
20.5 Momentum Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
20.5.1 Momentum Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
20.5.2 Radiation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
20.6 Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
20.7 Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

21. More Electromagnetic Waves 199

21.1 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
21.1.1 String with Fixed Endpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
21.2 Electromagnetic Waves in a Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
21.3 Source of Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
21.4 Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 203

22. The Theory of Special Relativity 205

22.1 Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
22.2 Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
22.3 Einstein’s Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
22.4 Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
22.4.1 Velocity of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
22.4.2 Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
22.4.3 Lorentz Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
22.5 Transformation Law for Electromagnetic Fields . . . . . . . 209
22.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
22.6.1 Two Moving Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
22.6.2 Electromagnetic Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
xvi Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

22.7 Basic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

23. Review of Electromagnetism 213

23.1 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
23.1.1 Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
23.1.2 Ampere’s Law with Displacement Current . . . . . . 215
23.1.3 Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
23.1.4 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
23.1.5 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
23.2 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
23.3 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

24. Problems 221

Appendix A Significant Names in Electricity and Magnetism 241

Appendix B Fundamental Constants 243

B.1 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Bibliography 245

Index 247
 PART 1

Electricity
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 Chapter 1

Introduction

It is assumed that the reader has had a good course in calculus, is familiar
with vectors, and knows Newton’s laws.1 Apart from that, every effort
will be made to keep the presentation of electricity and magnetism self-
contained. The goal would be to know and understand the reviews spaced
throughout the text. It is assumed that readers will attempt several of the
problems from each chapter. It is also assumed that readers will participate
in an introductory E&M lab as they go along, in order to obtain some
familiarity with the phenomena under discussion.

1.1 Physics

We start with some comments on physics. Physics provides a way of looking

at the world. We describe physical phenomena in mathematical terms with
the goal of

• Correlating phenomena
• Predicting new phenomena

The description is tested with experiment. Physics is an experimental sci-

ence. The payoff is that

• The description is either correct or incorrect

• The correct results are universal

The author understands that this particular introductory course is hard.

Both the approach and phenomena are, for the most part, new to the reader.
Physics tries to simplify, and although it may be difficult to believe at this
1 Some familiarity with oscillations and the simple harmonic oscillator is also helpful.

3
4 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

point, physics will get easier as you go along.

1.2 Newton’s Laws

“Classical mechanics” based on Newton’s laws provides an example of the

above. In an inertial frame, one moving with constant velocity relative to
the fixed stars, one has
d
F~ = (m~v ) ; Newton’s second law (1.1)
dt
where F~ is the force. This is a differential equation. For example, in one-
dimension, with a constant mass, this relation is
d2 x
F =m (1.2)
dt2
Given the initial conditions [x(t0 ), ẋ(t0 )], where
   
x(t0 ) x(t)
≡ ; initial conditions (1.3)
ẋ(t0 ) dx(t)/dt t
0

the trajectory x(t) is determined for all subsequent times.

• The physicist’s job is to classify the forces;
• Newton’s second law then describes the motion of a particle
(or particles) in response to those forces.

1.3 Gravitational Force

The expression for the gravitational force between two masses (m1 , m2 )
separated by ~r = ~r1 − ~r2 (Fig. 1.1) is again due to Newton
m1 m2
F~21 = −G 2 r̂ ; gravitational force (1.4)
r
Here F~21 is the force exerted on particle 1 by particle 2 (by Newton’s third
law F~12 = −F~21 ), and r̂ is the unit vector r̂ ≡ ~r/r.2 G is the gravitational
constant3
Nm2
G = 6.67 × 10−11 (1.5)
kg2
2 Throughout this text, a hat over a symbol will denote a unit vector.
3 Also referred to as Newton’s constant.
 Introduction 5

F21
1

F12 m
1

r
2
m
2

Fig. 1.1 Configuration for the gravitational force.

In this book we will consistently work in SI units,4 where the force is mea-
sured in “newtons”
kg-m 1
1 N = 1 newton = 1 2
= pound (1.6)
sec 4.45
We note that the gravitational force is proportional to the product of
the masses m1 m2 and falls off as the square of the distance 1/r2 .

1.4 Electrical Forces

1.4.1 Electrostatics
We will start the discussion of electrical forces with charged particles moving
very slowly relative to the velocity of light
v
≪1 ; c ≡ velocity of light (1.7)
c
Electrostatics then defines the structure of most of the physical systems we
see around us in our everyday lives

• atoms
• molecules
– chemistry and biology;
• liquids
• solids
– crystals, insulators, metals, superconductors;
• nuclei
– fusion barrier and fission.
4 Sometimes also referred to as m.k.s. Other system of units are compared in appendix

K of [Walecka (2008)] .
6 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

1.4.2 Electromagnetism
With the inclusion of the motion of charges, and currents, we will then
get into the full subject of electromagnetism, which has a wide variety of
important applications
• electrical power
– homes, industry;
• communication
– radio, television, cell phones;
• information processing
– computers;
• lasers
• solar power ; etc.

1.5 Electric Charge

Electric charge has two important properties:

(1) Charge is quantized. The elementary unit of charge is that on a proton
proton charge ≡ e = 1.60 × 10−19 C (1.8)
Here the standard unit of charge is the coulomb
1 C ≡ 1 coulomb (1.9)
It is defined through Eq. (1.8).5 To the best of our current knowledge,
the charge on the electron is exactly equal and opposite to that on the
proton
electron charge = −e (1.10)
(2) Charge is conserved. A collection of charges, such as the electrons
moving in a solid, can be pushed around like a fluid; however, the total
number of charges does not change.

5 The coulomb is the charge on 6.24 × 1018 protons.

 Chapter 2

Coulomb’s Law

2.1 Electrostatics

In analogy to the gravitational force in Eq. (1.4), Coulomb’s law for the
electrostatic force between two charges (q1 , q2 ) is as follows
1 q1 q2
F~21 = r̂ ; Coulomb’s law (2.1)
4πε0 r2
Here q1 is the charge on object 1, and q2 is the charge on object 2 (Fig. 2.1).

F21
1

F12 q
1

r
2
q
2

Fig. 2.1 Configuration for Coulomb’s law.

This expression for the force is exact if the two charges are at rest. The
constant appearing in front is, in this case,

1 Nm2
= 8.99 × 109 2 (2.2)
4πε0 C
Three comments:

• Again, by Newton’s third law F~12 = −F~21 ;

• The force again falls off as the square of the distance 1/r2 ;

7
8 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

• The force is proportional to the product of charges q1 q2 , and in contrast

to the case with gravity where the force is always attractive, here the
force can either be
– attractive for unlike charges (with q1 q2 < 0);
– repulsive for like charges (with q1 q2 > 0).

2.2 Strength

To get some feel for the strength of the electrostatic force, consider the
following example (Fig. 2.2).

- q =6F q =-6F
1 2
- -

+
- Z= +6 -
~ 5000 km
-
SF NY

(a) carbon atom (b) separation

Fig. 2.2 Example of 1 mole of fully ionized carbon separated from San Francisco to
New York.

Suppose that here in our lab in San Francisco we fully ionize 12 grams
(1 mole) of 126 C, which has a nucleus with 6 protons (Z = 6) and 6 neutrons
surrounded by 6 electrons. Then, with

NA ≡ Avogadro’s number = 6.02 × 1023 /mole

C
F ≡ faraday ≡ NA e = 9.65 × 104 (2.3)
mole
the charges of the separated nuclei and electrons are

q1 = −q2 = 6 F (2.4)

Suppose that now the electrons are transported to New York so that the
separation of the charges is

r ≈ 5000 km (2.5)
 Coulomb’s Law 9

The magnitude of the attractive electrostatic force between the two sepa-
rated charges is then calculated to be
2 
Nm2 6 × 9.65 × 104 C
  
1 ton
|F~ | ≈ 8.99 × 109 2
C 5 × 106 m 2000 × 4.45 N
= 1.35 × 104 ton (2.6)
While nowhere near the strength of the strong, short-range force holding
the nucleus together, this is a huge number! 1

1 It is compared with the corresponding gravitational force in Prob. 2.1.

b2530   International Strategic Relations and China’s National Security: World at the Crossroads

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 Chapter 3

The Electric Field

3.1 Superposition

The forces add. The electrostatic force on particle i in a collection of N

charged particles is given by1
X 1 qi qj
F~i = F~ji =
X
2 r̂ij
4πε0 rij
(3.1)
j6=i j6=i

where ~rij ≡ ~ri − ~rj and r̂ij ≡ ~rij /rij (see Fig. 3.1).

q
j

r ij
rj

q
i
ri

Fig. 3.1 Superposition with a collection of charged particles.

~ i at the position of particle i is defined as

The electric field E
!
F~i ~i
Lim qi →0 ≡E ; electric field at ~ri (3.2)
qi
1 Here
P PN
i ≡ i=1 = a1 + a2 + · · · + aN .

11
12 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Some comments:

• This is obtained from the force on a vanishingly small test charge lo-
cated at position ~ri ≡ ~r, where we now just label the relevant point in
space by ~r ;
• We define this quantity in the limit qi → 0 so that the test charge qi
does not change the force;
~ r ) is the electric field. It gives the force at each point in space;
• E(~
• It is a vector quantity (a “vector field”)2 determined by the configura-
tion of all the other charges

~ r) =
X 1 (~r − ~rj )
E(~ qj (3.3)
j
4πε0 |~r − ~rj |3

where the sum over j now goes over all the other N − 1 charges.

We will deal later with the concept of an induced charge, where a non-
vanishing charge qi induces an opposite charge on the surface of, say, a
metal (Fig. 3.2).

q
+ i

------------

Fig. 3.2 Induced charge.

3.2 Examples

3.2.1 Point Charge

The simplest example of an electric field is that arising from a point charge
q > 0. From Coulomb’s law, that field is given by

~ r) = 1 q
E(~ r̂ ; point charge (3.4)
4πε0 r2
The situation is illustrated in Fig. 3.3.
2 The temperature distribution T (~
r ) inside a solid is an example of a “scalar field”.
 The Electric Field 13

E(r )

r
q

Fig. 3.3 ~ r ) from a positive point charge q > 0.

Electric field E(~

3.2.2 Lines of Force

We can illustrate the electric field by drawing lines in space whose tangent
is the unit vector Ê(~r ) at each point.
• These lines of force give the direction of the force on a vanishingly small
test charge;
• One can make the density of the lines proportional to the strength of
~ r )| (we make this more precise below);
the field |E(~
• Figure 3.4 illustrates the “monopole field” from a positive point charge.

Fig. 3.4 Monopole field from a positive point charge.

3.2.3 Dipole Field

Consider the dipole field arising from two equal and opposite charges sep-
arated by a distance d~ (Fig. 3.5). This is the simplest neutral system and
is an important example. From Coulomb’s law, the electric field at the
position ~r is given by
" #
q ~
r (~r + ~)
d
~ r) =
E(~ − ; dipole field (3.5)
4πε0 r3 |~r + d~ |3
14 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

r
+q

d r +d
-q

Fig. 3.5 The electric dipole. Here q > 0.

• This vanishes as d~ → 0, since the charges then cancel and the system
is neutral;
• Assume d/r ≪ 1, and expand this expression to first order, keeping
terms linear in d~ ; 3
• Use the binomial theorem (just a Taylor series)

n(n − 1) 2
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + ··· (3.6)
2!

which holds for all n, with |x| < 1;

Then

1
= [(~r + d~ )2 ]−3/2 = (r2 + 2d~ · ~r + d2 )−3/2
|~r + d~ |3
!−3/2
1 2d~ · ~r + d2
= 3 1+
r r2
!
1 3d~ · ~r
≈ 1− 2 (3.7)
r3 r

It follows that

~r (~r + d~ ) 1 h ~ + 3r̂(r̂ · d~ )
i
− ≈ ~
r − ~
r − d (3.8)
r3 |~r + d~ |3 r3

where r̂ = ~r/r is again a unit vector in the radial direction.

3 The corrections are of O(d2 /r 2 ). Compare Prob. 3.1.
 The Electric Field 15

Hence the dipole field is given through order d/r by

~ r) = q 1 3r̂(r̂ · d~ ) − d~
h i
E(~ 3
; dipole field
4πε0 r
; d/r ≪ 1 (3.9)
It falls off as 1/r3 . The dipole field is sketched in Fig. 3.6.4

+q
d
-q

Fig. 3.6 Sketch of the dipole field.

The dipole moment is defined by

p~ ≡ q d~ ; dipole moment (3.10)

3.2.4 Sheet of Charge

Consider a flat sheet of charge in the (x, y)-plane with a uniform surface
charge density σ (charge/area), and let us calculate the electric field Ez ẑ
a distance z above the plane (Fig. 3.7). We do this by superposing the
contributions from the indicated ring of charge of radius ρ, where ρ is the
radial coordinate in the plane. By symmetry, above the plane the field must
~ = Ez ẑ; the contributions in the other directions
point in the ẑ direction E
cancel. Then the contribution to this field from a ring of area 2πρdρ in the
plane is
1 1
dEz = (σ2πρdρ) 2 (R̂ · ẑ)
4πε0 R
σ 1
= ρdρ 2 cos θ (3.11)
2ε0 R
4 See Prob. 3.2.
16 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

R Ez z

z R

y
+++++
+++++

d
X

Fig. 3.7 Sheet of charge in the (x, y)-plane, with charge density σ.

Now use
z
cos θ = ; R 2 = ρ2 + z 2 (3.12)
R
Then adding all the contributions at a fixed z gives
Z ∞
σ zρdρ
Ez = ; fixed z (3.13)
2ε0 0 (z 2 + ρ2 )3/2

Introduce ρ/z ≡ t, and then t2 ≡ u

Z ∞
σ tdt ρ
Ez = ; ≡t
2ε0 0 (1 + t2 )3/2 z
Z ∞
σ du
= ; t2 ≡ u (3.14)
4ε0 0 (1 + u)3/2
The last integral is
∞  ∞
du −2
Z
= =2 (3.15)
0 (1 + u)3/2 (1 + u)1/2 0
This gives the following expression for the field at a height z above a flat
sheet of charge in the (x, y)-plane with uniform charge density σ

~ = σ ẑ
E ; sheet of charge in (x, y)-plane (3.16)
2ε0
Lo and behold, this result is independent of z !
 The Electric Field 17

3.2.5 Extension
The field configuration from a single sheet of positive charge is shown in
Fig. 3.8(a). Note that exactly the same calculation as above holds on the
other side of the sheet.

-------

+++++++

+++++++

(a) single sheet (b) double sheets

Fig. 3.8 Field from sheet of positive charge in the (x, y)-plane, and field with two
oppositely charged sheets.

If a second sheet with opposite charge is placed above the first sheet,
then the field is doubled between the sheets

~ = σ ẑ
E ; between two sheets with opposite charge (3.17)
ε0

since we just add up the contributions, as before. The same argument indi-
cates that the field vanishes outside the sheets since the two contributions
now cancel (remember the contribution from each sheet is independent of
z).

~ =0
E ; outside two sheets with opposite charge (3.18)

This situation is illustrated in Fig. 3.8(b).

3.3 Electric Flux

It is intuitive that the density of field lines should somehow be proportional

~ r )| at each point. Let us now make this more
to the strength of the field |E(~
~ r ) at
precise. Let dS be small element of area perpendicular to the field E(~
18 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

the point ~r (Fig. 3.9). We define the electric flux Φe as follows

dΦe = number of lines of force passing through

a small transverse area dS
~ r )|dS
≡ |E(~ (3.19)

E(r )

dS

Fig. 3.9 Electric flux.

We investigate some consequences of this definition:

(1) Let us compute the total electric flux arising from a point charge. First,
surround the charge with a sphere of radius r as in Fig. 3.10.

E(r )

dS
r
q

S
Fig. 3.10 Calculation of total flux from a point charge.

The electric field for a point charge is given in Eq. (3.4). It is radial
and perpendicular to the surface of the sphere. Hence the total flux is
q q
Z Z
Φe = ~
|E|dS = dS = (4πr2 )
4πε r 2 4πε 2
S 0 S 0r
q
= (3.20)
ε0
Note that this result is independent of r. It represents the total number
of lines of force emanating from a point charge;
 The Electric Field 19

(2) But now we can turn the argument around! We can use this result to
derive Coulomb’s law! Suppose we are given
q
Z
Φe = ~
|E|dS = (3.21)
S ε0
and we ask, what must |E| be? By the symmetry of the problem, one
~
must have |E(r)|, depending only on r. Then
q
Z
~
|E(r)|dS ~
= |E(r)|4πr 2
=
S ε 0

~ q 1
|E(r)| = (3.22)
4πε0 r2
and we recover the correct 1/r2 dependence!
(3) What about the direction? Let us construct a vector
~ = n̂ dS
dS ; surface element (3.23)

where n̂ is a unit vector normal to a little element of surface of area dS

(Fig. 3.11).

dS
Fig. 3.11 ~ = n̂ dS. Here n̂ is a unit vector normal
Element of surface area as vector dS
to dS.

(4) One can then take as the basic principle of electrostatics what is known
as Gauss’ law
 
~= q
Z
Φe = ~ · dS
E ; Gauss’ law (3.24)
closed surface S ε0 inside S
Here the integral goes over a closed surface surrounding the charge q.
(5) Let us show that Gauss’ law implies Coulomb’s law.5 Consider the
positive point charge q in Fig. 3.10. By symmetry, the field must point
in the radial direction
~ r ) = E(r) r̂
E(~ ; point charge (3.25)
5 The converse is demonstrated in the next chapter.
20 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

For a sphere
~ = r̂ dS
dS ; sphere (3.26)
where r̂ is the outward-pointing normal. Then
q
Z Z
~ · dS
E ~= E(r)dS = E(r)4πr2 = (3.27)
S S ε 0

This gives Coulomb’s law for the point charge

~ r) = q r̂
E(~ ; Coulomb’s law (3.28)
4πε0 r2
We proceed to investigate the implications of Gauss’ law.
 Chapter 4

Gauss’ Law

From the previous chapter, Gauss’ law is

~= q
Z
Φe = ~ · dS
E ; Gauss’ law (4.1)
S ε0

Here the integral goes over an arbitrary closed surface S, and q is the charge
enclosed inside S. The configuration is illustrated in Fig. 4.1.

n dS

q
N
E(r )

q q2
1

S
Fig. 4.1 Collection of charges and enclosing surface in Gauss’ law.

~ · dS
The quantity E ~ is the electric flux through the surface element dS
~
(Fig. 4.2)1

~ · dS
E ~ = |E|dS
~ ⊥ = dΦe (4.2)

1 To understand the projection of the area onto dS

⊥ = dS (n̂ · Ê), just subdivide
~ into little rectangles with one side parallel to the intersection with the (n̂, Ê) plane
dS
(compare Fig. 10.3).

21
22 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

E(r )

dS dS

Fig. 4.2 ~ · dS
Electric flux dΦe = E ~ = |E|dS
~ ~
⊥ of the field E through the surface element
~
dS.

4.1 Gauss’ Law ⇒ Coulomb’s Law

We showed at the end of chapter 3 that for a positive point charge q, Gauss’
law implies Coulomb’s law (see Fig. 3.10)

~ r) = q r̂
E(~ ; Coulomb’s law (4.3)
4πε0 r2
Then

With several point charges q1 , q2 , · · · , qN , use superposition, and

~ =E
write E ~1 + E~2 + · · · + E
~N .

This is just our previous result for the vector addition of forces and fields.2
Thus from Gauss’ law, we derive Coulomb’s law for an arbitrary collection
of point charges.

4.2 Coulomb’s Law ⇒ Gauss’ Law

Let us now derive the converse. Given Coulomb’s law for a point charge,
we derive Gauss’ law for a collection of point charges and an arbitrary
enclosing surface S.
Surround the positive point charge q with the surface S. The field from
the point charge points in the radial direction E(~ ~ r ) = |E|~ r̂. Then at a
radial distance r to the surface, the electric flux is (Fig. 4.3)
~ · dS
E ~ = |E|
~ r̂ · dS
~ ; electric flux
~
= |E|dS ⊥
~
= |E|(rdθ)(r sin θ dφ)
~ 2
≡ |E|r dΩ (4.4)
2 Superposition is a basic experimental fact built into E&M .
 Gauss’ Law 23

where dΩ is the differential solid angle, with a total solid angle of 4π.

dΩ = solid angle
Z
dΩ = 4π (4.5)
S

E(r )
r sin
dS
r
rd
r sin d

r
d
q

Fig. 4.3 Configuration for derivation of Gauss’ law from Coulomb’s law for a point
charge. dS⊥ is a little element of transverse area on the arbitrary surrounding surface
S.

For the point charge, the magnitude of the field at r is

~ | = E(r) = q 1
|E ; point charge (4.6)
4πε0 r2
Hence the factors of r2 cancel, and the integrated flux is just
q 1 2
Z Z
~ ~
E · dS = (r dΩ)
4πε 2
S S 0 r
q
= 4π
4πε0
q
= ; point charge (4.7)
ε0
Thus we derive Gauss’ law from Coulomb’s law for a point charge.
24 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

With several charges, we again use superposition, as in the previous

section. Thus from Coulomb’s law for a point charge, we derive Gauss’ law
for an arbitrary collection of point charges.3

4.3 Applications

We consider several applications of Gauss’ law.

4.3.1 Sheet of Charge

Consider a “gaussian pillbox” drawn surrounding an element of area A on
a sheet of charge, as shown in Fig. 4.4.

E n1
A
+++++++
n2

n3

Fig. 4.4 Gaussian pillbox surrounding an element of area A on a sheet of charge.

By symmetry, on the top and bottom of the pillbox

~ = Ez ẑ = Ez n̂1
E ; above
~ = −Ez ẑ = Ez n̂3
E ; below (4.8)

While on the sides

~ ⊥ n̂2
E ; on sides (4.9)

Gauss’ law applied to the pillbox then reads

~ = Ez A + 0 + Ez A = σA
Z
~ · dS
E (4.10)
S ε0

where σ is the charge density (charge/area). This reproduces our previous

3 For a charge outside of S, see Prob. 4.1.
 Gauss’ Law 25

result in Eq. (3.16)

~ = σ ẑ
E ; above sheet of charge (4.11)
2ε0
Note that this derivation of the field is a whole lot easier than directly
integrating Coulomb’s law!

4.3.2 Line of Charge

Consider the gaussian pillbox drawn surrounding a line of charge shown in
Fig. 4.5.

n1
+++++++

l n2
E

n3

Fig. 4.5 Gaussian pillbox surrounding a line of charge. The radius is ρ and height is l.

Again, by symmetry,
~ = Eρ ρ̂
E (4.12)

where ρ̂ is a unit vector in the radial direction. Let λ be the charge density
(charge/length)

λ ≡ charge density (charge/length) (4.13)

Gauss’ law then reads

~ = 0 + (2πρl)Eρ + 0 = lλ
Z
~ · dS
E (4.14)
S ε0
Thus the field in the radial direction is
λ 1
Eρ = (4.15)
2πε0 ρ
26 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

It falls off as 1/ρ. Again, this derivation of the field is much simpler than
directly integrating Coulomb’s law for a line of charge (see Prob. 4.2).4

4.3.3 Conductors
Consider a charged metallic conductor where the charge is free to move.5
~ inside the conductor, then there is a force
• If there is an electric field E
on the charge F~ = q E,~ and the charge will move;
• In equilibrium, the force must vanish. Hence, in equilibrium, there is
no electric field inside a conductor
~ inside = 0
E ; inside a conductor (4.16)

• Let S be a closed surface inside the conductor. By Gauss’ law

~= q
Z
~ · dS
E (4.17)
S ε0
where q is the charge inside S. Since S is arbitrary, we conclude there
is no net charge inside the conductor, and the charge must all reside
on the surface

qinside = 0 ; charge on the surface (4.18)

The situation is illustrated in Fig. 4.6.

+ + ++++++++
+ ++++++++

+
+
+ ++++++++

s
+
+
+ ++++++++ +

Fig. 4.6 Charged metallic conductor. S is a closed surface inside of it.

4 Although the symbol ρ will subsequently be reserved for the three-dimensional charge

density, it will occasionally be used locally, as done here, for the radial coordinate in
cylindrical coordinates. Hopefully, the distinction will be clear from the context.
5 It is actually the electrons that move in a metal, and the equilibrium is essentially

instantaneous if the material has a high-enough conductivity.

 Gauss’ Law 27

• If there were a tangential component to the field at the surface, the

charge would again move to eliminate it. Thus, in equilibrium, at the
~ is normal to the surface
surface, the field E
~ = E⊥ n̂
E ; at the surface (4.19)

• Consider, then, a gaussian pillbox surrounding an infinitesimal area dS

of surface charge (Fig. 4.7).

n1
E n dS

++++ n2

n3

Fig. 4.7 Gaussian pillbox surrounding an element of infinitesimal area dS on the surface
~ = E⊥ n̂.
of a metallic conductor where E

Gauss’ law gives the expression in Eq. (4.10), with only one non-zero
term on the l.h.s.
~ = E⊥ dS + 0 + 0 = σdS
Z
~ · dS
E
S ε0
σ
E⊥ = ; at the surface (4.20)
ε0
This provides a relation between the field E⊥ and the surface charge
density σ.
Although the actual redistribution of charge and field configuration can
be very complicated for a metallic conductor of arbitrary shape, these sim-
ple observations allow us to do a lot of physics with conductors. For exam-
ple, the following is a powerful result, now obtained very simply.6

4.3.4 Charged Conducting Sphere

With a charged conducting sphere of radius R, the total charge Q will be
uniformly distributed on the surface. By symmetry, the field will be radial
~ = E(r) r̂. A gaussian sphere with radius r < R then gives
E

E(r) = 0 ; r<R (4.21)

6 See also Prob. 4.4.
28 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

since there is no charge inside.7 In contrast, for r > R all the charge is
inside, and one immediately recovers the point result

Q 1
E(r) = ; r>R (4.22)
4πε0 r2

4.4 Charged Particle Motion

~ what do we do with it? An important

Now that we have the electric field E,
application is through charged-particle motion. Consider the motion of a
particle with positive charge and mass (q, m) moving between two oppo-
sitely charged sheets with an initial velocity v0 in the x-direction (Fig. 4.8).

+++++++++++

m, q x
v
0
-----------

y
z

Fig. 4.8 Charged-particle motion through two oppositely charged sheets. Note that
here z points are down.

The electric field is

~ = σ ẑ = Ez ẑ
E (4.23)
ε0
Newton’s second law then reads
d~v
m = F~ = q E
~ ; Newton’s law (4.24)
dt
The component-form of this relation is

dvx d2 x
m =m 2 =0 ; x-comp.
dt dt
dvz d2 z
m = m 2 = qEz ; z-comp. (4.25)
dt dt
7 One is very safe inside a charged conducting sphere, no matter how large the Q!
 Gauss’ Law 29

The solution to these equations, from a starting position in the field of

~x(0) = 0, is as follows8
x = v0 t
 
1 qEz 2
z= t (4.26)
2 m
This is just like projectile motion in mechanics with (qEz /m) ↔ g !

8 Remember, Ez is a constant.
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 Chapter 5

The Electrostatic Potential

So far, motivated by our knowledge of mechanics, we have considered forces.

We now want to extend the discussion to a consideration of energy.

5.1 Work Done by a Force

The work dW done by a force F~ in moving a distance d~l is defined by

(Fig. 5.1)

dl

Fig. 5.1 Computation of work.

dW ≡ F~ · d~l = |F~ ||d~l | cos θ (5.1)

Written in terms of the cartesian components

F~ = x̂ Fx + ŷ Fy + ẑ Fz
d~l = x̂ dx + ŷ dy + ẑ dz (5.2)

this reads1

dW = F~ · d~l = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz (5.3)
1 Recall the cartesian unit vectors are orthonormal.

31
32 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

5.2 Point Charge q

Consider a small test charge qtest in the field of a point charge q and carry
the test charge in radially, where the quantities of interest in a radial dis-
placement are shown in Fig. 5.2.

dr
r
E( r )
q q test

Fig. 5.2 Radial displacement in calculation of the work on a test charge qtest in the
field of a point charge q. We actually move the test charge in, with (qqtest ) > 0, in the
calculation below.

The force exerted by the point charge on the test charge is

~ r)
F~ = qtest E(~ (5.4)

The work done in moving the test charge in against the field from ~r1 to ~r2
(Fig. 5.3)

q q test

r2 r1

Fig. 5.3 Work W2←1 in carrying the test charge from ~

r1 to ~
r2 .

is as follows2
Z 2 Z 2
W2←1 = − F~ · d~l = −qtest ~ · d~r
E (5.5)
1 1

Now use the electric field of the point charge

~ r) = q r̂
E(~ ; d~r = r̂ dr (5.6)
4πε0 r2
2 One ~ to move the charge in.
must exert just infinitesimally more than −F
 The Electrostatic Potential 33

This gives
2  r2
1 q dr q 1
Z
W2←1 =− 2
= (5.7)
qtest 4πε0 1 r 4πε0 r r1
This defines the electrostatic potential difference
 
1
V (2) − V (1) ≡ Lim qtest →0 W2←1 (5.8)
qtest
Again, this is defined in the limit of a vanishing test charge to make sure
we do not change the field in moving qtest around.3 It follows that the
difference in electrostatic potential in the field of a point charge q is given
by
 
q 1 1
V (r2 ) − V (r1 ) = − ; electrostatic potential (5.9)
4πε0 r2 r1
Note this potential increases if q is positive and we move in toward it, with
r2 < r1 .
Let us take r1 → ∞ so that we start far away. We define the potential
to vanish there

V (∞) ≡ 0 ; zero of potential (5.10)

This is ground. The electrostatic potential of a point charge is then given

by
q 1
V (r) = ; point charge (5.11)
4πε0 r
It represents the work necessary to bring a vanishingly small test charge in
from infinity to r.

5.2.1 Another Path

Suppose that instead of carrying the test charge in along a radius, we
take an arbitrary path from ~r1 to ~r2 [Fig. 5.4(a)]. Decompose the actual
displacement along the path d~l as

d~l = d~r + d~r⊥ (5.12)

where d~r⊥ is orthogonal to r̂, so that r̂ · d~r⊥ = 0 [Fig. 5.4(b)]. Then

~ r ) · d~l = E(~
E(~ ~ r ) · (d~r + d~r⊥ ) = E(~
~ r ) · d~r (5.13)
3 e.g. There are no additional induced charges.
34 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

r2 dl dl dr

q r E( r ) dr
r1
(a) Arbitrary path 1 2 (b) Decomposition of d l

Fig. 5.4 (a) Work carrying the test charge on arbitrary path from ~
r1 to ~
r2 ; (b) Decom-
position of d~l.

It follows that
2 2
1
Z Z
W2←1 = − ~ r ) · d~l = −
E(~ ~ r ) · d~r
E(~ (5.14)
qtest 1 1

But we just did this!

 
1 q 1 1
W2←1 = − = V (r2 ) − V (r1 ) (5.15)
qtest 4πε0 r2 r1
Hence, we conclude that the integral for the work done W2←1 in carrying a
test charge from a position ~r1 to a position ~r2 in the field of a point charge
q is independent of the path from 1 → 2!

5.2.2 Closed Path

Suppose we carry the test charge around an arbitrary closed path in the
field of the point charge q (Fig. 5.5). What is the work done? From above,
we have
1
(W2←1 + W1←2 ) = [V (2) − V (1)] + [V (1) − V (2)] = 0 (5.16)
qtest
This vanishes.

q q test
2

Fig. 5.5 Work carrying the test charge around an arbitrary closed path.
 The Electrostatic Potential 35

Hence, in the field of a point charge, there is no work done in carrying

a test charge around an arbitrary closed loop C
I
~ · d~l = 0
E ; point charge (5.17)
C

Just as much work comes out as is put in. This is a consequence of

Coulomb’s law.

5.3 Collection of Charges

Suppose we have a collection of charges q1 , q2 , · · · , qN (Fig. 5.6).

q
3
q
2
q
1
r2
r - r2
r1
q
test
r

Fig. 5.6 Field at position ~

r with collection of charges.

Once again, we can use superposition. The field at the position ~r will re-
ceive an additive contribution from each charge E~ =E ~ 1 +E
~ 2 +· · ·+ E
~ N . The
above results hold true for each charge, and therefore the electrostatic po-
tential, a scalar, simply receives an additive contribution from each charge
N
1 X qi
V (~r ) = ; electrostatic potential (5.18)
4πε0 i=1 |~r − ~ri |

In addition, the integral of the electric field around any closed loop must
vanish
I
~ · d~l = 0
E ; any closed curve C (5.19)
C

These are consequences of Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.

36 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

5.4 Examples

We calculate the difference in potential in two of the configurations studied

previously.

5.4.1 Sheet of Charge

Consider a displacement away from the sheet of charge in Fig. 3.7. The
field and infinitesimal displacement are given by

~ = σ ẑ
E ; d~l = ẑ dz (5.20)
2ε0
The finite change in potential is then obtained as
2 2
~ · d~l = − σ
Z Z
V (2) − V (1) = − E dz (5.21)
1 2ε0 1

Hence
σ
V (2) − V (1) = − (z2 − z1 ) (5.22)
2ε0
The potential decreases linearly as we move up away from the sheet.

5.4.2 Line of Charge

Consider a radial displacement away from the line of charge in Fig. 4.5.
The field and infinitesimal displacement are now given by
λ ρ̂
~ =
E ; d~l = ρ̂ dρ (5.23)
2πε0 ρ
The finite change in potential is then given by
2 2
~ · d~l = − λ dρ
Z Z
V (2) − V (1) = − E (5.24)
1 2πε0 1 ρ

Hence
λ ρ2
V (2) − V (1) = − ln (5.25)
2πε0 ρ1
In this case, the potential decreases logarithmically as we move away from
the line of charge.
 The Electrostatic Potential 37

5.5 Charged-Particle Motion

Once again, we can ask the question of now that we have the field and poten-
tial, what do we do with them. Consider charged-particle motion between
two oppositely charged sheets as examined in section 4.4 (see Fig. 4.8). The
one new element is conservation of energy

T + qV = E = constant ; energy conservation (5.26)

The kinetic energy in this case is

 
qEz
vx = v0 ; vz = t
m
"  2 #
m 2 2
 m 2 qEz
T = v + vz = v0 + t2 (5.27)
2 x 2 m

The potential energy, with ground at V (0) = 0, is

 
1 qEz
qV = −qEz z = −qEz t2 (5.28)
2 m

Hence our solution to Newton’s laws indeed yields the appropriate con-
served energy
m 2
T + qV = E = v (5.29)
2 0
As previously pointed out, this is exactly analogous to particle motion in
mechanics. Energy conservation provides a first integral of Newton’s second
law, which often avoids the necessity of finding the detailed solution.
Charged-particle motion in an electric field provides the basis for a wide
variety of important applications, such as oscilloscopes, TV, etc.

5.6 Properties of Potential

From above, the difference in electrostatic potential is related to the work

done through
Z 2
V (2) − V (1) = − ~ · d~l
E (5.30)
1
38 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Since the l.h.s. is the difference of potentials, this can be written as

Z 2
V (2) − V (1) = dV (5.31)
1

where

dV = −E~ · d~l
= −|E~ ||d~l | cos θ (5.32)
~ and displacement
Here we have introduced the angle θ between the field E
~
dl (Fig. 5.7).

dl

V(1) > V(2)

Fig. 5.7 Field lines and equipotentials.

Now observe that:

• If the displacement is perpendicular to the field lines, the potential does

not change

d~l ⊥ E
~ ⇒ dV = 0 (5.33)

The equipotentials are perpendicular to the field lines.

• If the displacement is parallel to the field lines with θ = 0, one obtains
the maximum decrease in potential

d~l k E ~ ||d~l |
~ ⇒ dV = −|E (5.34)
~
The maximum decrease in V , lies along E.
• In cartesian coordinates, one has [compare Eqs. (5.2)–(5.3)]
~ = x̂ Ex + ŷ Ey + ẑ Ez
E
d~l = x̂ dx + ŷ dy + ẑ dz (5.35)
 The Electrostatic Potential 39

It follows that

~ · d~l = − [Ex dx + Ey dy + Ez dz]

dV = −E (5.36)

5.7 Some Calculus

5.7.1 Single-Variable Function

Consider a small change in the variable of a single-variable function V (x)

x = x0 + (x − x0 ) ≡ x0 + hx (5.37)

Taylor’s theorem then gives the following Taylor series in hx

h2x d2 V
   
dV
V (x) = V (x0 + hx ) = V (x0 ) + hx + + ···
dx x0 2! dx2 x0
; Taylor series (5.38)

It is assumed that this is familiar to you.

5.7.2 Multi-Variable Function

Suppose one has a function of two variables V (x, y). First, keep y fixed, and
indicate the derivatives with respect to x at fixed y as partial derivatives,
(∂V /∂x), (∂ 2 V /∂x2 ), etc.4
Taylor’s theorem then gives
 
∂V (x, y)
V (x, y) = V (x0 + hx , y) = V (x0 , y) + hx
∂x x0
h2x ∂ 2 V (x, y)
 
+ + ··· (5.39)
2! ∂x2 x0

To first order in small quantities, this is

 
∂V (x, y)
V (x, y) = V (x0 + hx , y) = V (x0 , y) + hx (5.40)
∂x x0

Now repeat on the variable y, keeping terms of first order in (hx , hy ),

which are assumed to be small.5 The first term on the r.h.s. of the above
4 “Partial” now means keep the other variable in (x, y) fixed.
5 We neglect terms of O(h2x , hx hy , h2y ).
40 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

becomes
 
∂V (x, y)
V (x0 , y) = V (x0 , y0 ) + hy (5.41)
∂y (x0 ,y0 )

The second term on the r.h.s. becomes

   
∂V (x, y) ∂V (x, y)
hx = hx (5.42)
∂x x0 ∂x (x0 ,y0 )

Hence
   
∂V ∂V
V (x, y) − V (x0 , y0 ) ≡ dV = hx + hy + O(h2 ) (5.43)
∂x 0 ∂y 0

Several comments:

• “Partial” means keep the other variable in the set (x, y) fixed;
• The notation (· · · )0 means evaluate at (x0 , y0 ); this is implied in the
following;
• Call hx ≡ dx and hy ≡ dy. These are first-order differentials. The total
differential of V (x, y) is then given by
   
∂V ∂V
dV (x, y) = dx + dy ; total differential (5.44)
∂x ∂y

This expression is exact in the limit (dx, dy) → 0;

• This is a basic theorem of calculus;
• With three variables, one just extends the argument
     
∂V ∂V ∂V
dV (x, y, z) = dx + dy + dz (5.45)
∂x ∂y ∂z

5.8 Gradient

The gradient is a vector constructed from V (x, y, z)

     
~ ∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V (x, y, z) ≡ x̂ + ŷ + ẑ ; gradient (5.46)
∂x ∂y ∂z

From Eqs. (5.32), (5.35), and (5.45), the total differential of V is given by
~ · d~l
dV = ∇V
~ · d~l
= −E (5.47)
 The Electrostatic Potential 41

Since the equality holds for arbitrary small displacements d~l, we can equate

~ = −∇V
E ~ (5.48)

~!
This provides another way of obtaining the electric field E

5.9 Examples

We give three examples:

5.9.1 Sheet of Charge

The potential above a sheet of charge was calculated in Eq. (5.22)
σ
V (z) = − z + constant (5.49)
2ε0
The above then reproduces the field in Eq. (5.20)

~ = σ ~
−∇V ẑ = E (5.50)
2ε0

5.9.2 Point Charge

The electrostatic potential from a point charge is given in Eq. (5.11)
q 1
V (r) = (5.51)
4πε0 r

In cartesian coordinates, r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . Thus

q 1
V (x, y, z) = (5.52)
4πε0 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2

The partial derivative w.r.t. x gives

 
∂V q 1 2x q 1 x
− = = (5.53)
∂x 4πε0 2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2 4πε0 r2 r

and similarly for the others.

The field from the point charge is

~ = q ~r q x x̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ
E = (5.54)
4πε0 r3 4πε0 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
42 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Therefore, with the aid of Eq. (5.46), we again find

~ =E
−∇V ~ (5.55)

5.9.3 Collection of Charges

Consider the collection of charges in Fig. 5.6. The electrostatic potential is
given by Eq. (5.18)
N
1 X qi
V (r) = ; electrostatic potential (5.56)
4πε0 i=1 |~r − ~ri |

The electric field is then given by

~ = −∇V
E ~ (5.57)

This reproduces Coulomb’s law for the collection of charges.6

5.10 Surface of Conductor an Equipotential

From our previous discussion, the electric field is normal to the surface of
a conductor. Therefore, for a displacement d~l in the surface, one has
Z 2
V (2) − V (1) = − E~ · d~l = 0 ; in surface (5.58)
1

We conclude that the surface of a conductor must be an equipotential

V = constant ; in surface (5.59)

As an application, consider two charged conducting spheres connected

with a long conducting wire, so the spheres are far apart (Fig. 5.8).7 At
the surface, the fields are given by the point values in Eq. (5.6)

~ 1 = q1 r̂1
E ~ 2 = q2 r̂2
; E (5.60)
4πε0 r12 4πε0 r22
The electrostatic potential of each sphere is then correspondingly the point
value
q1 1 q2 1
V1 = ; V2 = (5.61)
4πε0 r1 4πε0 r2
6 See
the above and Prob. 4.5.
7 “Far
apart” so that the spheres don’t influence each other, except through the elec-
trical conductivity.
 The Electrostatic Potential 43

E2
E1 r2
r1

q1
q2

Fig. 5.8 Two charged conducting spheres connected with a long conducting wire.

By the above argument, these are equipotentials

V1 = V2 ; equipotentials (5.62)
It follows that the magnitudes of the field are related by
~ 1 | = r2 |E
r1 |E ~ 2| (5.63)
The smaller the radius of the sphere, the higher the field at the surface.
It follows that the region of highest curvature on an arbitrarily shaped
conducting surface will have the highest electric field associated with it.8 An
application is found in the lighting rod, where the high field associated with
the pointed end facilitates the leaking of charge that serves to neutralize
the charge built up in the cloud above (Fig. 5.9).

+ ++ + + + +
++ +

----
---
--
-
--
-
-
------- -------

Fig. 5.9 Point of lightning rod leaks neutralizing charge from ground to cloud. Here,
charge can also flow in the opposite direction.

8 And correspondingly, by Eq. (4.20), the highest surface charge density σ.

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 Chapter 6

Electric Energy

So far, we have investigated the effects of placing qtest in the vicinity of

a collection of fixed charges (Fig. 5.6). Now let us compute the electric
energy of the collection of fixed charges themselves.

6.1 Pair of Charges

Coulomb’s law says that the force on particle 1 due to particle 2 is

q1 q2 ~r12
F~21 = 3 ; Coulomb’s law
4πε0 r12
= −F~12 ; Newton (6.1)

Here ~r12 = ~r1 − r~2 , and the second relation follows from Newton’s third
law. What work do I do when I move q1 by d~r1 and q2 by d~r2 ? The answer
is
 
dW = − F~21 · d~r1 + F~12 · d~r2

= −F~21 · (d~r1 − d~r2 )

= −F~21 · d~r12 (6.2)

If we go from configuration A to configuration B, the total work put in is

then obtained by integration
Z B
WB←A = − F~21 · d~r12 (6.3)
A

Now use
1 1 2
~r12 · d~r12 = d(~r12 · ~r12 ) = dr12 (6.4)
2 2

45
46 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Hence
B 2
1 q1 q2 dr12
Z
WB←A = − 3 (6.5)
2 4πε0 A r12
2
Define u ≡ r12 , and use
B 2 B iB  B
dr12 du 1
Z Z h
−1/2
3 = = −2 u = −2 (6.6)
A r12 A u3/2 A r12 A

It follows that the work done is equal to the difference in potential energy
of the pair

WB←A = U (B) − U (A)

q1 q2 1
U = ; potential energy of pair (6.7)
4πε0 |~r1 − ~r2 |

6.2 Collection of Charges

With N charges, the force on i due to all the others is

N
F~i = F~ji
X
(6.8)
j6=i=1

The work done in moving all the charges by d~ri is then

N N X
N
F~i · d~ri = − F~ji · d~ri
X X
dW = − (6.9)
i=1 i=1 j=1

where we observe that F~ii = 0, since there is no self-force. Since (i, j) are
simply dummy summation indices, this is re-written identically as
N N
1 XXh~ i
dW = − Fji · d~ri + F~ij · d~rj
2 i=1 j=1
N N
1 XX ~
=− Fji · (d~ri − d~rj )
2 i=1 j=1
N N
1 XX ~
=− Fji · d~rij (6.10)
2 i=1 j=1
 Electric Energy 47

Now integrate from configuration A to configuration B. It is exactly the

same as before! Thus

WB←A = U (B) − U (A)

N
1 X qi qj 1
U = ; potential energy (6.11)
2 4πε0 |~ri − ~rj |
i6=j=1

A few comments:

• As an example, with three charges, one has

1
U= (U12 + U13 + U23 + U21 + U31 + U32 ) = U12 + U13 + U23 (6.12)
2
• The factor of 1/2 ensures that there is one potential energy term for
each pair of charges;
• There is no self-energy term, and Uii = 0. In fact, it does not matter
if Uii 6= 0, as long as it is constant, since a constant in the potential
energy U is irrelevant.

6.3 Charged Conductors

Suppose one has a single charged conductor. The potential at the position
of the ith charge is
N
X qj 1
V (~ri ) = (6.13)
4πε0 |~ri − ~rj |
j6=i=1

But we learned in the last chapter that V is constant on the surface of a

conductor ! It follows that the total potential energy is
N N
!
1X 1 X
U = qi V (~ri ) = qi V
2 i=1 2 i=1
1
= QV (6.14)
2
Suppose one has a collection of P charged conductors. The potential at
the position of the ith charge is again given by
N
X qj 1
V (~ri ) = (6.15)
4πε0 |~ri − ~rj |
j6=i=1
48 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

where the sum runs over all the other charges on all the conductors; how-
ever, the potential on each conductor is again constant, so that
N
1X 1 1 1
U = qi V (~ri ) = Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + · · · + QP VP (6.16)
2 i=1 2 2 2

6.4 Charged Parallel Plates

Consider two parallel conducting plates with opposite charges ±Q, sepa-
rated by a distance d (Fig. 6.1).

Q= A
Z
(2) ++++++++
++++++++
++++++++

---------
d
(1)
---------
---------

Fig. 6.1 Two parallel conducting plates with opposite charges ±Q, separated by a
distance d.

The total charge is

Q = σA ; A = area (6.17)

From our previous analysis, the electric field between the plates is given by

~ = − σ ẑ
E (6.18)
ε0

It points down. The potential difference between the plates is then obtained
as in Eq (5.22)
σ σ
V (2) − V (1) = (z2 − z1 ) = d (6.19)
ε0 ε0

The electrical energy in the plates follows from the previous section as

1 1 1 σ
U = QV (2) − QV (1) = Q d (6.20)
2 2 2 ε0
 Electric Energy 49

Insertion of the above expression for Q gives

  
ε0 σ σ
U = Ad
2 ε0 ε0
1 ~ 2
= ε 0 |E | v (6.21)
2
where v = Ad is the volume of the field region between the plates.
It follows that the energy density in the field is given by
U 1 ~ 2
= ε 0 |E | ; energy density (6.22)
v 2
In electrostatics, you can think of this in terms of the energy stored in the
potentials of the charges, or in the electric field between them. It does not
matter. It is the same answer. Nothing moves. Equation (6.22) is actually
the general result for the energy stored in the electric field in free space in
electrostatics, but we will need more math to show this.
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 Chapter 7

Capacitors and Dielectrics

7.1 Capacity

Capacity is a measure of the ability to hold charge at a given voltage. It

depends on the geometry of an object, and the device is called a capacitor.

7.1.1 Charged Sphere

Consider a uniformly charged conducting sphere with total charge Q and
radius R (Fig. 7.1).

+ + + +
+
+
+ V(R)
+
Q R +
+ +
+ +
+ + +

Fig. 7.1 Uniformly charged conducting sphere.

The voltage difference at the radius R relative to infinity, where we define

V (∞) ≡ 0 as ground, is given by our previous analysis as1

∆V = V (R) − V (∞) = V (R)

Q 1
V (R) = (7.1)
4πε0 R

1 “Potential difference” and “voltage difference” have the same meaning here.

51
52 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

The capacity C of the sphere is then defined by2

Q
C≡ = 4πε0 R ; capacity of sphere (7.2)
∆V
The larger the sphere, the greater its capacity to hold charge at a given
voltage. Other objects have different capacity depending on their geometry.
The unit of capacity is the farad
1C
1 farad ≡ 1 F = (7.3)
1V

7.1.2 Parallel-Plate Capacitor (“Condenser”)

From the discussion at the end of the last chapter, the voltage difference in
the parallel-plate capacitor (also known as a “condenser”) in Fig. 6.1 is
σ
∆V = V (2) − V (1) = d (7.4)
ε0
Hence the capacity of the condenser is
Q σA ε0 A
C≡ = = ; capacity of condenser (7.5)
∆V ∆V d
The larger the area A, and the smaller the separation d, the greater the
capacity to hold charge at a given ∆V .
The symbol for a capacitor is shown in Fig. 7.2.

Fig. 7.2 Symbol for capacitor.

7.2 Capacitors in Series

Suppose we have two capacitors in series (Fig. 7.3) and replace the combi-
nation with a single device. What must it be to have the same equivalent
capacity C = Q/∆V ? In the middle conductor in Fig. 7.3, one must have a
2 The notation distinguishes the capacity C from the coulomb C.
 Capacity 53

constant potential. This implies there must be equal and opposite induced
charges ±Q on it to cancel the field. The charges are then identical

Q1 = Q2 = Q (7.6)

Q
V2 -Q C2
middle
Q
V conductor
V1 -Q C1

Fig. 7.3 Two capacitors in series.

The indicated potential differences add

∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 (7.7)

Now write the equivalent single C in terms of the individual C1 =

Q1 /∆V1 and C2 = Q2 /∆V2
Q Q Q
≡ + (7.8)
C C1 C2
Hence
1 1 1
= + ; capacitors in series (7.9)
C C1 C2
The capacity of two capacitors in series is less than that of either one.

7.3 Capacitors in Parallel

Suppose we have two capacitors in parallel (Fig. 7.4) and again replace
the combination with a single device. What must it be to have the same
equivalent capacity C = Q/∆V ?
In the top and bottom conductors in Fig. 7.4, one must have equipoten-
tials. This implies that the potential differences must be identical

∆V = ∆V1 = ∆V2 (7.10)

54 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Q top conductor

Q1 Q2
V C1 -Q 1 -Q 2 C2

-Q bottom conductor

Fig. 7.4 Two capacitors in parallel.

The charges add

Q = Q1 + Q2 (7.11)

Now write the equivalent single C in terms of the individual C1 =

Q1 /∆V1 and C2 = Q2 /∆V2

C∆V = C1 ∆V + C2 ∆V (7.12)

Hence

C = C1 + C2 ; capacitors in parallel (7.13)

Two capacitors in parallel act like one big capacitor.

7.4 Dielectric

In a dielectric the charges are not free to move throughout the material
as in a conductor, but with an applied field, it is possible to separate the
charges in the constituent atoms and molecules. There can then be an
induced dipole moment in the material [Fig. 7.5(a)]. It is also possible that
the constituents in the material have a permanent electric dipole moment,
which can be lined up in the applied field [Fig. 7.5(b)]. In both cases, the
induced field arising from the aligned dipoles acts to reduce the applied
field.
Consider a slab of dielectric material inserted between the plates of
a charged parallel-plate condenser (Fig. 7.6). We assume the dielectric
fills the region, but the separation from the plates is exaggerated here for
illustration. One can think of the two slabs of ± charge on the plates as
giving rise to two equal and opposite surface layers of bound charge on the
dielectric.
 Capacity 55

+ +
Eapp Ein Eapp Ein
- -

(a) Induced dipole (b) Permanent dipole

Fig. 7.5 Electric dipoles in an external field: (a) induced; (b) permanent. The applied
and induced fields are indicated. In both cases the induced field opposes the applied
field.

The total bound charge on the surface of the dielectric is then

Qbound = σb A (7.14)

Note, by definition, the surface charge density on the plates σ, and the
surface charge density on the dielectric σb , have the same sign.

Q= A
++++++++++++++

------------------
z Eapp E E
appin
++++++++++++++ Qbound = bA
------------------
Fig. 7.6 Dielectric slab in a condenser. The surface charge density on the plate of the
condenser, and on the surface of the dielectric, are σ and σb respectively. Note the
direction of ẑ. Note also that the induced field opposes the applied field in the dielectric.

In the interior of the dielectric, the applied field arising from the con-
denser, and the induced field arising from the oriented dipoles, are given
by our previous analysis as

~ app = σ ẑ
E ~ in = − σb ẑ
; E (7.15)
ε0 ε0
56 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Note, once again, that here the induced field opposes the applied field. By
superposition, the total field in the dielectric is given by

~ =E
E ~ in = 1 (σ − σb )ẑ
~ app + E (7.16)
ε0

It is reduced from E~ app .

The dielectric constant κ is defined by

~ ≡ 1E
E ~ app ; dielectric constant (7.17)
κ

It follows that
σ
= σ − σb
κ 
κ−1

σb = σ (7.18)
κ

Note that σb < σ. One only gets partial cancellation with the surface
charge.
In summary, the field inside the dielectric, and corresponding potential
drop across the capacitor, are now given by

~ = 1 (σ − σb )ẑ =
E
1 σ
ẑ ; with dielectric
ε0 κ ε0
1 1 σ
∆V = (σ − σb )d = d (7.19)
ε0 κ ε0

7.4.1 Capacity
The capacity of the parallel-plate capacitor (condenser) with the dielectric
in it is given by the ratio of the charge on the plates to the voltage drop
across it
 
Q σA ε0 A
C≡ = =κ = κC0
∆V (σd/κε0 ) d
C = κC0 (7.20)

Because the induced surface charge on the dielectric can hold more charge
on the plates of the conductor, the capacity of the condenser with dielectric
in it is increased by the dielectric constant of the material.
 Capacity 57

7.4.2 Energy in Capacitor

With no dielectric present, the energy stored in the condenser was obtained
in the last chapter as [see Eq. (6.14)]
1
U = Q ∆V (7.21)
2
This expression was obtained by computing the work done to move a test
charge across the capacitor. Let us compute the work done in carrying the
small charge dQ across the plates of the capacitor with the dielectric in it
(Fig. 7.7). The work necessary to carry +dQ from the bottom to the top
plate, leaving −dQ on the bottom plate, is from the previous chapter

dW = (∆V )dQ (7.22)

dA

+++++++++++++++++

-------------------------
-------------------------
D
V
+++++++++++++++++ b
+ -------------------------
dQ

Fig. 7.7 Dielectric slab in a condenser. Here σ ≡ σfree .

But now
Q
∆V = (7.23)
C
It follows that
1
dW = Q dQ (7.24)
C
Integration then gives
Q
1 1 2
Z
W = Q dQ = Q (7.25)
C 0 2C
Hence, the energy stored in the condenser is
1 2 1
U = Q = Q ∆V ; stored energy (7.26)
2C 2
58 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

which is just our previous result. Let us use Eqs. (7.18)–(7.19) to re-write
the stored energy in the present case as
1 1
U = (σA) (σ − σb )d
2 ε0
2
ε0 σ − σb

=κ Ad (7.27)
2 ε0
Thus the energy per unit volume with dielectric present in the condenser
is enhanced by the dielectric constant
U 1 ~ 2
= κ ε 0 |E | ; dielectric present (7.28)
v 2

7.5 Gauss’ Law with Dielectrics

Let us work backwards. Draw the indicated gaussian pillbox in Fig. 7.7,
which now contains both the charge on the conductor and that on the
surface of the dielectric. We ask, what gives us the correct answer in terms
of the free charge we put on the surface of the conductor

σfree ≡ σ
Q = σfree A (7.29)

The electric field in the dielectric is given above


σ − σb
  
~ 1 σ
E= ẑ = ẑ (7.30)
ε0 κ ε0
Therefore, in terms of the free charge,
 
κE~ = σfree ẑ (7.31)
ε0
Let us define the displacement field in the dielectric by
~ ≡D
κE ~ ; displacement field (7.32)

Here the displacement field D~ is the same as the applied field E

~ app .3 Gauss’
law in the presence of dielectrics can then be written as
 
q
Z
~ ~
D · dS = ; Gauss’ law with dielectrics (7.33)
S ε0 free
3 See Prob. 15.5.
 Capacity 59

where qfree is the free charge contained inside the closed surface S.
Once the displacement field D ~ is determined from the distribution of
~ ~ = D.
free charges, the electric field E can be determined locally through κE ~
Remember that it is E ~ that determines the force on a test charge.
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 Chapter 8

Currents and Ohm’s Law

Up until this point, we have dealt with electrostatics. Everything is in

equilibrium, and nothing moves. Now we will assume that a potential
~ have been established
difference ∆V , and corresponding electric field E,
somehow, say by a battery, and that the charge flows in the conductor like
fluid in a pipe. We now have an electrical current.

8.1 Current

Consider a transverse cross section of the conductor, and count the charges
going through it, both positive charge moving in the positive direction and
negative charge moving in the negative direction. The charge ∆q moves
through this surface in the time ∆t [Fig. 8.1(a)].

∆q ≡ charge moving through transverse surface in time ∆t (8.1)

The electrical current I is then defined as

∆q
I≡ ; current (8.2)
∆t
In the limit, this becomes
dq
I= (8.3)
dt
We are here talking about a DC, or stationary, current. The charge moves,
but the current does not change with time. Some pump, a battery, gener-
ator, etc., keeps it going.. Although the interior of the conductor remains
neutral, charge flows within it [Fig. 8.1(b)].1
1 It is actually the negatively charged electrons that flow in a metal.

61
62 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

+
)-(
I + neutral
)-(
+

(a) current I = dq/dt (b) charge flow in conductor

Fig. 8.1 Current: (a) Flow of charge past surface; (b) Flow of charge in electrically
neutral conductor.

The unit of current is the ampere

1 ampere ≡ 1 coulomb/sec ≡ 1 A (8.4)

8.2 Ohm’s Law

It is observed empirically that the current I that flows in a material is

proportional to the voltage drop ∆V across it (Fig. 8.2). The constant of
proportionality is 1/R, where R is the resistance
∆V
I≡ ; R is resistance (8.5)
R
This is Ohm’s law.

Fig. 8.2 Current flowing under a potential drop described by I = ∆V /R, where R is
the resistance. This is Ohm’s law.

The unit of resistance is the ohm

1 ohm ≡ 1 volt/ampere ≡ 1 Ω (8.6)

 Currents and Ohm’s Law 63

Recall, in SI units,

1 volt ≡ 1 joule/C = 1Nm/C ≡ 1 V (8.7)

A resistive device is called a resistor, and the symbol for a resistor is shown
in Fig. 8.3.

Fig. 8.3 Symbol for resistor.

8.3 Two Resistors in Series

Consider two resistors in series, with a voltage drop ∆V across the pair
(Fig. 8.4).

V1 I R1

V
V2 I R2

Fig. 8.4 Two resistors in series, with current I.

Since charge is conserved, the currents through them are identical 2

I1 = I2 = I (8.8)

The voltage drops are additive

∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 (8.9)

2 Nothing changes with time, so charge can neither build up, nor disappear.
64 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

The equivalent single element with I ≡ ∆V /R is then given by

IR = I1 R1 + I2 R2 (8.10)

Hence

R = R1 + R2 ; resistors in series (8.11)

Two resistors in series act as one big resistor.

8.4 Two Resistors in Parallel

Consider two resistors in parallel with a voltage drop ∆V across each of

them (Fig. 8.5).

V R1 I1 I2 R2

Fig. 8.5 Two resistors in parallel.

Since the voltages are the same

∆V = ∆V1 = ∆V2 (8.12)

The current splits up, and since charge is conserved, the currents add

I = I1 + I2 (8.13)

The equivalent single element is then given by

∆V ∆V ∆V
= + (8.14)
R R1 R2
It follows that
1 1 1
= + ; resistors in parallel (8.15)
R R1 R2
 Currents and Ohm’s Law 65

The resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either one.

8.5 Microscopic Picture

It is the electrons that are moving here (Fig. 8.6).

-
-
- v
j -
-

Fig. 8.6 Microscopic picture of electron flow in conductor.

Define the following quantities:

n ≡ number of electrons/volume = particle density

~v ≡ velocity of electrons
~j ≡ current/area = current density (8.16)

Recall that the charge on the electron is

−|e| = charge on electrons (8.17)

~ in
The current that flows through the area A in the direction of ~j and E
the time dt is then given by

I dt = |~j |A dt = |e|n(|~v | dt)A (8.18)

As a vector relation, this expresses the current density as

~j = −|e|n~v ; current density (8.19)

The general case of arbitrary electron flow ~v through the element of area
dA is illustrated in Fig. 8.7. The volume swept out by the electrons in the
66 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

v dt
dS
dA

Fig. 8.7 Volume swept out.

time dt is

volume = |~v | dt dA cos θ

 
= ~v · dS ~ dt (8.20)

The corresponding charge transfer through dA is

h  i
dq = −|e|n ~v · dS~ dt (8.21)

~ is therefore written in
The general expression for the current through dS
3
terms of the current density as
dq ~ ~
I= = j · dS ; current (8.22)
dt

8.5.1 Resistivity of Materials

It is an experimental fact that for a wide class of materials (insulators,
conductors, semiconductors, etc.) the current density is proportional to
the applied electric field. Thus, on a microscopic level,

~ = 1E
~j = σ̄ E ~ ; ̺ ≡ resistivity
̺
; σ̄ ≡ conductivity (8.23)
~ |l (Fig. 8.8).
Consider a uniform wire with a voltage drop of ∆V = |E
The above current can then be re-written as
 
~ 1 ~ 1 ∆V ∆V
I = |j |A = |E |A = A ≡ ; Ohm’s law (8.24)
̺ ̺ l R
3 Remember the current is algebraic, and the current density ~ j = −|e|n~
v points in the
opposite direction to ~
v in Fig. 8.7. The equivalent positive charge flow out through dA
is obtained by simply reversing n̂, as in Fig. 10.11. [See Fig. 8.6 and Eqs. (8.18)–(8.19).]
 Currents and Ohm’s Law 67

where the final equality follows from Ohm’s law. Hence, in this case, the
resistance is written in terms of the resistivity as4
̺l
R= ; uniform wire (8.25)
A

V E l

Fig. 8.8 ~ |l.

Resistance of uniform wire with voltage drop of ∆V = |E

We note that E ~ yields a force, which gives rise to an acceleration, while

from Eqs. (8.19)–(8.20), the quantity ~v represents a drift velocity in the
material. Can we reconcile Eqs. (8.19) and (8.23)?
It is actually a viscous damping problem. Consider a particle falling in
air. It reaches a terminal velocity due to collision with the air molecules.
Newton’s second law in this case reads
dv m
m = mg − v ; particle in air (8.26)
dt τ
where the last contribution is a viscous damping term arising from colli-
sions, and τ is a parameter characteristic of air. This parameter has the
dimension of [t], and is related to the time between collisions.
The above is re-written as
dv v
+ =g (8.27)
dt τ
The solution to this differential equation, with the initial condition v(0) = 0,
is
h i
v(t) = τ g 1 − e−t/τ ; solution (8.28)

This solution is sketched in Fig. 8.9. For large t, there is a limiting velocity
v(∞)
=g ; limiting velocity (8.29)
τ
4 The notation distinguishes the resistivity and conductivity (̺, σ̄) from the charge

density and surface charge density (ρ, σ).

68 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Here large t means t ≫ τ .

v( ) g

Fig. 8.9 Sketch of solution for particle falling in air with viscous damping.

Let us work in analogy for the current density, where we treat the elec-
trons as an incompressible fluid (Fig. 8.10). With the assumption of a
viscous damping term coming from the collisions with the positive ions,
Newton’s second law for a unit volume element reads
d~v ~ − me n ~v
 
me n = −|e|nE (8.30)
dt τ

v
mass = m e n

Fig. 8.10 Unit volume of electron fluid with mass me n moving with velocity ~v.

Simplification leads to the differential equation

d~v ~v ~
|e|E
+ =− (8.31)
dt τ me
Just as above, the limiting velocity is then
|e|τ ~
~v (∞) = − E ; limiting velocity (8.32)
me
If this limiting velocity is combined with Eq. (8.19) and (8.23), the result
for the current density is
 2 
~j = e nτ E ~ = σ̄ E
~ (8.33)
me
 Currents and Ohm’s Law 69

Hence, we derive a microscopic expression for the conductivity of a metal

1 e2 nτ
σ̄ = = ; conductivity (8.34)
̺ me
Here τ is the effective viscous drag arising from the collisions with the ions.
Let us put in some numbers for metallic Cu, assuming one conduction
electron per atom 5
8.96 gm/cm3 atoms atoms
n= × 6.02 × 1023 = 8.49 × 1022
63.5 gm/mole mole cm3
me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg
|e| = 1.60 × 10−19 C
̺Cu = 1.7 × 10−8 Ωm (8.35)
This gives
9.11 × 10−31 kg 1 1
τ = ×
1.7 × 10 Ωm 8.49 × 10 /m (1.6 × 10−19 C)2
−8 28 3
  
1VC 1ΩC
(8.36)
1Nm 1V sec
The last two terms are conversion factors.6 It follows that
τ = 2.47 × 10−14 sec ; for Cu (8.37)
Let us make a crude comparison of this damping, or collision, time with
the time it takes for light to travel 1Å
1Å 10−10 m 1
τ0 ≡ = = × 10−18 sec (8.38)
c 3 × 108 m/sec 3
Evidently
• The electrons move much slower than the speed of light v ≪ c;
• The mean free path is much greater than 1Å.
Actually, in a conductor, drift is imposed on random thermal motion.

5 There may be more than one. The resistivity comes from the table on p. 639 of

[Ohanian (1985)] .
6 Recall 1 V = 1 volt. From energy in SI units, one has 1VC = 1Nm, and from

resistance 1Ω = 1V/(1C/sec).
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 Chapter 9

DC Circuits

9.1 Electromotive Force

The goal is to find a pump that raises the potential and pumps charge
around a circuit. The simplest example of such a pump is the battery.

9.1.1 Daniell Cell

The Daniell cell provides one illustration of a battery (Fig. 9.1).

Zn
()- (+)
Cu

ions

++ -- ++ --
Zn + SO 4 Cu + SO 4

Fig. 9.1 Daniell cell battery.

There is a negative electrode, called the cathode, and a positive electrode

called the anode. At the cathode, the following reaction donates electrons

Zn → Zn++ + 2e− ; cathode (9.1)

The Zn metal dissolves. At the anode, the following reaction takes up

71
72 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

electrons

Cu++ + 2e− → Cu ; anode (9.2)

The Cu metal plates out. A ceramic barrier separates the two sulfate
solutions and allows the ions, in particular the sulfate ion SO−−
4 , to pass
through.
Connection of the anode and cathode provides a voltage, or electromo-
tive force (EMF), that can generate a current. The voltage generated by
various combinations of materials depends on their electronegativity, the
ability to donate electrons.

9.1.2 Lead-Acid Battery

A second example is provided by the lead-acid battery (Fig. 9.2).

Pb
-
() (+)
PbO2

H2O + H2SO 4

Fig. 9.2 Lead-acid battery.

Here the reactions at the cathode and anode are

Pb + SO−−
4 → PbSO4 + 2e− ; cathode
PbO2 + SO−−
4
+ −
+ 4H + 2e → PbSO4 + 2H2 O ; anode (9.3)

The reactions take place in a sulfuric acid bath.

The symbol for a battery is shown in Fig. 9.3, It is characterized by the
voltage difference across its terminals

∆V ≡ E ; EMF (9.4)

Here E stands for electromotive force (EMF).

 DC Circuits 73

+
i V
-
Fig. 9.3 Symbol for battery producing the electromotive force (EMF) E. Note that the
current i flows through the battery.

9.2 Simplest Circuit

The simplest circuit with a battery and resistor is shown in Fig. 9.4.

+
R i
-

Fig. 9.4 Simplest circuit with a battery and resistor. The current is i.

Ohm’s law gives the current flowing in this circuit

E = ∆V = iR ; Ohm’s law (9.5)

The resulting equation

E = iR (9.6)

relates the potential difference provided by the pump (EMF) to the voltage
drop across the resistor.

9.3 Work Done

Consider the work done by the battery in forcing the current through the
resistor.1 For the charge dq

dWbattery = (dq)∆V (9.7)

1 The ~ in the resistor, which does work on the charge.
battery sets up the field E
74 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Now power is the rate of doing work

power ≡ rate of doing work (9.8)

Hence the power supplied by the battery is

 
dWbattery dq
P = = ∆V (9.9)
dt dt

But dq/dt = i is the current flowing through the circuit. It follows that the
power supplied by the battery to the resistor in this simplest circuit is

P = i ∆V = i2 R ; into resistor (9.10)

Several comments:

• This is the power dissipated in the resistor;

• Where does the power go? It heats the resistor;
• This is known as “Joule heating”;
• Where does the power come from? It comes from chemical reactions in
the battery;
• The power delivered by the battery is

P = iE ; battery power (9.11)

• The units of power are

1amp × 1volt ≡ 1watt = 1joule/sec = 1Nm/sec (9.12)

9.4 Kirchoff ’s Rules

We present Kirchoff ’s rules that govern circuit behavior.

9.4.1 First Rule

Kirchoff’s first rule for circuits, one we have already employed, is based on
the principle of conservation of charge. It states that (see Fig. 9.5).

current into a junction = current out

i1 = i2 + i3 ; Kirchoff’s first rule (9.13)
 DC Circuits 75

i1

i2 i3

Fig. 9.5 Illustration of Kirchoff’s first rule i1 = i2 + i3 .

9.4.2 Second Rule

Kirchoff’s second rule for circuits states that around any closed loop of
circuit, the potential increase by the pumps equals the voltage drop across
the resistors
X X
E = (iR) ; around any closed loop
; Kirchoff’s second rule (9.14)

The net EMF provides a pump that creates a voltage drop across the re-
sistors. The voltage drop across each resistor is then related to the current
flowing through it by Ohm’s law.
The basic principle underlying Kirchoff’s second rule here is that for
time-independent electric fields, around any closed loop,
I
~ · d~l = 0
E ; time-independent E ~ (9.15)
closedloop

The field is conservative.2

9.5 Applications

We give some applications of Kirchoff’s rules.

9.5.1 Single-Loop Circuit

As a first application of Kirchoff’s rules, see the single-loop circuit in
Fig. 9.6. Since the EMF’s oppose, Kirchoff’s second rule gives

E2 − E1 = iR1 + iR2
3V = i(6Ω) (9.16)

2 Implying energy is conserved.

76 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

R1 = 4

+ +
= 12 V i
1 = 15 V
- 2

-
R2 = 2

Fig. 9.6 Illustration of Kirchoff’s rules with a single-loop circuit.

The solution for the current is3

3V 1
i= = A (9.17)
6Ω 2

9.5.2 Multi-Loop Circuit

Consider the simple multi-loop circuit in Fig. 9.7. We will analyze it two
different ways.

R1 = 4

+ i1 i2 +
= 12 V =8V
1
- - 2
R2 = 4

R =2
3

Fig. 9.7 Illustration of Kirchoff’s rules with a multi-loop circuit.

First, leave the two loop currents as unknowns, and use Kirchoff’s second
rule on the left and right loops, recalling that both the EMF’s and currents

3 Recall 1V/1Ω = 1A.

 DC Circuits 77

are algebraic4

E1 = R1 i1 + R2 (i1 − i2 )
−E2 = i2 R3 + R2 (i2 − i1 ) (9.18)

With the given values, these become

12V = 8Ω i1 − 4Ω i2
−8V = 6Ω i2 − 4Ω i1 (9.19)

which gives two equations in two unknowns

8Ω i1 − 4Ω i2 = 12V
−8Ω i1 + 12Ω i2 = −16V (9.20)

The solution is
1 5
i2 = − A ; i1 = A (9.21)
2 4
Now do it a second way, using both of Kirchoff’s laws. This is a more
powerful method with more complicated circuits. Leave the three currents
as unknowns (Fig. 9.8).

R1

+ i1 i2 +

1
i3 R
i1
2
i2 - 2
-

R
3

Fig. 9.8 Illustration of use of both of Kirchoff’s rules with a multi-loop circuit.

Apply both of Kirchoff’s laws to the left and right loops and vertices

E1 = i1 R1 + i3 R2
E2 = i3 R2 − i2 R3
i1 = i2 + i3 (9.22)
4 Note that the first rule is now satisfied identically at the two vertices.
78 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

This gives three equations in three unkowns. If one eliminates i3 = i1 − i2 ,

these become
E1 = R1 i1 + R2 (i1 − i2 )
−E2 = i2 R3 + R2 (i2 − i1 ) (9.23)
which are now the same as Eqs. (9.18).
 Chapter 10

Review of Electricity

10.1 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that the electrostatic force F~21 on particle 1 with
charge q1 , due to particle 2 with charge q2 , separated by ~r = ~r1 − ~r2 is (see
Fig. 10.1),

q1 q2 ~r1 − ~r2
F~21 = ; Coulomb’s law
4πε0 |~r1 − ~r2 |3
= −F~12 (10.1)

q1

r1 - r2
F21
q2

F12

Fig. 10.1 Configuration for Coulomb’s law.

We use SI units, where

1 Nm2
= 8.99 × 109 2
4πε0 C
−19
e = 1.60 × 10 C (10.2)

Superposition says that with several particles, we add the forces from

79
80 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

all the other particles as vectors

F~i = F~ji
X
; superposition (10.3)
j6=i

10.2 Electric Field

The electric field is defined through the force on a vanishingly small test
charge
!
~i
F
E~ i ≡ Lim qi →0 ; electric field (10.4)
qi

~ at position ~r is,
If we label the generic position ~ri as ~r , then the field E
from the above,

~ r) =
X qj ~r − ~rj
E(~ ; general result (10.5)
j
4πε 0 |~
r − ~rj |3

where the sum over j now goes over all the other charges.
~ at the midpoint of
As an example, consider the calculation of the field E
the base of an equilateral triangle with three equal charges at the vertices
(Fig. 10.2).

q3

q1 d/2
q2
P
a

Fig. 10.2 Three equal charges at vertices of an equilateral triangle with sides d. The
point P denotes the midpoint of the base.

~ 1, E
The fields (E ~ 2 ) coming from charges (q1 , q2 ) cancel identically at P ,
while at P , the field from q3 points in the direction â, and is a distance
(d2 − d2 /4)1/2 away. Hence, by superposition and Coulomb’s law

~ )=E
~1 + E
~2 + E
~3 = q â
E(P (10.6)
4πε0 (3d2 /4)
 Review of Electricity 81

10.3 Gauss’ Law

~ = n̂ dS is defined
The electric flux through the element of surface area dS
by (Fig. 10.3)

dΦe ≡ E~ · dS
~ = |E
~ |dS cos θ ; electric flux
≡ |E~ |dS⊥ (10.7)

We draw lines of force, where the tangent to the lines of force gives the
direction of the force at each point in space, and the electric flux gives
~ and dS⊥
number of lines of force passing through the surfaces dS
~ ≡ dΦe = number through dS⊥
number through dS (10.8)

dS dS

Fig. 10.3 Lines of force and electric flux.

Gauss’ law states that the electric flux through a closed surface S is
given by 1/ε0 times the total charge contained inside that surface
 
~= q
Z
~ · dS
E ; Gauss’ law (10.9)
closed S ε0 inside S
We showed that Gauss’ law is equivalent to Coulomb’s law plus superposi-
tion. We give two applications.
Consider a sheet of charge with uniform surface charge density σ
(Fig. 10.4). By symmetry
~ = Ez ẑ
E ; above
~ = −Ez ẑ
E ; below (10.10)

With the introduction of the indicated gaussian pillbox, one has

~ = Ez dS + Ez dS = σdS
Z
~ · dS
E (10.11)
pillbox ε0
82 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

E
z
n1
dS
+++++++ n2

n3

Fig. 10.4 Sheet of charge with surface charge density σ, and gaussian pillbox.

It follows that
σ
Ez = (10.12)
2ε0
Consider a uniformly charged spherical shell with radius R and total
charge Q (Fig. 10.5). By symmetry

~ = Er r̂
E (10.13)

Q
+ + + +
+
shell +
r +
+
R +
+ +
+ +
+ + +

gaussian sphere

Fig. 10.5 Uniformally charged spherical shell with radius R and total charge Q. The
gaussian sphere is indicated.

Introduce a gaussian sphere, which can be either outside (r > R) or inside

(r < R) of the shell. Gauss’ law then gives
Z
E~ · dS
~ = 4πr2 Er = 0 ; r<R
sphere
Q
= ; r>R (10.14)
ε0
 Review of Electricity 83

Hence, the electric field for a uniformly charged spherical shell is given by

~ =0
E ; r<R
Q r̂
= ; r>R (10.15)
4πε0 r2

In a conductor, charges are free to move, and the field of a charged

conductor has the following properties (Fig. 10.6):1

E
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
E=0 + Q
+ +
+ +
++ ++ + + ++
+ + +

Fig. 10.6 Conductor with charge Q.

• The ~ = 0 inside a conductor,

field E
• The ~ =E
field outside at the surface is normal to the surface E ~⊥;
• The charge Q sits on the surface of the conductor;
• The surface is an equipotential.

10.4 Electrostatic Potential

With electrostatics (and DC circuits), the electric field satisfies the following
relation
I
~ · d~l = 0
E ; electrostatics
closed path
; DC circuits (10.16)

where the integral goes around any closed path. This holds for

~ of a point charge;
• The field E
• The field of any collection of charges, by superposition.
1 Compare with the previous example.
84 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

The above relation allows us to define a difference of potential as the work

done in carrying a vanishingly small test charge from point 1 to point 2
 
W2←1
V (2) − V (1) ≡ Lim qtest →0
qtest
Z 2
=− E~ · d~l (10.17)
1

Here (Fig. 10.7)

~ · d~l = |E
E ~ ||d~l | cos θ (10.18)

E
2
1

dl

Fig. 10.7 Path from 1 → 2.

Equation (10.16) implies that the integral in Eq. (10.17) is independent of

the path from 1 → 2.
If ground is defined by V (∞) = 0, then the potential for a point charge
at the origin is given by
1 q
V (r) − V (∞) = V (r) = ; point charge (10.19)
4πε0 r
With many charges, one has by superposition
N
1 X qj
V (~r ) = ; many charges (10.20)
4πε0 j=1 |~r − ~rj |

The potentials add as scalars. The potential energy of the test charge is

qtest V (~r ) ≡ U (~r ) ; potential energy (10.21)

The electric field is obtained from the potential through its gradient
~ = −∇V
E ~
~ = x̂ ∂ + ŷ ∂ + ẑ ∂
∇ (10.22)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 Review of Electricity 85

This is fully equivalent to Coulomb’s law plus superposition, or Gauss’ law,

and gives us still a third way of computing the field.
As an example, consider the potential at the center of a square of side
d with four charges q at the corners (Fig. 10.8).

q q

O
d/2
q q
d/2

Fig. 10.8 Four charges q at the corners of a square with side d.

√
Since the distance of each charge from the origin is d/ 2, the answer is2

q 4
V (0) = √ (10.23)
4πε0 (d/ 2 )

10.5 Electric Energy

The potential energy of a pair of charges is

q1 q2 1
U = ; potential energy (10.24)
4πε0 |~r1 − ~r2 |

For a collection of charges, each pair makes a single contribution

N
1 X qi qj 1
U = (10.25)
2 4πε0 |~ri − ~rj |
i6=j=1

10.6 Capacity

The capacity of a device (capacitor) to hold charge is defined by

Q
C≡ ; capacity (10.26)
∆V
2 From ~
symmetry, the field vanishes at the origin, E(0) = 0.
86 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

For a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R, from Eqs. (10.15) and
(10.19),

Cshell = 4πε0 R (10.27)

For parallel plates of ± charge with area A and separation d (Fig. 6.1),
it follows as in Eqs. (10.12) and (10.17) that

~ = σ ẑ
E
ε0
~ |d
∆V = |E (10.28)

Hence the capacity of the parallel-plate capacitor is given by

σA ε0 A
Ck plates = = (10.29)
σd/ε0 d
For two capacitors in series [Fig. 10.9(a)]
1 1 1
= + ; series (10.30)
C C1 C2
For two capacitors in parallel [Fig. 10.9(b)]

C = C1 + C2 ; parallel (10.31)

C
1 C1 C2
C
2

(a) series (b) parallel

Fig. 10.9 Two capacitors in (a) series; (b) parallel.

10.6.1 Dielectric
Suppose there is a dielectric slab that fills the region between the plates of
the parallel-plate capacitor (Fig. 10.10). Here, the applied field arises from
the free charge
~ app = σfree ẑ
E (10.32)
ε0
 Review of Electricity 87

Q= free A
++++++++++++++

------------------
E
z Eapp E
appin
++++++++++++++ Qbound = bA
------------------
Fig. 10.10 Dielectric slab in a condenser, which fills the region between the plates. The
surface charge density on the plate of the condenser, and on the surface of the dielectric,
are σfree and σb respectively. Note the direction of ẑ. Note also that the induced field
opposes the applied field in the dielectric.

The actual field in the condenser, and potential drop across it, are then
given by

~ = 1E
E ~ app ; κ ≡ dielectric constant
κ 
1 σfree d
∆V = (10.33)
κ ε0

where κ is the dielectric constant

1
σfree ≡ σfree − σb (10.34)
κ
The capacity is enhanced by κ

C = κC0 (10.35)

10.7 Circuits and Ohm’s Law

If ~j is the current density, then the current I flowing through the surface
element dS ~ is given by (Fig. 10.11)3

~
I = ~j · dS ; ~j ≡ current density (10.36)
3 Recall ~ per unit time.
that I is the charge passing through dS
88 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

dS

Fig. 10.11 ~ through the surface dS,

Current I = ~j · dS ~ where ~j is the current density.

With electron flow, the current density is expressed as

~j = −|e|n~v ; electron flow (10.37)

where n is the particle density, and −|e|n is the electron charge density.
In materials, the current density is related to the field by the empirical
relation

~ = 1E
~j = σ̄ E ~ ; ̺ ≡ resistivity (10.38)
̺

where σ̄ is the conductivity, and ̺ is the resistivity

Consider the current I flowing in a material (say, a wire) with a cross-
~ (Fig. 10.12).
sectional area A, length l, under a uniform applied field E

I
A

V l

Fig. 10.12 ~
Current I in material with area A, length l, and uniform field E.

Ohm’s law states that the current flow is proportional to the voltage drop

1
I= ∆V ; Ohm’s law (10.39)
R
where R is the resistance. In the above case, the resistance is related to the
 Review of Electricity 89

resistivity by
l
R=̺ ; uniform material (10.40)
A
For two resistors in series [Fig. 10.13(a)]

R = R1 + R2 ; series (10.41)

For two resistors in parallel [Fig. 10.13(b)]

1 1 1
= + ; parallel (10.42)
R R1 R2

R1

R1 R2
R2

(a) series (b) parallel

Fig. 10.13 Two resistors in (a) series; (b) parallel.

The power dissipated in a resistor with current i is

P = i(∆V ) = i2 R ; power dissipated (10.43)

10.7.1 Kirchoff ’s Rules

Kirchoff’s rules for DC circuits are as follows:
(1) At a junction

i1 = i2 + i3 (10.44)

This follows from conservation of charge.

(2) Around any closed loop
X X
(EMF) = (iR) (10.45)

The net EMF provides a pump that creates a voltage drop across the
resistors, and the voltage drop across each resistor is related to the
90 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

current flowing in it by Ohm’s law. The underlying principle here is

the conservative nature of the static electric field in Eq. (10.16).
 PART 2

Magnetism
b2530   International Strategic Relations and China’s National Security: World at the Crossroads

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 Chapter 11

Vectors

We need to do some math before we launch into magnetism. We first review

what we know about vectors.

11.1 Review

11.1.1 Vector
A vector can be characterized by its cartesian components (Fig. 11.1)

~v : (vx , vy , vz ) (11.1)

vz

v
vy
vx y
x

Fig. 11.1 A vector ~v in a cartesian coordinate system, with components (vx , vy , vz ).

• Vectors can be added by adding their components

~a + ~b = (ax + bx , ay + by , az + bz ) (11.2)

93
94 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

• Vectors can be multiplied by a scalar through multiplication of their

components

λ~a = (λax , λay , λaz ) (11.3)

11.1.2 Scalar Product

The scalar product (“dot product”) of two vectors is given by1

~a · ~b ≡ ax bx + ay by + az bz ; scalar product (11.4)

• The square of the length of a vector is2

|~v |2 ≡ vx2 + vy2 + vz2 ; (length)2 (11.5)

• It follows from the above that (see Fig. 11.2)

(~a − ~b )2 = ~a 2 + ~b 2 − 2~a · ~b (11.6)

b a-b

Fig. 11.2 The quantity ~a − ~b.

From the law of cosines

(~a − ~b )2 = ~a 2 + ~b 2 − 2|~a ||~b | cos θ (11.7)

Hence

~a · ~b = |~a ||~b | cos θ (11.8)

We can alternatively express the vector ~v as a linear combination of

1 Recall our calculation of work.
2 Note v |2 ≡ ~
|~ v2 ≡~v ·~
v.
 Vectors 95

orthonormal unit vectors3

~v = vx x̂ + vy ŷ + vz ẑ
x̂2 = ŷ 2 = ẑ 2 = 1
x̂ · ŷ = x̂ · ẑ = ŷ · ẑ = 0 (11.9)

11.1.3 Vector Product

The vector product (“cross product”) of two vectors is given by4

~a × ~b ≡ (ay bz − az by ) x̂ + (az bx − ax bz ) ŷ + (ax by − ay bx ) ẑ

; vector product (11.10)

This is most conveniently written as a determinant

 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 
~a × ~b ≡ det  ax

ay az 
b by bz 
x
     
 ay az   ax az 
 ŷ + det  ax ay  ẑ
 
= det  x̂ − det  (11.11)
by bz   bx bz   bx by 

The last line is obtained through an expansion in minors.

The cross product has the following properties:

• The dot product of ~a × ~b with either of its constituents vanishes

~a · (~a × ~b) = ~b · (~a × ~b) = 0 (11.12)

This is obtained either from the definition in Eq. (11.10), or from the
fact that these expressions lead to a determinant with two identical
rows in Eq. (11.11). As a consequence, the vector ~a ×~b is perpendicular
to both ~a and ~b (see Fig. 11.3).
• The direction of ~a × ~b is given by the right-hand rule
Put the fingers of your right hand along ~a, curl them into ~b,
then your thumb points along ~a × ~b.
3 See also Prob. 11.3.
4 Recall angular momentum and torque from mechanics.
96 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

a b
b

Fig. 11.3 The cross product ~a × ~b.

• The length of ~a × ~b is calculated as (see Prob. 11.1)

(~a × ~b )2 = ~a 2~b 2 − (~a · ~b )2

= ~a 2~b 2 (1 − cos2 θ)
= ~a 2~b 2 sin2 θ (11.13)

Hence

|~a × ~b | = |~a ||~b | sin θ (11.14)

11.2 Differential Operators

~ = −∇V
We have already met the gradient through our discussion of E ~

~ ≡ x̂ ∂ + ŷ ∂ + ẑ ∂
∇ ; gradient (11.15)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Note that the gradient of a scalar produces a vector.
The divergence of a vector field is defined according to

∇ ~ ≡ ∂Ex + ∂Ey + ∂Ez

~ ·E ; divergence (11.16)
∂x ∂y ∂z
The divergence of a vector produces a scalar.
The curl of a vector field is given by
 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 
~ ×E~ ≡ det  ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z 

∇   ; curl (11.17)
 E Ey Ez 
x
     
∂Ez ∂Ey ∂Ex ∂Ez ∂Ey ∂Ex
= − x̂ + − ŷ + − ẑ
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
The curl of a vector produces a vector.
 Vectors 97

11.3 Gauss’ Theorem

Gauss’ theorem relates the integral of the flux of a vector field out of a
closed region in space to the integral of the divergence of the vector field
over the enclosed volume (Fig. 11.4). It is an extremely useful result.

dS
V

Fig. 11.4 An enclosed region in space where S is the surface and V is the volume. E ~ is
~ is a little element of surface area. Basis for Gauss’ theorem.
vector field, and dS

If dv is an infinitesimal element of volume, Gauss’ theorem states that

Z Z
~ · dS
E ~= ~ ·E
(∇ ~ )dv ; Gauss’ theorem
closed surface S enclosed volume V
(11.18)

We supply the proof for a simple cubic region (Fig. 11.5).

z y

dS=dydz (l,l,l)

n n
2 1
S2 S1
x

Fig. 11.5 Cubic region of side l used in proof of Gauss’ theorem.

98 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Consider the contribution to the l.h.s. from the two surfaces (S1 , S2 )
Z Z  Z l Z l
+ ~ ~
E · dS = dy dz [Ex (x = l, y, z) − Ex (x = 0, y, z)] (11.19)
S1 S2 0 0

Here the first contribution on the r.h.s. comes from the surface S1 with
normal n̂1 = x̂, and the second from the surface S2 with normal n̂2 = −x̂.
Now rewrite the integrand on the r.h.s. of this expression as
Z l  
∂Ex
Ex (x = l, y, z) − Ex (x = 0, y, z) = dx (11.20)
0 ∂x

If the other two pairs of sides are included, the result is

 
∂Ex ∂Ey ∂Ez
Z Z
~ ~
E · dS = dxdydz + +
S ∂x ∂y ∂z
ZV  
= dv ∇~ ·E~ (11.21)
V

This is Gauss’ theorem. We leave the proof for an arbitrarily shaped region
to a future course.5

11.4 Stokes’ Theorem

Stokes’ theorem relates the integral of a vector field around a closed curve
in a simply-connected region in a surface, to the integral of the curl of that
field over the enclosed surface (Fig. 11.6). It is also an extremely useful
result.

Stokes’ theorem says

I Z  
~ · d~l =
E ~ ×E
∇ ~ · dS
~ ; Stokes’ theorem
closed curve C enclosed surface S
(11.22)

We prove Stokes’ theorem for a simple square in the (x, y)-plane (Fig. 11.7).

5 See, for example, [Walecka (2008)] . It is simple to extend the proof given here to a

arbitrary volume composed of stacked cubes: The result is true for each cube; add the
results together, and the volume contributions add; the surface integrals over common
faces of the cubes cancel
R since the normals point in opposite directions; one is left with
the surface integral S E~ · dS
~ over the outer surface.
 Vectors 99

dS E
x
S
dl
C

Fig. 11.6 Closed curve C and enclosed surface S used in proof of Stokes’ theorem.

y
E
C2

C4 C3

x
C1

Fig. 11.7 Square of side l in the (x, y)-plane used in proof of Stokes’ theorem.

The integral of the l.h.s. around the square is given by

I Z l
~ · d~l =
E dx [Ex (x, y = 0, z) − Ex (x, y = l, z)] +
C 0
Z l
dy [Ey (x = l, y, z) − Ey (x = 0, y, z)] (11.23)
0

The first term on the r.h.s. here comes from the segment C1 with line
element d~l = x̂ dx and the second from C2 with d~l = −x̂ dx. The third term
on the r.h.s. here comes from the segment C3 with line element d~l = ŷ dy
and the fourth from C4 with d~l = −ŷ dy.
100 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Now re-write the integrals, using

l  
∂Ex
Z
Ex (x, y = 0, z) − Ex (x, y = l, z) = − dy
0 ∂y
Z l  
∂Ey
Ey (x = l, y, z) − Ey (x = 0, y, z) = dx (11.24)
0 ∂x
It follows that for the square
Z l Z l   Z
∂Ey ∂Ex
I h  i
~ ~
E · dl = dx dy − ~ ×E
= dS ẑ · ∇ ~
C ∂x ∂y
Z0 0
 
= ~· ∇
dS ~ ×E~ (11.25)
S

This is Stokes’ theorem. We again leave the proof for an arbitrarily shaped
region to a future course.6

6 See, for example, [Walecka (2008)]. It is again simple to extend the proof given here

to an arbitrary closed curve and enclosed surface in the (x, y)-plane composed of stacked
squares: The result is true for each square; add the results together, and the surface
integrals add; the line integrals over common sides of the squares cancelH since the line
~ · d~l over the
elements point in opposite directions; one is left with the line integral C E
outer curve.
 Chapter 12

The Magnetic Force and Field

12.1 Magnetism

There are many ways to demonstrate the phenomena of magnetism.

• Permanent magnets are ubiquitous;

• The magnetic force and corresponding magnetic field are thus familiar;
• The earth exhibits a magnetic field;
• A compass aligns with the field, and can be used to map it;
• The compass illustrates that the magnetic field of a permanent bar
magnet is that of a dipole (Fig. 12.1);

Fig. 12.1 Sketch of the dipole field coming from a bar magnet.

• If one breaks a bar magnet in two, each half again exhibits the field of
a dipole.

It is a conclusion of the observations that

101
102 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

There is no free magnetic charge. Magnetic charge always comes

in the form of a dipole (Fig. 12.2).

+q m

d
-q m

Fig. 12.2 The magnetic dipole.

12.2 The Magnetic Field

We start with the analogy to electrostatics.

12.2.1 Analogy to Electrostatics

We write the magnetic force F~m in terms of the magnetic charge qm , and
~ as
magnetic field B,

~
F~m = qm B ; magnetic force (12.1)

Let us calculate the torque τ on a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field

(Fig. 12.3).

Fm
B
+q
m

d
-q m

- Fm

Fig. 12.3 Torque on a magnetic dipole.

 The Magnetic Force and Field 103

The magnitude of the torque about the midpoint is given by

~
~ | |d | sin θ = qm |B
|~τ | = 2qm |B ~ ||d~ | sin θ (12.2)
2
Define the magnetic dipole moment by

~µ ≡ qm d~ ; magnetic dipole moment (12.3)

Then, if we also supply the direction of the torque,

~τ = µ ~
~ ×B ; torque on dipole (12.4)

This gives the torque on a compass, for example, and can be used to measure
~ 1
the magnetic field B.

12.2.2 Superposition
~ the magnetic
It is an experimental fact that, as with the electric field E,
~
field B obeys superposition
~ =B
B ~1 + B
~2 + · · · + B
~N ; superposition (12.5)

12.2.3 Gauss’ Law

Since there is no free magnetic charge, only dipoles, Gauss’ law for the
magnetic field reads (see Fig. 12.4)

Z
~ · dS
B ~=0 ; net magnetic flux vanishes (12.6)
closed surface S

dS

Fig. 12.4 Gauss’ law for magnetic field.

1 But, ~
see Sec. 12.4 for the proper definition of B.
104 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

12.2.4 Sources of Magnetic Field

The most obvious source of a magnetic field is a permanent magnet; how-
ever, it is readily demonstrated that an electric current is also a source of
a magnetic field that surrounds the current (Fig. 12.5).

Fig. 12.5 ~ from a current i.

Magnetic field B

The relation between the current and the field it produces is given by
the Biot-Savart law.

12.3 Biot-Savart Law

dB
idl
r

Fig. 12.6 Biot-Savart law.

The Biot-Savart law states that the element of field dB ~ located a dis-
~
tance ~r away from a current element idl is proportional to (Fig. 12.6)

~ ∝ id~l × r̂
dB (12.7)
r2

Note the directions involved and the 1/r2 fall-off. With the supplied con-
stant of proportionality, whose value we will subsequently provide [see
 The Magnetic Force and Field 105

Eq. (12.29)], the Biot-Savart law reads

~ = µ0 id~l × r̂
dB ; Biot-Savart law (12.8)
4π r2

12.3.1 Line of Current

Let us use the Biot-Savart law to compute the magnetic field surrounding
a line of current (Fig. 12.7).

idl

z
r

B
x

Fig. 12.7 Calculation of the magnetic field surrounding a line of current running along
the z-axis.

We have a current running up the z-axis, with the element

id~l = idz ẑ (12.9)

From the figure

ẑ × r̂ = sin θ φ̂ (12.10)

Hence

~ = µ0 i dz
dB sin θ φ̂ (12.11)
4π r2
Now use a little trigonometry (Fig. 12.8)
ρ −z
sin θ = ; cot θ = (12.12)
r ρ
106 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

-z
Fig. 12.8 The angle θ. Note with z the positive distance above the (x, y)-plane, and θ
as defined in Fig. 12.7, we must use −z here.

Differentiate the second relation at a fixed radius ρ

1 dz
− csc2 θ dθ = − dθ = − (12.13)
sin2 θ ρ
Therefore
   2 
~ = µ0 i ρ dθ sin θ
dB sin θ φ̂
4π sin2 θ ρ2
µ0 i 1
= φ̂ sin θ dθ (12.14)
4π ρ
Now integrate along the z-axis at fixed (ρ, φ), which implies that θ goes
from 0 to π
Z π π
sin θ dθ = − cos θ 0 = 2 | (12.15)
0

Thus the magnetic field surrounding the line of current is given by

~ = µ0 i 1 φ̂
B ; line of current (12.16)
2π ρ

12.3.2 Current Loop

As a second application of the Biot-Savart law, we calculate the magnetic
field arising from a current loop (Fig. 12.9). From symmetry, along the
z-axis one has
~ = Bz ẑ
B (12.17)

The element of the current loop in the (x, y)-plane is given by

id~l = i(R dφ)φ̂ (12.18)

 The Magnetic Force and Field 107

B r
z r
R y

idl
x

Fig. 12.9 Calculation of the magnetic field coming from a current loop.

The required vector element is then given by

  R
ẑ · φ̂ × r̂ = cos χ = sin θ = (12.19)
(R2 + z 2 )1/2
Hence, by the Biot-Savart law,

~ = µ0 iR dφ ẑ · φ̂ × r̂
 
dBz = ẑ · dB
4π (R2 + z 2 )
µ0 iR dφ R
= (12.20)
4π (R2 + z 2 ) (R2 + z 2 )1/2
This reduces to
µ0 i R2
dBz = dφ (12.21)
4π (R2 + z 2 )3/2
Now integrate on φ around the loop, at fixed height z
Z 2π
dφ = 2π (12.22)
0

The field along the axis of the current loop is thus given by

~ = µ0 i πR2
B ẑ ; along z-axis (12.23)
2π (z 2 + R2 )3/2
The full field of the current loop is again that of a dipole (see Fig. 12.10)!
108 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. 12.10 Sketch of the dipole magnetic field arising from a current loop.

The expression for the field of an electric dipole far out along the dipole
axis is given in Eqs. (3.9)–(3.10)

~ = 1 ~ p
E (12.24)
2πε0 z 3
A comparison with the above allows us to identify the magnetic dipole
moment of the current loop as2

~µ ≡ (iπR2 )n̂ ; magnetic dipole moment (12.25)

Here n̂ is the normal to the loop. The torque on the magnetic dipole follows
from Eq. (12.4)

~τ = ~ ~
µ×B ; torque on dipole (12.26)

A pair of Helmholtz coils provides a convenient region of uniform mag-

netic field between the coils.

B
i

Fig. 12.11 A pair of Helmholtz coils providing region of uniform magnetic field.

2 The ~ = (µ0 /2π) µ

magnetic analog of Eq. (12.24) is then B ~ /z 3 .
 The Magnetic Force and Field 109

12.4 Lorentz Force

It is an experimental fact that a particle with an electric charge q moving

~ experiences the Lorentz force
with velocity ~v in a magnetic field B
F~ = q(~v × B
~) ; Lorentz force (12.27)
~ and ~v (Fig. 12.7).
Note that the force is perpendicular to both B

B v

Force F
Fig. 12.12 Lorentz force F ~ acting on a particle with electric charge q moving with
velocity ~ ~ Here q > 0.
v in a magnetic field B.

The Lorentz force provides the basis for a proper definition of the mag-
~ Introduce the SI unit of magnetic field
netic field B.
1N
1 tesla ≡ ≡ 1T (12.28)
1 C · 1 m/s
The constant of proportionality in the Biot-Savart law in SI units then has
the value
µ0 Ns2 Tm
= 1.00 × 10−7 2 = 1.00 × 10−7 (12.29)
4π C A
b2530   International Strategic Relations and China’s National Security: World at the Crossroads

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 Chapter 13

Ampere’s Law

13.1 Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s law relates the integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop
to the current flowing through the enclosed surface (Fig. 13.1).

B(r )
S
C dl

Fig. 13.1 Closed curve C and enclosed surface S. B(~ ~ r ) is the magnetic field, d~l is a
small element of C, and i is the current flowing through S. Basis for Ampere’s law.

Ampere’s law states that

I
~ · d~l = µ0 (i) through enclosed surface S
B
closed curve C
; Ampere’s law (13.1)

Ampere’s law allows us to calculate magnetic fields B~ from currents i

in a fashion very similar to how Gauss’ law allowed us to calculate electric
~ from charges q. Ampere’s law is equivalent to the law of Biot-
fields E
Savart, which we demonstrate here through an example.

111
112 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

13.1.1 Line of Current

Consider the line of current along the z-axis in Fig. 12.7. From symmetry,
in the (x, y) plane,1
~ = BR φ̂
B (13.2)

The line element for a circle of radius R and polar angle φ is

d~l = (Rdφ)φ̂ (13.3)

Ampere’s law then reads

I Z 2π
~ ~
B · dl = BR R dφ = 2πRBR = µ0 i (13.4)
C 0

Hence, for the line of current, Ampere’s law gives

~ = µ0 i φ̂
B ; line of current (13.5)
2πR
We thus recover the result we obtained in Eq. (12.16) from a direct inte-
gration of the law of Biot-Savart. Observe that, as in chapter 4, the result
is obtained from Ampere’s law in a much simpler fashion.

13.1.2 Current Density

The current through the surface S can always be expressed in terms of the
current density ~j introduced in section 8.5 according to (see Fig. 13.2)

Z
(i) through surface S = ~
~j · dS (13.6)
surface S

j
dS

S
C
Fig. 13.2 Current through S expressed in terms of the current density ~j.
1 Here ρ ≡ R.
 Ampere’s Law 113

Re-written in terms of the current density, Ampere’s law reads

I Z
~ · d~l = µ0
B ~
~j · dS ; Ampere’s law (13.7)
closed curve C enclosed surface S

13.1.3 Electrostatics and Magnetostatics

Let us compare what we have so far on electrostatics and magnetostatics.
The integral of the field around a closed curve, the integral of the flux over
a closed surface, the charge in each case, and the nature of the field lines
are compared for electrostatics and magnetostatics in the display below.

Electrostatics Magnetostatics
I I
• ~ · d~l = 0
E • ~ · d~l = µ0 (i)through surface
B
C C

~ = 1 (q)enclosed volume
Z Z
• ~ · dS
E • ~ · dS
B ~=0
S ε0 S
• Electric charge q • No free magnetic charge qm
• Lines of E ~ end on charges ~ do not end (13.8)
• Lines of B

This last point of comparison is illustrated in Fig. 13.3.

B
E
+q -q

(a) Lines of E (b) Lines of B

Fig. 13.3 ~ end on electric charges; (b) Lines of B
(a) Lines of E ~ do not end.

Gauss’ law and Ampere’s law, which relate the fields to the sources, play a
particularly important role. We proceed to some examples of the applica-
tion of Ampere’s law.

13.2 Examples

13.2.1 Infinite Current Sheet

Consider an infinite sheet of current in the (x, y)-plane flowing in the di-
rection of −x̂ (Fig. 13.4).
114 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

z B
(4)

(3) (1) y
i/L
(2)
x
B
Fig. 13.4 Infinite current sheet of magnitude η = i/L per unit transverse length flowing
in the (x, y)-plane in the direction of −x̂, together with an “amperian loop”, a square
of side l in the (y, z)-plane enclosing the current sheet. There is an indicated magnetic
~ above and below the (x, y)-plane.
field B

Call η the amount of current per unit transverse length2

current/length ≡ i/L ≡ η (13.9)

By symmetry and the right-hand rule, the magnetic field will be

~ = Bz ŷ
B ; above
= −Bz ŷ ; below (13.10)

Now form an amperian loop, a square box of side l in the (y, z)-plane en-
closing the current sheet (Fig. 13.4). On the sides (1) and (3), the field is
perpendicular to the line element, and B~ · d~l = 0. The contribution of sides
(2) and (4) to Ampere’s law then reads

Bz l + Bz l = µ0 ηl
1
B z = µ0 η (13.11)
2

Note that, as with the electric field from an infinite sheet of charge in
sections 3.2.4 and 4.3.1, this is independent of z. The magnetic field de-
termined from Ampere’s law for the infinite current sheet in Fig. 13.4 is
2 Here L is the width of the current sheet, which is assumed to be very large. It is η

that is finite as L → ∞.
 Ampere’s Law 115

therefore3

~ = µ0 η ŷ
B ; above sheet
2
µ0 η
=− ŷ ; below sheet (13.12)
2

13.2.2 Two Opposing Sheets

Consider two parallel, opposing, infinite sheets of current, again with
(Fig. 13.5)

η ≡ current/length (13.13)

z
B
y

Fig. 13.5 Two parallel, opposing, infinite sheets of current from Fig. 13.4. Again η =
current/length.

Now use the results of the previous section and superposition.

• Above the top sheet, the contributions cancel 4

~ =0
B ; above top sheet (13.14)

• Between the two sheets, the contributions add

~ = µo η ŷ
B ; between sheets (13.15)
3 This result can again be obtained, in principle, from the Biot-Savart law; however,
that calculation involves some tedious vector manipulations and integration. We leave
that effort to the dedicated reader. The derivation from Ampere’s law is clearly much
simpler.
4 Remember the fields are independent of z.
116 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

• Below the bottom sheet, the contributions again cancel

~ =0
B ; below bottom sheet (13.16)

Note that if the two sheets are connected at x = ±∞, one has a tube
of circulating current containing a magnetic field, and the field vanishes
outside the tube. This serves as the motivation for looking at the infinite
solonoid.

13.2.3 Infinite Solonoid

The infinite solonoid consists of a coil carrying a current i with N turns
per unit length (Fig. 13.6)

number of turns/length ≡ N (13.17)

N turns/length

i
Fig. 13.6 The infinite solonoid is a coil carrying a current i with N turns/length. A
~ runs down the axis.
magnetic field B

Write Ampere’s law for an amperian loop transverse to the coil and
containing it as shown in Fig. 13.7. Based on our previous discussion, the
field vanishes outside the coil. Ampere’s law then reads
I
~ · d~l = 0 + 0 + 0 + Bz l = µ0 N li
B
B z = µ0 N i (13.18)

Note that this result is again independent of z, so the field is constant across
 Ampere’s Law 117

B
y

Fig. 13.7 Amperian loop transverse to coil and containing it.

the coil.5 Hence

~ = µ0 N i ŷ
B ; inside solonoid
=0 ; outside solonoid (13.19)

The infinite solonoid thus provides a nice contained, constant, magnetic

field whose strength is controlled by N i.

13.3 Lorentz Force (continued)

The Lorentz force on a particle of electric charge q moving with velocity ~v

~ was given in Eq. (12.27)
in a magnetic field B

F~ = q(~v × B
~) ; Lorentz force (13.20)

Newton’s second law then gives

d~v ~)
m = q(~v × B ; Newton’s law (13.21)
dt
5 A similar calculation outside the coil verifies the consistency of our assumption that

the field vanishes there, since there is no current running through the loop. What actually
happens is that the solonoid is long, but of finite length, and since magnetic field lines
do not end, they exit the solonoid and return to enter it again with vanishingly small
return flux everywhere outside of the coil (compare Fig. 12.10). See Probs. 13.1–13.2
118 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

13.3.1 Uniform Circular Motion

~ there will be a constant, inward radial force
For ~v perpendicular to B,
producing uniform circular motion in the transverse plane (Fig. 13.8)
F~ = qvB(−r̂) ; radial, inward (13.22)
This constant inward force provides the centripetal acceleration
mv 2
 
d~v
m = (−r̂) ; circular motion (13.23)
dt J R

v
B
F
(m,q)
r

2R
Fig. 13.8 Circular motion in the plane for a particle of mass and charge (m, q), moving
~ coming out of page. Here q > 0.
with velocity ~v in a magnetic field B

It follows that
mv 2
= qvB (13.24)
R
The magnitude of the momentum of the particle is thus given by the radius
of the circle
mv = p = (qB)R ; particle momentum (13.25)

For circular motion, the velocity is related to the angular frequency by

v = Rω. Hence
2π qB
ω≡ = ; cyclotron frequency (13.26)
τ m
This is the cyclotron frequency, and it is independent of the radius R.
 Ampere’s Law 119

13.3.2 Electric and Magnetic Fields

~ and a magnetic field B
If both an electric field E ~ are present, the full
Lorentz force is given by
 
F~ = q E~ + ~v × B
~ ; full Lorentz force (13.27)

Newton’s second law then gives

d~v 
~ + ~v × B
~

m =q E ; Newton’s law (13.28)
dt

13.3.3 Velocity Selector

~ and B
Suppose one has crossed E ~ fields with E
~ perpendicular to B
~ as
shown in Fig. 13.9.

B
E

q v

Fig. 13.9 ~ and B

Crossed E ~ fields with ~ ~ = −E
v×B ~ serving as a velocity selector.

~ ×B
Now insert a particle with velocity ~v moving in the E ~ direction, as indi-
~ ~
cated. The magnetic force proportional to ~v × B lies in the −E-direction.
Suppose the magnitude of ~v is such that the magnetic force just cancels the
electric force

~ = −E
~v × B ~ (13.29)

The Lorentz force on this particle then vanishes and the particle moves
through in an undeviated manner. If it is moving faster or slower than
this, it is deflected out of the beam. This device thus serves as a velocity
selector, selecting velocities of magnitude

~|
|E
|~v | = ; velocity selector (13.30)
~|
|B
120 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

13.3.4 Mass Spectrometer

Consider a device where particles are accelerated through a potential drop
~ and are then detected after executing a
∆V , enter a magnetic field B,
semi-circle of diameter 2R. This device serves as a mass spectrometer
(Fig. 13.10).

V B
(m,q)

2R

Fig. 13.10 Mass spectrometer. Here q > 0.

It follows from the conservation of energy that from the drop in poten-
tial, the particle enters the magnetic field with a kinetic energy
1
q∆V = mv 2 ; initial energy (13.31)
2
From Eq. (13.25), the radius of curvature in the magnetic field is
mv
R= ; selected radius (13.32)
qB
A combination of these relations gives
q  q 2
v 2 = 2(∆V ) = R2 B 2 (13.33)
m m
Hence
q 2(∆V )
= 2 2 (13.34)
m R B
For a given (∆V, B), a measurement of the radius of curvature R determines
the ratio of charge to mass of the particle q/m, or equivalently, it measures
the particle’s mass m for a given (quantized) q.
 Ampere’s Law 121

13.4 Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

Consider the one-dimensional motion of the current in Fig. 13.11.

charge density

A v

dl = v dt

Fig. 13.11 One-dimensional current as charge density ρ moving with velocity v.

Let ρ be the density of the moving charge, which moves with velocity
v. The amount of charge crossing the area A in the time dt is

dq = idt = ρ(A dl) = ρ(Av dt) (13.35)

The current is then expressed as

i = ρ(Av) (13.36)

The line element of the current is then

idl = ρ(A dl)v = dq v (13.37)

If directions are restored, one has

id~l = dq ~v (13.38)
~ the Lorentz force on the
If this charge moves in the magnetic field B,
moving charge element is

dF~ = dq ~v × B
~ (13.39)

It follows that the Lorentz force on the current element id~l moving in a
magnetic field B~ is (Fig. 13.12)

dF~ = id~l × B
~ ; force on current element (13.40)

If the magnetic field comes from a second infinite current-carrying wire,

then the two wires attract each other (Fig. 13.13).
122 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

dF

i dl

Fig. 13.12 ~ on current element id~l in a magnetic field B.

Force dF ~

Two parallel current-carrying wires attract each other.

B i dl
dF

Fig. 13.13 Force dF ~ on element id~l of second wire due to magnetic field B
~ arising from
first infinite current-carrying wire (see Prob. 13.3).

Let us use Eq. (13.39) and work backward from the Biot-Savart law in
Eq. (12.8). The element of magnetic field produced by the moving charge
dq ~v is

~ =µ0 id~l × r̂ µ0 dq ~v × ~r
dB = (13.41)
4π r2 4π r3
This is true for a Rcontinuous charge distribution. Suppose one has a single
charge with q ≡ dq. Then the magnetic field produced by the moving
charge is 6

~ = µ0 q ~v × ~r
B ; moving charge (13.42)
4π r3

6 Remember, we are doing magnetostatics, where v/c ≪ 1 with c the velocity of light,
~ is that produced essentially instantaneously.
and the field B
 Chapter 14

Electromagnetic Induction

Suppose we turn the situation around and drive the wire with a velocity ~v
~ (Fig. 14.1).
through a uniform field B

B
wire
i
i

l
v

i i

B ind

~ together with com-

Fig. 14.1 Wire driven with velocity ~v through the uniform field B,
pleted circuit.

• There is then a Lorentz force on the mobile charges in the wire

(Fig. 14.2);
~ ind along the wire.
• This force is equivalent to an induced electric field E
~ ind ≡ q(~v × B
qE ~) ; induced electric field (14.1)

• The induced electric field gives rise to a potential difference, or induced

electromotive force (EMF )ind
~ ind |l = lvB ≡ (EMF )ind
∆V = |E (14.2)

123
124 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

q
v

F E ind

Fig. 14.2 Lorentz force on mobile charge in wire when driven through magnetic field.
~ = q(~
Equivalent to an induced electric field F ~ ) ≡ qE
v×B ~ ind .

• This causes a current to flow when the circuit is completed, as indicated

in Fig. 14.1.

Let us write these results another way. Define the magnetic flux through
the circuit

Z
Φm ≡ ~ · dS
B ~ ; magnetic flux (14.3)
S

The change in magnetic flux as the wire is driven through the field is then
(Fig. 14.3)

dΦm = B(lv dt) (14.4)

B i

v dt
l

S i

Fig. 14.3 ~ comes out of the page.

Time-dependent magnetic flux. The magnetic field B

Hence
dΦm
= Blv = (EMF )ind (14.5)
dt
 Electromagnetic Induction 125

This result is generalized into Faraday’s law of induction.

14.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction

Faraday’s law states that

The time rate of change of the magnetic flux through a circuit yields
the induced EMF around the circuit.

The appropriate sign is determined by Lenz’s law, which states that

The induced EMF is in such a direction as to oppose the change

that produced it.

In Fig. 14.1, for example, the field B ~ ind is such as to oppose B~ in the
increasing magnetic flux. If Φm increases, as it does in this example, then
~ ind acts to decrease Φm .
the induced field B
In mathematical terms, Faraday’s law of induction states (see Fig. 14.4)

d
I Z
~ ~
E · dl = − ~ · dS
B ~ ; Faraday’s law (14.6)
C dt S

B
dS
S

dl
C
E
Fig. 14.4 Closed curve C, enclosed ~ ~
R surface S, elements of curve dl and
H surface dS, time-
dependent magnetic flux Φm = S B ~ · dS,
~ and induced (EMF )ind = ~ · d~l. Basis for
E
C
Faraday’s law.

• The l.h.s. in Eq. (14.6) is the induced EMF around the circuit C;
• The r.h.s. is the negative time rate of change of the magnetic flux
through the enclosed surface S;
126 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

~ to the curve C in Fig. 14.4 corresponds to the right-

• The relation of B
hand rule, and this determines the sign in Eq. (14.6).1

It is important to note that we have now started to discuss time-dependent

phenomena.
We proceed to some applications of Faraday’s law.

14.1.1 AC Generator
Consider a coil of area A with N turns driven with angular velocity ω in a
uniform magnetic field B~ (Fig. 14.5). The angle between the field and the
normal to the loop is given by

φ = ωt (14.7)

B
n

brushes

V A

N turns

Fig. 14.5 AC generator. Coil of area A with N turns rotating with angular velocity ω in
a uniform magnetic field B.~ Brushes pick up the alternating signal from the co-rotating
collars, which is read on the voltmeter. Here φ = ωt

The magnetic flux through the coil is calculated to be

Z
Φm = ~ · dS
B ~ = N (BA)n̂ · B̂ = N AB cos φ

= N AB cos ωt (14.8)
1 Notice that in Fig. 14.1, the curve C runs around the circuit in the opposite direction,

which changes the sign of the integral.

 Electromagnetic Induction 127

Faraday’s law then gives

dΦm
− = ωN AB sin ωt = (EMF )ind (14.9)
dt
Brushes pick up the alternating signal from the co-rotating collars, which
is read on the voltmeter (Fig. 14.6).

MF ind

NAB

t
2

Fig. 14.6 Voltmeter reads off signal (EMF )ind from pick-up brushes on co-rotating
collars in AC generator.

14.1.2 DC Generator
The AC generator can be converted to a DC generator by changing the way
the signal is read out. Instead of using brushes attached to two fixed co-
rotating collars as in Fig. 14.5, use brushes attached to a co-rotating split-
ring commutator as in Fig. 14.7. Now every time the (EMF )ind changes
sign in Fig. 14.7, the brushes switch the end of the circuit to which they are
attached, and hence the output has the DC character shown in Fig. 14.8.

Fig. 14.7 Split-ring commutator for read-out to convert AC generator to DC generator.

128 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

MF ind

NAB

t
2

Fig. 14.8 Voltmeter reads off signal (EMF )ind from pick-up brushes on split-ring com-
mutator in DC generator.

14.1.3 DC Motor
Let us first calculate the torque on a current loop placed in a magnetic
field, where the forces are as indicated in Fig. 14.9.

B
n
dF

i
dF i i dF l

dF

Fig. 14.9 ~
Forces on a square loop of side l carrying a current i in a magnetic field B.

The torque comes from the forces at the top and bottom of the loop,
~ ) -direction. The configuration in the (n̂, B
and lies in the (n̂ × B ~ ) -plane is
shown in Fig. 14.10. The magnitude of the torque about a transverse axis
through the origin is given by

 
l
|~τ | = 2(ilB) sin φ = il2 B sin φ (14.10)
2
 Electromagnetic Induction 129

B
n

F = ilB
l/2 sin l/2

Fig. 14.10 Configuration in the (n̂, B ~ )-plane for the calculation of the torque on the
~ )-direction.
current loop in Fig. 14.9 in the (n̂ × B

In vector form, the torque is

~
~τ = ~µ × B ; torque on current loop
2
~µ ≡ il n̂ = i(A) n̂ (14.11)

where A = l2 is the area of the loop. This is the same result we obtained
before in Eqs. (12.25)–(12.26)!
We are now in a position to design a DC motor. A voltage source,
say a battery, drives a current i through a current loop in a magnetic
field (Fig. 14.11).2 The loop feels a torque, which turns it. If a split-ring
commutator is used to reverse the input leads just as n̂ × B~ changes sign,
then the torque on the loop will always be in the same direction and the
device will indeed act as a motor which rotates about its axis.

B
n

i
battery
N turns
Fig. 14.11 DC motor. The torque is ~ ~ where µ
µ × B, ~ = i(N A) n̂.
2 There will be some resistance in the circuit.
130 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

We leave the corresponding design of an AC motor as an exercise for

the dedicated reader (see Prob. 14.3).

14.2 Inductance

Consider the interaction of two coils (1, 2). Let B~ 12 be the magnetic field in
the second coil due to the current i1 in the first (Fig. 14.12). The magnetic
flux at 2 due to 1 is
Z
Φ12 = B ~ 12 · dS
~2 (14.12)

This is again proportional to i1 , and we write

Φ12 ≡ L12 i1 ; inductance (14.13)

i1

B12
1 2
Fig. 14.12 Magnetic field B~ 12 with flux Φ12 at coil 2 due to coil 1, which carries current
i1 . There is a mutual inductance L12 where Φ12 = L12 i1 .

• L12 is the inductance;

• It depends on the geometry;
• The inductance is the analog for magnetism of capacity for electricity;
• With two devices, it is the mutual inductance;
• With a single device, it is the self-inductance;
• The unit of inductance is the henry
1 Tm2
1 henry ≡ 1 H ≡ (14.14)
1A
We give two examples.

14.2.1 Two Solonoids

Consider two solonoids with a common axis (Fig. 14.13).
 Electromagnetic Induction 131

n2

r
1 B12
n1i1 l1
l2

Fig. 14.13 The mutual inductance of two solonoids. Here (n1 , n2 ) are the number of
turns per unit length.

The field from the first was calculated in Eq. (13.19) to be

~ 12 = µ0 n1 i1 ŷ
B (14.15)

The magnetic flux through solonoid 2 due to solonoid 1 is then

Z
Φ12 = B ~ 12 · dS
~2

= (µ0 n1 i1 )(πr12 )(n2 l2 ) (14.16)

The first factor is the strength of the field, the second the area illuminated
by the field, and the third is the number of loops in the second coil. The
inductance is then identified through

Φ12 ≡ L12 i1 (14.17)

The mutual inductance per unit length of the second coil follows as
1
L12 = µ0 n1 n2 (πr12 ) ; two solonoids (14.18)
l2

14.2.2 One Solonoid

The self-inductance of a single solonoid follows from the previous section.
It is the same calculation! Thus
1
L = µ0 n2 (πr2 ) ; single solonoid (14.19)
l
An important property of inductance is obtained upon differentiation of
its definition
dΦ12 di1
− = E2 = −L12 ; induced EMF (14.20)
dt dt
132 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

This is the EMF induced in device 2 due to a changing current in device 1.

14.3 Energy in Solonoid

Suppose a solonoid is in a circuit driven by an external EMF (Fig. 14.14).

There will be a back EMF induced by a change in the current in the
solonoid3
di
Eind = −L (14.21)
dt
Kirchoff’s second rule for the circuit then gives
di
E + Eind = E − L =0 (14.22)
dt

i B

external EMF

Fig. 14.14 Solonoid in circuit driven by an external EMF (battery, for example).

The power delivered to the inductor,4 by the external EMF, is from

Eq. (9.11)
dW di
P = = Ei = Li (14.23)
dt dt
Hence

dW = Li di ; by external EMF (14.24)

Integrate this relation from 0 to i to obtain the total work done on the
inductor
1
W = Li2 (14.25)
2
3 Remember Lenz’s law!
4 The device is called an inductor.
 Electromagnetic Induction 133

We define this to be the energy stored in the inductor

1 2
U ≡
Li ; energy in inductor (14.26)
2
A combination of the above results gives for the single solonoid
1 1 ~ 2
U = µ0 n2 i2 (πr2 )l = |B | v (14.27)
2 2µ0
where v = (πr2 )l is the volume of the solonoid.
Just as in Eq. (6.22), we can interpret this as the energy density stored
in the magnetic field
1 1 ~ 2
U = |B | ; energy density (14.28)
v 2µ0
Work has to be done against the induced EMF to build up the current
in the coil, and the new feature present when the current flows in the coil
is the magnetic field inside of it. Equation (14.28) provides the general
expression for the energy density in a magnetic field, but, again, we are not
yet in a position to show this.5

5 This is eventually established through Prob. 20.1.

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 Chapter 15

Magnetic Materials

15.1 Atomic Magnetism

15.1.1 Angular Momentum

Atoms form little current loops. They are little magnetic dipoles. For a
circular orbit with v = rω (Fig. 15.1)

~ = m~r × ~v = mrv ẑ
L ; angular momentum
2
= mr ω ẑ (15.1)

z L

v
ep r
e

Fig. 15.1 Circular orbit and atomic magnetism. Here v = rω .

Recall that the current is the charge passing a given point per unit time.
If e is the charge on the electron here, and τ = 2π/ω is the period of the
motion, then the current satisfies

dq = iτ = e ; τ = 2π/ω is period (15.2)

135
136 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

It follows that
e eω
i= =
τ 2π
~|
e |L
= (15.3)
2π mr2
The magnetic moment of the current loop is then given by Eq. (12.25)
e ~
~µ = iπr2 ẑ = L ; magnetic moment (15.4)
2m
This is a general result for the magnetic moment of an electron in orbit.
With the proper sign of the electron charge, this reads (Fig. 15.1)

e ~ |e| ~
~µ = L=− L (15.5)
2m 2m

15.1.2 Spin
Electrons also have an internal angular momentum called spin (Fig. 15.2).

Fig. 15.2 Electrons have spin.

If we imagine the electron as an extended charge, then a spinning charge

also has a magnetic moment. Hence the general expression for the magnetic
moment of an electron is
|e| ~ ~)
~µ = − (L + g S ; g = 2 for electron (15.6)
2me

15.1.3 Quantum Mechanics

~ and S
It is a feature of quantum mechanics that L ~ are frozen in for an
atom. They are each of order ~ = h/2π, where h is Planck’s constant.1
1 See appendix B.
 Magnetic Materials 137

Thus atoms behave as permanent magnetic dipoles, where the basic unit is
the Bohr magneton 2

|e|~
µB ≡ = 9.27 × 10−24 Am2 ; Bohr magneton (15.7)
2me

15.2 Paramagnetism

~ app to a sample containing randomly oriented

Let us apply a magnetic field B
permanent atomic magnetic dipoles. As with the compass, the applied field
will orient these magnetic dipoles (Fig. 15.3).

B app

i surface

Fig. 15.3 Randomly oriented permanent magnetic dipoles in a sample are aligned with
an applied magnetic field. As far as the production of the additional magnetic field
is concerned, this configuration is equivalent to a surface current flowing around the
sample.

The oriented dipoles will produce an additional magnetic field in the

~ app . This phenomena is known as paramagnetism. As far as
direction of B
~ is concerned, the
the production of the additional magnetic field yielding B
configuration of oriented dipoles is equivalent to a surface current flowing
around the sample. Suppose we look at a transverse section of the sample
(Fig. 15.4). The net result of the many tiny current loops is, indeed, a
surface current flowing around the sample.
Now put an infinite sample inside a solonoid, and work out the field
from Ampere’s law. Take the solonoid to be a sheet of current, and assume
the material fills the solonoid.
2 For µ |, see Table 33.1 in [Ohanian (1985)] .
some atomic values of |~
138 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

i surface

Fig. 15.4 Transverse section of sample with surface current.

Use3

current/length = ifree /L ≡ ηfree ; solonoid

current/length = isurface /L ≡ ηsurface ; surface (15.8)

Now draw the amperian loop C, which is transverse to the current flow
and contains both of them (Fig. 15.5).

B n

i free

l C i surface

Fig. 15.5 Sample with surface current isurface placed inside a sheet solonoid with free
current ifree , together with an amperian loop C which is transverse to the current flow and
contains both of them. The currents per unit length are ηfree and ηsurface , respectively.
It is assumed that the material fills the solonoid.
3 Here L is the actual length of the solonoid, which is assumed to be very long. It is

the ratios (ηfree , ηsurface ) that are well-defined as L → ∞.

 Magnetic Materials 139

Ampere’s law applied to the curve C gives

I
B~ · d~l = Bl + 0 + 0 + 0 = µ0 (ηfree + ηsurface ) l (15.9)
C

Hence, the magnetic field down the axis is

~ = µ0 (ηfree + ηsurface ) n̂
B (15.10)

Define the permeability κm by

B ~ app ≡ κm (µ0 ηfree n̂)

~ ≡ κm B ; permeability (15.11)

Then

ηfree + ηsurface = κm ηfree

ηsurface = (κm − 1) ηfree (15.12)

Paramagnetic materials have κm > 1. Readers are referred back to our

discussion of σfree and σbound in dielectrics in section 7.4. In dielectrics,
the induced field is reduced from the applied field, while in paramagnetic
materials, it is enhanced.4 Equation (15.11) implies that the magnetic flux
also satisfies

Φm = κm (Φm )app (15.13)

Hence the self-inductance with the inserted paramagnetic material is simi-

larly enhanced

L = κm L 0 (15.14)

15.3 Ampere’s Law with Magnetic Materials

As in section 7.5, we give the applied magnetic field a new name, and define
~ 5
it as H

~ ≡B
H ~ app = µ0 ηfree n̂ ~
; defines H (15.15)
4 For a table of values of κ , see p. 743 in [Ohanian (1985)]. Note that an oriented
m
magnetic dipole current loop has an additional field at the center pointing in the direction
of the applied field (Fig. 12.10); whereas, with an electric dipole formed from separated
charges, the opposite is true (Fig. 7.5).
5 See Prob. 15.5.
140 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Ampere’s law in the material is

I
H~ · d~l = µ0 (ifree ) ; Ampere’s law (15.16)
through enclosed surface
C

The actual field in the material is then obtained from

B ~
~ = κm H (15.17)

~ that determines the force on a moving test charge.

Remember that it is B

15.4 Ferromagnetism

There are permanent ferromagnets with κm ≫ 1. In this case the surface

current ηsurface , representing the aligned moments, is sufficiently strong
that it persists even when ηfree → 0. The metals Fe, Ni, Co all exhibit this
phenomena.
If we recall some basic chemistry, the electron configuration of 56 28 Fe
2 2 6 2 6 2 8
is (1s) (2s) (2p) (3s) (3p) (4s) (3d) . The aligned moments, and mag-
netism, come from the spins of the d-shell electrons in the material.6 To
get some feel for the magnitude of the quantities involved here, suppose one
could align all the d-shell spin moments in 1 mole of Fe (Fig. 15.6).

9 cm

1 cm
i

Fig. 15.6 One mole of magnetized iron with spin moments of the d-shell electrons all
aligned, and the equivalent current loop.

The volume of the indicated sample is v = 7.07 cm3 , and the mass
6 The (3d)-shell can hold 10 electrons.
 Magnetic Materials 141

density of Fe is ρFe = 7.87 gm/cm3, hence its mass is

Msample = 7.07 cm3 × 7.87gm/cm3 = 55.6 gm (15.18)

which is approximately the atomic weight of Fe. Hence the sample contains
1 mole of Fe. If all the spin moments of the d-shell electrons are aligned, with
1 Bohr magneton per electron,7 the magnitude of the magnetic moment of
the sample is

|~µ | = 8µB NA
= (8 el/atom)(9.27 × 10−24 Am2 /el)(6.02 × 1023 atoms/mole)
= 44.6 Am2 (15.19)

Let us calculate the current required in the equivalent loop in Fig. 15.6 that
would give us the same magnetic moment [see Eq. (12.25)]

44.6 Am2 = iπ(0.5 × 10−2 m)2 (15.20)

The answer is

i = 0.57 × 106 A (15.21)

which is a huge number! 8

Ferromagnetism disappears at temperatures higher than the Curie tem-
perature T > TCurie , where the thermal disorder overcomes the ferromag-
netic order.

15.5 Diamagnetism

As one builds up the applied field B~ app , the flux through the current loop
changes. This induces an EMF, and by Lenz’s law, the current flows to
oppose the change (Fig. 15.7). In this case, the electron speeds up with the
cyclotron (“Larmor”) frequency in Eq. (13.26)
|e|B
∆ω = ; Larmor frequency (15.22)
me
The induced surface current in Fig. 15.3 is now in a direction so as to
~
decrease B.
7 The spin of the electron is ~/2, and its g-factor is 2.
8 Note that a scaling down to only a pair of spin-aligned, d-shell electrons leaves this
conclusion unaltered.
142 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Bapp
z L

v
ep r
e

B ind

Fig. 15.7 Induced field acts to oppose the applied field by Lenz’s law.

All materials exhibit this diamagnetism with κm < 1. It is a small

effect, but it is the entire effect for materials such as 2 He, 10 Ne, etc. Para-
magnetism dominates when it is present; however, one needs the (L, ~ ~ ) of
S
the atom for paramagnetism.

15.6 Superconductivity

Many materials such as Pb, Nb, Zn, Sn become superconductors, where the
resistivity vanishes, below a few o K. It is an experimental fact that there
is no magnetic field inside the basic superconductor (“Meissner effect”).9
Thus superconductors behave as perfect diamagnets (Fig. 15.8).

i surface

Fig. 15.8 Superconductors completely expel the magnetic field.

9 There are type-II superconductors, where magnetic flux tubes penetrate the material.
 Magnetic Materials 143

Ampere’s law inside the superconductor states that

I
~ · d~l = µ0 (i) through enclosed surface S = 0
B (15.23)
C

Since this holds for any C, one concludes that

i=0 ; inside superconductor (15.24)

Hence, the current i flows on the surface of the superconductor. The surface
current has to flow in such a way that the field B ~ vanishes inside.
~
The lines of the field B do not end, and thus in a geometry such as that
~ at the surface must be parallel to the surface. Ampere’s law
in Fig. 15.8, B
can then be applied to the amperian loop in Fig. 15.9.

i surface B

Fig. 15.9 Amperian loop at the surface of the superconductor in Fig. 15.8.

Ampere’s law gives

~ = µ0 ηsurface
|B| (15.25)
This allows us to relate B ~ to the surface current, at least in simple geome-
tries where isurface ⊥ B.~
The discussion of magnetic fields and superconductors, where B ~ van-
ishes inside and the current i is on the surface, is very reminiscent of the
discussion of electric fields and conductors, where the field E~ vanishes inside
and the charge Q resides on the surface.
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 Chapter 16

Time-Dependent Circuits

Let us put the circuit elements together and look at time-dependent phe-
nomena. We will just make use of Kirchoff’s second rule in Eq. (10.45),
where at any instant the net EMF in the circuit provides a pump that cre-
ates a voltage drop across a resistor. The voltage drop across the resistor
is then related to the current flowing through it by Ohm’s law.

16.1 RC Circuit

Suppose we have a charged condenser and a resistance in an open circuit

(Fig. 16.1). The charged condenser supplies the EMF, E = q/C.

+q i
-q

switch

Fig. 16.1 RC circuit.

When the switch is closed, a current starts to flow. Kirchoff’s second rule
gives
q
− iR = 0 (16.1)
C
Here the current that flows is the disappearance rate of the charge on the

145
146 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

plates
dq
i=− (16.2)
dt
Hence
dq 1
=− q (16.3)
dt RC
This is a first-order, linear differential equation. If we specify the initial
value q = q(0), the solution is

q(t) = q(0)e−t/RC (16.4)

The initial charge on the plate decays exponentially, with a time-constant

τ = RC (16.5)

16.2 RL Circuit

Suppose one has an inductance and resistance in a circuit that initially has
a current i flowing in it (Fig. 16.2).

Fig. 16.2 RL circuit that initially has a current i flowing in it.

The current will start to decrease, but as it does, a back EMF is established
across the coil (Fig. 16.1) that opposes the change.1 Kirchoff’s second rule
gives
di
Eind − iR = −L − iR = 0 (16.6)
dt
1 If the current i goes into the coil, then the increase in EMF when it emerges is

Eind = −L di/dt.
 Time-Dependent Circuits 147

Thus
di R
=− i (16.7)
dt L
This is again a first-order, linear differential equation. If we specify the
initial current i = i(0), the solution is

i(t) = i(0)e−Rt/L (16.8)

This is again exponential decay, with a time-constant

L
τ = (16.9)
R

16.3 LC Circuit

Suppose one has a capacitor and inductance in a circuit that initially has
a current i flowing in it (Fig. 16.3).

+q i
-q

Fig. 16.3 LC circuit that initially has a current i flowing in it.

From the above, Kirchoff’s second rule gives

q q di
+ Eind = − L = 0 (16.10)
C C dt
Differentiation with respect to time, and the use of Eq. (16.2), gives

d2 i 1
2
=− i (16.11)
dt LC
This is the equation of a simple harmonic oscillator ! The solution is
1
i(t) = i0 cos (ωt + η) ; ω= √ (16.12)
LC
148 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

The corresponding relation for the charge on the plates is, from
Eq. (16.2),

q(t) = q0 sin (ωt + η) ; ωq0 ≡ −i0 (16.13)

The charge oscillates back and forth between the plates of the condenser,
the current oscillates back and forth in the coil, and the fields oscillate back
and forth between the E ~ in the condenser and the B ~ in the coil, all with
√ 2
angular frequency ω = 1/ LC (Fig. 16.4).

Fig. 16.4 ~ and B

Oscillating E ~ fields in the LC circuit.

16.4 External EMF

16.4.1 RC Circuit
Consider an RC circuit with an external EMF, for example, a battery
(Fig. 16.5).

+ i +q

- -q

Fig. 16.5 RC circuit with external EMF E.

2 Problem 16.1 shows that Kirchoff’s rule in Eq. (16.10) is just energy conservation.
 Time-Dependent Circuits 149

Here the current is related to the charge on the plates by

dq
i= (16.14)
dt
Kirchoff’s rule gives3
q
E = + iR (16.15)
C
Hence
dq 1 1
+ q= E (16.16)
dt RC R
The solution to this first-order, linear, inhomogeneous differential equation,
with the initial condition q(0) = 0, is
 
q(t) = CE 1 − e−t/RC (16.17)

This charge on the condenser exhibits exponential growth, until it reaches

its asymptotic value CE.4

16.4.2 RL Circuit
Consider an RL circuit with an external EMF in Fig. 16.6.

+ i

Fig. 16.6 RL circuit with external EMF E.

Kirchoff’s rule gives

di
E −L = iR (16.18)
dt
3 Remember, the quantities are algebraic.
4 Recall the discussion in Sec. 8.5.1.
150 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

which is re-written as
di R 1
+ i= E (16.19)
dt L L
This is again a first-order, linear, inhomogeneous differential equation.
With the initial condition i(0) = 0, the solution is
E  
i(t) = 1 − e−Rt/L (16.20)
R
The current again exhibits exponential growth, until it reaches E/R.

16.4.3 LC Circuit
We√have seen that an LC circuit oscillates at an angular frequency ω =
1/ LC. This property can be used to construct a simple crystal-set radio
(Fig. 16.7).5

antenna
crystal

tuned

Fig. 16.7 A simple crystal-set radio based on a tuned, oscillating LC circuit. The power
is derived from the broadcast signal picked up by the antenna. The crystal serves to
rectify the AC signal into a DC signal, which is fed into the earphones.

The amplitude-modulated (AM) broadcast signal is picked up on an

antenna and fed into the tuned oscillator. The signal from the oscillator is,
in turn, picked up on a set of headphones in a circuit containing the crystal,
which serves to rectify the signal from AC to DC.6
5 Simple crystal-set radio kits are available, and it is fun to build them. One can

certainly still pick up broadcast AM radio signals.

6 There is always some resistance R, and corresponding dissipation, in the oscillator

(see the following discussion). On resonance, one has Eant = iR where i is the instan-
taneous internal current, and the power in the oscillator, Posc = Eant i = (Eant )2 /R,
becomes very large as R → 0. Off resonance, iR → 0 and no current or power are fed
into the oscillator. For a more detailed design of the detector, see Sec. 20.7.
 Time-Dependent Circuits 151

16.5 Alternating Current EMF

Consider driven circuits containing an external alternating current EMF,

whose symbol is shown in Fig. 16.8.

Fig. 16.8 Symbol for an external alternating current EMF.

This puts an additional EMF element into the circuit of the form

E = E0 cos (ωt + φ) ; alternating current EMF (16.21)

We gives some examples.

16.5.1 Capacitance
Consider a circuit with the alternating current EMF and a capacitor
(Fig. 16.9).

i +q

-q

Fig. 16.9 Alternating current EMF with capacitor.

Here the current is related to the charge on the capacitor by i = dq/dt, and

q dq
E = ∆V = ; i= (16.22)
C dt

It follows that the current in the circuit is given by

dE
i=C = −ωCE0 sin (ωt + φ) (16.23)
dt
152 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

16.5.2 Inductance
Consider a circuit with the alternating current EMF and an inductor
(Fig. 16.10). Now Kirchoff’s rule gives
di
E −L =0 (16.24)
dt

Fig. 16.10 Alternating current EMF with inductor.

It follows that the current in this circuit is given by

di E 1
= = E0 cos (ωt + φ)
dt L L
1
i= E0 sin (ωt + φ) (16.25)
ωL

16.5.3 Impedance and Phase Angle

In both of the above cases, we can express the input EMF (voltage) and
current as

E = E0 cos (ωt + φ) ; input EMF

i = i0 cos ωt ; current (16.26)

The impedance and phase angle are then defined by

E0
Z≡ ; impedance
i0
φ ≡ phase angle (16.27)

Observe that

• The impedance is the ratio of maximum voltage to maximum current;7

• The phase angle gives the relative phase of the voltage and current.
7 Both (E0 , i0 ) are taken to be positive.
 Time-Dependent Circuits 153

Use some trigonometry

sin (ωt + φ) = sin ωt cos φ + cos ωt sin φ

cos (ωt + φ) = cos ωt cos φ − sin ωt sin φ (16.28)

We can then read off the impedance and phase angle in the two previous
examples
1
ZC = ; ZL = ωL
ωC
π π
φC = − ; φL = + (16.29)
2 2
• In the case of the capacitor, the current leads the voltage;
• In the case of the inductor, the voltage leads the current.

16.5.4 LCR (Series) Circuit

Consider an LCR circuit with an external alternating current EMF E(t),
where the three LCR devices are connected in series (Fig. 16.11).8

i +q
(t)
i -q

Fig. 16.11 LCR (series) circuit with alternating current EMF.

Kirchoff’s rule gives

di q dq
E −L = + iR ; i= (16.30)
dt C dt
Here i = dq/dt, and E(t) is given in Eq. (16.21). With a time derivative,
the above is re-written as
d2 i R di 1 1 dE
2
+ + i=
dt L dt LC L dt
ω
= − E0 sin (ωt + φ) (16.31)
L
8 The LRC (series) circuit is analyzed in exactly the same manner.
154 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Look for the driven solution to this second-order differential equation of the
form

i = i0 cos ωt (16.32)

Substitute, and equate coefficients of cos ωt and sin ωt,9

 
1 ω
−ω 2 + i0 = − E0 sin φ
LC L
R ω
−ω i0 = − E0 cos φ (16.33)
L L
The ratio of the two relations, and then the sum of their squares, yields
 
1 1
tan φ = ωL −
R ωC
 2 2
E0

2 2 1
= Z = R + ωL − (16.34)
i0 ωC

The circuit is still resonant at an angular frequency that minimizes the

impedance.10

16.6 Transformer

Consider two coils wrapped around an Fe yoke, which is assumed to carry

all the magnetic flux (Fig. 16.12).

i
N1 N2

i2
i1

Fig. 16.12 Transformer with magnetic flux confined to the Fe yoke of uniform transverse
cross-sectional area A.
9 The resulting relation must hold for all t.
10 See Prob. 16.3. The resistance R introduces dissipation into the circuit.
 Time-Dependent Circuits 155

If the yoke has a uniform transverse cross-sectional area A, and the

number of turns in the coils are (N1 , N2 ) respectively, then the magnetic
flux through the two coils is respectively
Φ1 = N1 AB
Φ2 = N2 AB (16.35)
Faraday’s law allows us to calculate the EMF across each coil
dΦ1 dB
E1 = − = −N1 A
dt dt
dΦ2 dB
E2 = − = −N2 A (16.36)
dt dt
It follows that
E1 E2
= ; transformer (16.37)
N1 N2
This provides a straightforward way to change the voltage of an alternating
current EMF.
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 Chapter 17

Review of Magnetism

17.1 Vectors

The scalar and vector product of two vectors satisfy

~a · ~b = |~a ||~b | cos θ ; scalar product

|~a × ~b | = |~a ||~b | sin θ ; vector product (17.1)

The direction of the vector product is given by the right-hand rule

(Fig. 17.1).

a b right-hand rule

Fig. 17.1 Vector cross product and the right-hand rule.

17.2 Magnetic Fields

A compass, or any other magnetic dipole, will align with the magnetic field.
Field lines are tangent to the field at each point in space. The density of
field lines (magnetic flux) is proportional to the strength of the field. The

157
158 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

torque on the compass is a measure of the strength of the field.

17.2.1 Superposition
~
It is an experimental fact that with several sources, the magnetic field B
obeys the principle of superposition

~ =B
B ~1 + B
~2 + · · · + B
~N ; superposition (17.2)

17.2.2 Gauss’ Law

Gauss’ law for the magnetic field states
I
~ · dS
B ~=0 ; Gauss’ law (17.3)
closed surface

• There is no free magnetic charge ;

~;
• There are no isolated sources or sinks of B
~ do not end.
• Field lines of B

17.2.3 Biot-Savart Law

Electrical currents are a source of magnetic field, and the Biot-Savart law
~ to the current (Fig. 17.1).
relates B

~ = µ0 id~l × ~r
dB ; Biot-Savart law (17.4)
4π r3

dB
idl
r

Fig. 17.2 Biot-Savart law.

 Review of Magnetism 159

17.2.4 Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s law relates the integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop
to the current flowing through the enclosed surface
I
~ · d~l = µ0 (i) through enclosed surface S
B
closed curve C
; Ampere’s law (17.5)

We give two examples:

Consider an infinite wire carrying a current i (Fig. 17.3).

r
C B

Fig. 17.3 Magnetic field from an infinite wire carrying a current i.

By symmetry
~ = Br φ̂
B
d~l = r dφ φ̂ (17.6)

Hence
I Z 2π
~ · d~l = Br r
B dφ = 2πrBr = µ0 i (17.7)
0

Thus the magnetic field surrounding a line of current is

~ = µ0 i φ̂
B ; infinite wire (17.8)
2π r
Consider an infinite solonoid carrying a current i with n turns per unit
~ (Fig. 17.4). By symmetry
length, which contains a magnetic field B
~ = Bz ŷ
B
d~l = dy ŷ (17.9)
160 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

z l
C
B
i y
n turns/length

Fig. 17.4 Field inside an infinite solonoid carrying a current i with n turns per unit
length, together with an amperian loop.

Hence, from the indicated amperian loop

I
~ · d~l = Bz l = µ0 nil
B (17.10)

Thus the magnetic field inside the infinite solonoid is

~ = µ0 ni ŷ
B ; infinite solonoid (17.11)

It is independent of z.

17.3 Lorentz Force

~ field, the Lorentz force on a particle with electric charge q

In a pure B
moving with velocity ~v is (Fig. 17.5)

F~mag = q(~v × B
~) (17.12)

B v

q
Fmag
E
~mag = q(~
Fig. 17.5 Magnetic part of Lorentz force F ~ ), where q > 0. The full
v×B
~ = q(E
Lorentz force is F ~ +~
v×B~ ).
 Review of Magnetism 161

If both electric and magnetic fields are present, the full Lorentz force is
 
F~ = q E~ + ~v × B
~ ; Lorentz force (17.13)

~;
• The Lorentz force is actually used to define the magnetic field B
• The SI unit of the magnetic field is the tesla;
1N
1T = ; tesla (17.14)
1 C · 1 m/s
• Newton’s second law in magnetic and electric fields is
d 
~ + ~v × B
~

(m~v ) = q E ; Newton’s law (17.15)
dt
As an example, consider circular motion of a particle with charge and
~ (Fig. 17.6).
mass (q, m) in a uniform transverse magnetic field B

B
F q,m

2r
Fig. 17.6 Particle with charge and mass (q, m) performing circular motion with radius
~ where the Lorentz force is F
r in a uniform transverse magnetic field B, ~ = q(~v×B ~ ).
Here B~ goes into the page, and q > 0.

The equation of motion is

mv 2
qvB =
r
or; p = mv = qrB ; circular motion (17.16)

Since v = rω, the angular (cyclotron) frequency is

qB
ω= ; angular frequency (17.17)
m
162 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

It is independent of the radius r.

In employing the Lorentz force, we will invoke the equivalence of a charge
element dq moving with velocity ~v and current element id~l (Fig. 17.7).1

dq~v ⇐⇒ id~l (17.18)

dq v idl

Fig. 17.7 Equivalence between charge element dq moving with velocity ~v and current
element id~l.

17.3.1 Current-Carrying Wire

We can use the above equivalence to calculate the Lorentz force on a current
element id~l in a magnetic field B
~ (Fig. 17.8)

dF~ = id~l × B
~ ; force on current element (17.19)

dF

id l

Fig. 17.8 Force on a current element id~l in a magnetic field B.

~

We can similarly use the equivalence in the Biot-Savart law to compute

the magnetic field of a (slowly!) moving charge

~ = µ0 q~v × ~r
B ; field of moving charge (17.20)
4π r3
1 As an easy way to remember this relation, write ∆q(∆~
l/∆t) = (∆q/∆t)∆~l, and take
the limit.
 Review of Magnetism 163

17.4 Electromagnetic Induction

17.4.1 Induced EMF

Suppose one has a wire moving with a velocity ~v that completes a circuit
~ (Fig. 17.9).
C in a uniform transverse magnetic field B

B v

S
C i

Fig. 17.9 Wire moving with velocity ~v increasing magnetic flux through surface S sur-
~ comes out of the page, as does dS
rounded by curve C. Here B ~ = n̂dS.

Define the magnetic flux through the surface bounded by C as

Z
Φm ≡ ~ · dS
B ~ ; magnetic flux (17.21)
S

The basic principle of electromagnetic induction is then

dΦm
Eind = − ; induced EMF (17.22)
dt

This is the induced EMF around the loop C. This induced EMF is a direct
consequence of the Lorentz force on the mobile charges in the wire.

17.4.2 Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s law is an extension of the previous argument, but it represents
a new physical principle. It holds even when the ~v of the wire vanishes.
Faraday’s states (Fig. 17.10)

~ · d~l = − d
I Z
E ~ · dS
B ~
closed curve C dt enclosed surface S
; Faraday’s law (17.23)
164 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Equivalently, it states that

d
(Eind )around closed curve C = − (Φm )through enclosed surface S (17.24)
dt

B
dS
S

dl
C
E
Fig. 17.10 Faraday’s law.

• The time-changing magnetic flux through the surface gives rise to an

additional EMF around the loop;
• We are now dealing with time-dependent phenomena. This EMF is not
present if nothing changes with time, in which case

dΦm
I
~ · d~l = 0
E ; if =0 (17.25)
C dt

• This provides an additional source of EMF;

~ through the circular
• As an example, suppose one decreases the field B
current loop C (Fig. 17.11)

z B

A
C E
Fig. 17.11 Induced EMF, with −Φ̇m = constant, through the surface surrounded by
the circular curve C. The surface has area A.
 Review of Magnetism 165

Assume that
~ = B0 (t0 − t)ẑ
B
Φm = B0 A(t0 − t) (17.26)

where A is the area of the loop. Then the rate of decrease of magnetic
flux through the loop is
dΦm
− = B0 A = constant (17.27)
dt
From Faraday’s law, the induced EMF around the loop is

~ · d~l = − dΦm = B0 A
I
Eind = E (17.28)
C dt

17.4.3 Inductance
Suppose we have two co-axial solonoids, with a current i1 flowing in the
first solonoid (Fig. 17.12).

i1 B12

(1) (2)

Fig. 17.12 Magnetic field through solonoid 2 due to current i1 flowing in solonoid 1.

~ 12 be the field through solonoid 2 due to solonoid 1. The corre-

Let B
sponding magnetic flux through solonoid 2 due to solonoid 1 is
Z
~ 12 · dS
B ~2 = (Φm ) (17.29)
12

This quantity is proportional to i1

Φ12 ≡ L12 ii (17.30)

The constant of proportionality L12 is called the inductance, either the

mutual inductance for two distinct coils, or the self-inductance for a single
coil. If this flux changes with time, there will be an induced EMF in coil 2
dΦ12
− = E2 ; induced EMF (17.31)
dt
166 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Hence
di1
E2 = −L12 ; induced EMF (17.32)
dt
As an example, the self-inductance of the single solonoid of radius r in
Fig. 17.4 is obtained from the magnetic flux

Φm = B(πr2 nl) = (µ0 ni)(πr2 nl) (17.33)

as
1
L = µ0 n2 (πr2 ) ; solonoid self-inductance (17.34)
l
If the current i goes into the coil, then the increase in EMF when it
emerges from the coil is
di
Eind = −L ; increase in EMF (17.35)
dt

The energy in the solonoid is stored in the magnetic field

1 2
U = Li
2
1 ~ 2
= |B | × (volume) ; energy in solonoid (17.36)
2µ0

17.5 Magnetic Materials

17.5.1 Atomic Moments

Atoms form tiny magnetic dipoles with the electron angular momentum L ~
~ frozen in (Fig. 17.13). The magnetic moment of the indicated
and spin S

L
S
e-

Fig. 17.13 Atomic moments.

 Review of Magnetism 167

one-electron atom is given by

|e|  ~ ~

~µ = − L + gs S (17.37)
2me

17.5.2 Materials
The tiny atomic magnetic dipoles can be lined up in a material by an applied
~ app . Consider a sample filling a solonoid. The additional magnetic
field B
field arising from the oriented dipoles is equivalent to an additional surface
current running around the sample.

ηsurface + ηfree ≡ κm ηfree (17.38)

where κm is the permeability, and the η’s are surface currents per unit
length (Fig. 17.14).

B n

i free

i surface

Fig. 17.14 Sample with surface current isurface placed inside a sheet solonoid with free
~ = µ0 (ηfree + ηsurface )n̂, with ηfree and ηsurface
current ifree . Here the magnetic field is B
the currents per unit length. It is assumed that the material fills the solonoid.

The actual magnetic field B ~ in the material in the solonoid is related to the
~
applied field Bapp = µ0 ηfree n̂ through the permeability

B ~ app
~ = κm B ; permeability (17.39)

Materials can be characterized by their permeability:

168 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

• Paramagnetic materials have κm > 1;

• Ferromagnetic materials have κm ≫ 1;
• Diamagnetic materials have κm < 1. Here the permanent atomic mag-
nets are absent and the material merely responds with an induced field
obeying Lenz’s law;2
• Superconductors behave as perfect diamagnets, completely expelling
the magnetic field.

17.6 Time-Dependent Circuits

17.6.1 Decaying Currents

Consider the time-dependent circuits containing RC and RL components
(Fig. 17.15). In both cases, the circuits exhibit exponential decay of the
initial current

i ∼ e−t/τ ; τ = RC ; RC circuit
L
; τ= ; RL circuit (17.40)
R

+q i i

-q

(a) RC circuit (b) RL circuit

Fig. 17.15 (a) RC circuit (shown with switch); (b) RL circuit.

17.6.2 Oscillators
In contrast, the LC circuit in Fig. 17.16 is an oscillator, exhibiting an
oscillating current with a resonant angular frequency
1
ω02 = ; oscillator ; LC circuit (17.41)
LC
2 All materials are weakly diamagnetic; however, if present, paramagnetism dominates.
 Review of Magnetism 169

+q i
-q

Fig. 17.16 LC circuit.

~ in the capacitor and a

Here the fields oscillate between an electric field E
magnetic field B~ in the inductor (Fig. 17.17).

Fig. 17.17 ~ and B

Oscillating E ~ fields in the LC circuit.

This oscillation of the fields provides a nice introduction to the topic of

electromagnetism, which constitutes the third part of this volume.
Consider an LCR (series) circuit containing an alternating current EMF
(Fig. 17.18).

i +q
(t)
i -q

Fig. 17.18 LCR (series) circuit with alternating current EMF.

Here the EMF and resulting current can be written as

E = E0 cos (ωt + φ)
i = i0 cos ωt (17.42)
170 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Where the impedance and phase angle are given by

" 2 #1/2
E0

2 1
Z≡ = R + ωL − ; impedance
i0 ωC
 
1 1
tan φ = ωL − ; phase angle (17.43)
R ωC
In general, the voltage and current are out of phase in an LCR (series)
circuit, with non-zero φ and i0 = E0 /Z.3 At resonance, where the angular
frequency is ω 2 = 1/LC, they are in phase, with φ = 0 and i0 = E0 /R.

17.6.3 Transformer
The transformer (Fig. 17.19) provides a convenient means of changing the
voltage of an AC signal. Suppose there is an AC current i1 in the first

i
N1 N2

i2
i1

Fig. 17.19 Transformer with magnetic flux confined to the Fe yoke of uniform transverse
cross-sectional area A. There is an alternating current i1 in the first coil.

coil. If the resulting magnetic flux is confined to the coils, then Faraday’s
law relates the EMF’s across each coil
dΦ1 dB
E1 = − = −N1 A
dt dt
dΦ2 dB
E2 = − = −N2 A (17.44)
dt dt
Hence
E1 E2
= ; transformer (17.45)
N1 N2

3 The appropriate limits of Eq. (17.43) are pure capacitance, from L → 0, and pure

inductance, from C → ∞ (in this case, there is no voltage drop across the capacitor).
 PART 3

Electromagnetism
b2530   International Strategic Relations and China’s National Security: World at the Crossroads

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 Chapter 18

Maxwell’s Equations

18.1 The Displacement Current

Maxwell argued that Ampere’s law must be incomplete. Imagine that there
is a capacitor in the circuit, with a current i (Fig. 18.1).

B B B
++++++++++++

------------

i i
D x

Q S -Q

C
~ The
Fig. 18.1 Capacitor in circuit with current i surrounded by the magnetic field B.
~ in the capacitor
curve C encloses the surface S, through which the displacement field D
passes. Basis for the displacement current and Maxwell’s equation.

From the Biot-Savart law, we get a magnetic field B~ around the wire. But,
there is no current flowing though the surface S in the capacitor! How can
we fix up Ampere’s law?
Consider the following:

173
174 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

• In the capacitor, from before, there is an electric field

~ app = σ x̂ = Q x̂ ≡ D
E ~ ; displacement field (18.1)
ε0 Aε0
where D~ is the displacement field;
~ = D/κ,
• With material in the condenser, one has E ~ but the above still
holds;
• Make use of
dQ
=i (18.2)
dt
~ through the surface S
• Now calculate the flux of D
Z
ΦD ≡ ~ · dS
D ~ ~
; flux of D (18.3)
enclosed surface S

It follows that
~ |A = Q
Φ D = |D
ε0
dΦD dQ
ε0 = =i (18.4)
dt dt
This is exactly the same as the current !
We use these arguments to motivate Maxwell’s extension of Ampere’s
law
I
~ · d~l = µ0 (i + idispl )
B ; Maxwell’s extension
closed curve C
d
Z
idispl ≡ ε0 ~ · dS
D ~ (18.5)
dt enclosed surface S

Now the calculated B ~ is the same whether the condenser is present or not!
We now have a nice parallel between Maxwell’s extension and Faraday’s
law, as illustrated in Fig. (18.2),

~ · d~l = − d Φm = − d
I Z
E ~ · dS
B ~ ; Faraday
C dt dt S
1 ~ · d~l = d ΦD = d
I Z
B ~ · dS
D ~ ; Maxwell (18.6)
(µ0 ε0 ) C dt dt S
Since we employed it so successfully there, we must show that Maxwell’s
extension reduces to Ampere’s law in the study of magnetostatics, which
we will subsequently demonstrate.
 Maxwell’s Equations 175

B D

E B
S S
(a) Faraday (b) Maxwell

Fig. 18.2 Parallel between: (a) Faraday’s law with −Φ̇m = constant; (b) Maxwell’s
equation with Φ̇D = constant.

18.2 Integral Form of Maxwell’s Equations

We first write Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetism in integral form.

We work with charges and currents in vacuum. If there were dielectrics
and magnetic materials present, then in those materials

~ = κE
D ~ ; in dielectric
~ = κm H
B ~ ; in magnetic material (18.7)

With charges and currents in vacuum, one has everywhere

κ = κm = 1 ; charges and currents in vacuum (18.8)

18.2.1 Gauss’ Law for Electric Field

Gauss’ law for the electric field states that at any instant (see Fig. 18.3)

~ = 1 (q)enclosed
Z
~ · dS
E ~
; Gauss’ law for E
closed surface S ε0
1
Z
≡ ρ(~x, t)dv (18.9)
ε0 enclosed V

In the second line, we have introduced the charge density ρ(~x, t), and the
integral goes over the enclosed volume.
176 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

dS
V

Fig. 18.3 Gauss’ law.

18.2.2 Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Field

Since there is no free magnetic charge,1 Gauss’ law for the magnetic field
states that
Z
B~ · dS
~=0 ~ (18.10)
; Gauss’ law for B
closed surface S

18.2.3 Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s law says (Fig. 18.4)

~ · d~l = − d
I Z
E ~ · dS
B ~
closed curve C dt enclosed surface S
; Faraday’s law (18.11)

B
dS
S

dl
C
E
Fig. 18.4 Faraday’s law.

1 At least none has ever been found!

 Maxwell’s Equations 177

18.2.4 Ampere’s Law with Displacement Current

Maxwell’s extension of Ampere’s law to include the displacement current
now reads
I Z
~ · d~l = µ0
B ~
~j · dS
closed curve C enclosed surface S

d
Z
+ ε0 ~ · dS
E ~
dt enclosed surface S
; Ampere’s law with displacement current (18.12)

18.3 Time Derivatives

The time derivatives can now be taken inside the integrals, for example

d
Z Z ~
∂ B(x, y, z, t) ~
− ~
B(x, ~=−
y, z, t) · dS · dS (18.13)
dt S S ∂t
This holds since (x, y, z) are simply dummy integration variables that run
over a fixed surface S.

18.4 Gauss’ Theorem

Now use Gauss’ theorem on the first two of Maxwell’s equations in

integral form. From the first
Z Z
~ ~
E · dS = ~ ·E
(∇ ~ )dv
closed surface S enclosed V
1
Z
= ρ(~x, t)dv (18.14)
ε0 enclosed V
and from the second
Z Z
~ · dS
B ~= ~ ·B
(∇ ~ )dv = 0 (18.15)
closed surface S enclosed V

Since these relations hold for an arbitrary volume V , one can equate the
integrands. Therefore

∇ ~ x, t) = 1 ρ(~x, t)
~ · E(~ ; Maxwell’s equations
ε0
~ ~
∇ · B(~x, t) = 0 (18.16)
178 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Here ρ(~x, t) is the charge density. This is the first pair of Maxwell’s equa-
tions in differential form. Both are statements of Gauss’ law. Recall that
the divergence is given by

∇ ~ = ∂Ex + ∂Ey + ∂Ez

~ ·E (18.17)
∂x ∂y ∂z

18.5 Stokes’ Theorem

Now use Stokes’ theorem on the second pair of Maxwell’s equations in

integral form. From the first
I Z  
~ · d~l =
E ~ ×E
∇ ~ · dS ~
closed curve C enclosed surface S
!
Z ~
∂B
=− ~
· dS (18.18)
enclosed surface S ∂t

and from the second

I Z  
B~ · d~l = ~ ×B
∇ ~ · dS ~
closed curve C enclosed surface S
" #
Z
∂ ~
E
= µ0 ~j + ε0 ~
· dS (18.19)
enclosed surface S ∂t

Since these relations hold for an arbitrary surface S, one can again equate
the integrands. Therefore

~
∇ ~ x, t) = − ∂ B(~x, t)
~ × E(~ ; Maxwell’s equations
∂t
~
∇ ~ x, t) = µ0 ~j(~x, t) + µ0 ε0 ∂ E(~x, t)
~ × B(~ (18.20)
∂t

Here ~j(~x, t) is the current density. This is the second pair of Maxwell’s
equations in differential form. The first is Faraday’s law, and the second
is Ampere’s law extended to include the displacement current. Recall that
the curl is given by
 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 
~ ×E
~ = det  ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z 

∇   (18.21)
 E Ey Ez 
x
 Maxwell’s Equations 179

18.6 Differential Form of Maxwell’s Equations

In summary, Maxwell’s equations in differential form for the electromag-

netic fields with charges and currents in vacuum read

∇ ~ x, t) = 1 ρ(~x, t)
~ · E(~ ; Maxwell’s equations
ε0
~ ~
∇ · B(~x, t) = 0
~
~ x, t) = − ∂ B(~x, t)
~ × E(~
∇
∂t
~
∇ ~ x, t) = µ0 ~j(~x, t) + µ0 ε0 ∂ E(~x, t)
~ × B(~ (18.22)
∂t
We make several comments:

• These differential equations are fully equivalent to the integral relations

we have used so far;2
• They contain all of electricity and magnetism;
• Once the charge density ρ(~x, t) and current density ~j(~x, t) are specified,
~ x, t) and B(~
the fields E(~ ~ x, t) are then determined;
• There are eight coupled, linear, inhomogeneous, partial differential
equations to solve;
~ B
• Four of these equations involve the fields (E, ~ ) and the sources (~j, ρ),
and four involve only the fields;
• There are six equations of motion involving the time derivatives for
the six components of the fields. The remaining two equations involve
constraints on these components;
• Solution involves imposing a set of boundary conditions;
• The vacuum is characterized by the absence of charge and current den-
sities
~j = ρ = 0 ; vacuum (18.23)

• These equations still have non-trivial solutions in the vacuum! There

are waves propagating with a velocity
1
c= √ ; velocity of light (18.24)
ε 0 µ0

This is the velocity of light ! 3

2 See Prob. 18.1.
3 See the following chapters.
180 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

• We are now in a position to see why the addition of Maxwell’s dis-

placement current does not affect our discussion of magnetostatics and
Ampere’s law. The last term in the fourth equation above is
∂E ~ ~
1 ∂E
µ0 ε 0 = 2 (18.25)
∂t c ∂t
As long as everything is moving with velocities slow relative to the
speed of light [recall Eq. (1.7)], the contributions of this term will be
of order (v/c)2 , and hence negligible.4
• Maxwell’s equations are still to be supplemented with the Lorentz force
equation
 
F~ = q E~ + ~v × B ~ ; Lorentz force (18.26)

4 Note that the two constants on the r.h.s. of the fourth equation above are µ =
0
1.26 × 10−6 Ns2 /C2 and ε0 µ0 = 1.11 × 10−17 s2 /m2 .
 Chapter 19

Waves

There are many examples of waves in the world around us:

• On strings;
• On membranes;
• On water surfaces;
• In air (sound);
• In solids (sound).

19.1 One-Dimensional Wave Equation

Let φ be a disturbance, for example, the displacement of a string, and let

φ = f (x) represent some shape of the disturbance (Fig. 19.1).

f(x) f(x-ct)

ct

Fig. 19.1 Non-dispersive one-dimensional wave.

181
182 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

It follows that

φ = f (x − ct) ; moves to the right with velocity c and same shape

φ = f (x + ct) ; moves to the left with velocity c and same shape
(19.1)
What equation of motion does the wave φ = f (x − ct) satisfy? We can
evaluate1
∂φ ∂φ
= f ′ (x − ct) ; = −cf ′ (x − ct)
∂x ∂t
∂2φ ∂ 2φ
= f ′′ (x − ct) ; = c2 f ′′ (x − ct) (19.2)
∂x2 ∂t2
Hence
∂ 2φ 1 ∂2φ
= ; one-dimensional wave equation
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
; c = velocity of wave (19.3)

This is the one-dimensional wave equation, and c is the velocity of the wave.

19.2 Superposition

If φ1 and φ2 are solution to the wave equation, then so is φ = φ1 + φ2 .

This is the principle of superposition. It follows since the wave equation is
linear. It will always be linear for small-enough disturbances.

19.3 Travelling Waves

Consider a sinusoidal wave, which moves to the right with velocity c

φ = A cos [k(x − ct)] (19.4)

The wavenumber is defined as

2π
k≡ ; k is wavenumber
λ
; λ is wavelength (19.5)
1 Here f ′ (x) = df (x)/dx. Note that

∂2φ ∂2φ
= −cf ′′ (x − ct) =
∂x∂t ∂t∂x
One can always interchange the order of partial derivatives.
 Waves 183

where λ is the wavelength.

19.3.1 Snapshot at Fixed t

The wave under study is
 
2π
φ = A cos (x − ct) (19.6)
λ
Consider a snapshot of this wave at a fixed time t (Fig. 19.2).

/A

x=ct x-ct

Fig. 19.2 Snapshot at a given instant t.

The disturbance repeats itself after one wavelength λ.

19.3.2 Disturbance at a Fixed x

Suppose we look at the disturbance as a function of time at a given point
x (Fig. 19.3). The wave is re-written as2
h  x i
φ = A cos kc t − (19.7)
c

The angular frequency of the wave is given by

kc ≡ ω ; angular frequency (19.8)

This is, in turn related to the frequency and period by

ω ≡ 2πν ; ν is frequency
2π
≡ ; τ is period (19.9)
τ
2 Note cos (−x) = cos x.
184 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

/A

t=x/c t-x/c

Fig. 19.3 Disturbance as a function of time at a fixed point x.

The disturbance repeats itself after the period τ . Note the following relation
between frequency and wavelength for such non-dispersive waves (waves on
a string, for example)3

νλ = c (19.10)

19.4 Standing Waves

Let us look for a separated solution to the one-dimensional wave equation

of the form

φ(x, t) = A sin (kx) cos (ωt) (19.11)

For this to be a solution, k and ω must satisfy the following dispersion

relation

ω2
k2 = ; or, νλ = c (19.12)
c2

To specify the solution, we must now impose boundary conditions. Sup-

pose the disturbance is required to vanish at the boundaries x = (0, l), as
would be appropriate, for example, for a string with fixed endpoints

φ(0, t) = φ(l, t) = 0 ; fixed endpoints (19.13)

3 For our purposes, dispersion here simply refers to change in shape.
 Waves 185

Then (Fig. 19.4)

πn
k= ; n = 1, 2, 3, · · · , ∞
l
πnc
ω= ; normal-mode frequencies (19.14)
l
These are the normal-mode frequencies or eigenfrequencies. They are read-
ily demonstrated on a guitar string.

n=1

x
0 l

n=2

Fig. 19.4 Standing waves with n = (1, 2) on an interval of length l.

The general solution to the one-dimensional wave equation with these

boundary conditions is then obtained by superposing the normal modes,
with arbitrary amplitudes and phases (An , ηn )4
∞  nπx    
X πnct
φ(x, t) = An sin cos + ηn ; general solution
n=1
l l
(19.15)

4 See Prob. 19.1.

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 Chapter 20

Electromagnetic Waves

20.1 Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum

Consider the vacuum, where there is no charge or current density

ρ = ~j = 0 ; vacuum (20.1)

Maxwell’s equations in the vacuum read

~ · E(~
∇ ~ x, t) = 0 ; Maxwell’s equations
~ · B(~
∇ ~ x, t) = 0
~
~ x, t) = − ∂ B(~x, t)
~ × E(~
∇
∂t
~
∇ ~ x, t) = µ0 ε0 ∂ E(~x, t)
~ × B(~ (20.2)
∂t

20.2 Travelling Wave Solution

~ and B
We look for a non-trivial solution with oscillating E ~ fields. As a
guess, we look for a particular disturbance moving in the x-direction. Try
(Fig. 20.1)

~ = Bz (x, t) ẑ
B
~ = Ey (x, t) ŷ
E (20.3)

187
188 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

These are transverse fields that satisfy the first two of Maxwell’s equations

∇ ~ = ∂Ey = 0
~ ·E ; transverse fields
∂y
~ ·B
~ = ∂B z
∇ =0 (20.4)
∂z
~ B
Here the fields (E, ~ ) are both perpendicular to the direction of motion
(and to each other) and have a vanishing divergence.

E (x,t)
y
disturbance

B (x,t)
z
z

Fig. 20.1 Disturbance moving in the x-direction.

Let us compute the curl of these fields1

 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 
~ ×E~ =  ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z  = ∂Ey ẑ

∇ 
 0
 ∂x
Ey (x, t) 0 
 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 
~ ×B~ =  ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z  = − ∂Bz ŷ
 
∇ (20.5)

 0
 ∂x
0 Bz (x, t) 

The last pair of Maxwell’s equations therefore read

~
~ = ∂Ey ẑ = − ∂ B = − ∂Bz ẑ
~ ×E
∇
∂x ∂t ∂t
∂B ∂ ~
E ∂Ey
~ = − z ŷ = µ0 ε0
~ ×B
∇ = µ0 ε 0 ŷ (20.6)
∂x ∂t ∂t
1 We henceforth suppress “det” in front of the determinant.
 Electromagnetic Waves 189

Thus, for a solution,

∂Ey ∂Bz
=−
∂x ∂t
∂Bz ∂Ey
= −µ0 ε0 (20.7)
∂x ∂t
Take ∂/∂x of the first equation, and equate it with −∂/∂t of the second2
1 ∂ 2 Ey ∂ 2 Ey 1
= ; c2 ≡ (20.8)
c2 ∂t2 ∂x2 ε 0 µ0
Similarly, take ∂/∂t of the first equation, and equate it with −(1/µ0 ε0 )∂/∂x
of the second
1 ∂ 2 Bz ∂ 2 Bz
2 2
= (20.9)
c ∂t ∂x2
These are the one-dimensional wave equations for Ey and Bz !
Maxwell’s equations applied to the vacuum, where there are no sources
present, leads to the prediction of a wave consisting of oscillating electric
and magnetic fields that can travel through space without dispersion or
attenuation. This is light ! The velocity of this light wave is c
C2
ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 ; from electrostatics
Nm2
Ns2
µ0 = 1.26 × 10−6 ; from magnetostatics
C2
1 m
=⇒ c= √ = 3.00 × 108 ; speed of light (20.10)
ε 0 µ0 s

The first relation follows from Coulomb’s law and electrostatics.3 The sec-
ond relation follows from the law of Biot-Savart and magnetostatics. And
from these, we derive the velocity of light ! Truly remarkable.
What is the relation between E ~ and B ~ in this wave? Suppose

Ey (x, t) = A cos [k(x − ct)] (20.11)

It then follows from the first of Eqs. (20.7) that

1 1
Bz (x, t) = A cos [k(x − ct)] = Ey (x, t) (20.12)
c c
This travelling wave is sketched in Fig. 20.2.
2 Remember, the order of partial derivatives can always be interchanged.
3 See appendix B; here we round to three significant figures.
190 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

y
E
c

z cB
Fig. 20.2 ~ |/|E
Profile of given light wave moving in the x-direction. Here |B ~ | = 1/c.

We make several comments:

• This is a plane wave, where the fields are everywhere the same in the
(y, z)-plane at a given (x, t);
• Recall the Lorentz force on a particle with electric charge q
 
F~ = q E~ + ~v × B
~ ; Lorentz force (20.13)

~ |/|E
Since with this wave |B ~ | = 1/c, the force is predominantly electric
until |~v |/c ∼ 1

F~ ≈ q E
~ ; non-relativistic motion (20.14)

• With this solution, the electric field (as well as the magnetic field) is
transversely polarized. Here E~ oscillates in the (x, y)-plane. Note that
we could just as well have found a second solution rotated by π/2 about
the x-axis, where E~ oscillates in the (x, z)-plane;
• These waves have the familiar relation between frequency and wave-
length

νλ = c (20.15)

It is important to note that we have found a solution to Maxwell’s

equations describing electromagnetic waves of any λ!
 Electromagnetic Waves 191

• Let us put in some numbers

3 × 108 m/s
λ = 12 cm =⇒ ν = = 2.5 × 109 sec−1 ≡ 2, 500 MHz
0.12 m
λ = 3 cm =⇒ ν = 1010 sec−1 ≡ 10, 000 MHz (20.16)

Here the unit of frequency is the hertz 4

1 hertz ≡ 1 Hz ≡ 1 sec−1 = 10−6 MHz (20.17)

20.3 Energy in Wave

Recall the energy per unit volume in the fields is

ε0 ~ 2 1 ~ 2
U = |E | + |B | ; energy density (20.18)
2 2µ0

Substitute the above solution5

ε ε0  2
0
U = + A cos2 [k(x − ct] (20.19)
2 2
The time-average of the square of the cosine is 1/2
1
cos2 [k(x − ct] = ; time-average (20.20)
2
Hence the time-average energy density in the wave is
ε0 2
U = A ; energy density (20.21)
2
It goes as the square of the amplitude.

20.4 Energy Flux

If S is the amount of energy crossing unit area per unit time, then the
amount of energy crossing area A in the time ∆t is (Fig. 20.3)

energy through A = SA ∆t = (Ac)U ∆t (20.22)

4 Hertz was the first person to provide experimental verification of Maxwell’s predicted

electromagnetic waves.
5 Note that the electric field and magnetic field here make equal contributions to this

energy density.
192 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. 20.3 Energy transport through the area A.

Here (Ac) is the volume per unit time, and U is the energy density. Hence
we can identify the instantaneous energy flux in the above wave as

S = cU = ε0 cA2 cos2 [k(x − ct)] (20.23)

In terms of vectors, the relation that also gives the right direction is

~ = ε 0 c2 E
S ~ = 1E
~ ×B ~ ×B
~ ; energy flux
µ0
; Poynting vector (20.24)
~ is known as the Poynting vector. The energy flowing through the surface
S
~ · dA
element dA per unit time is then S ~ (see Fig. 20.4).6

d
S

Fig. 20.4 ~ ·dA,

Energy flux through the surface element dA is S ~ where S
~ is the Poynting
vector.

20.5 Momentum Flux

20.5.1 Momentum Density

Suppose we use a particle as a detector of the previous electromagnetic
wave. Newton’s second law and the Lorentz force equation give
d~
p 
~ + ~v × B
~

=q E (20.25)
dt
6 See Prob. 20.1.
 Electromagnetic Waves 193

Consider the work done on the particle

dW = F~ · d~x (20.26)

The corresponding power is

dW
P = = F~ · ~v = q E
~ · ~v
dt
= qEy vy (20.27)

Note that the magnetic field does no work.

The change in the x-component of the particle’s momentum is7
 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 
dpx ~ + ~v × B)
~ x = q x̂ ·  vx vy vz 
 
= q(E
dt 
 0 0 Bz 


= qBz vy (20.28)

Therefore
 
dpx Bz dW 1 dW
= = (20.29)
dt Ey dt c dt
Hence

• Whenever a particle absorbs energy from the wave, say in a material,

it also absorbs momentum;
• We can therefore assign both momentum and energy to the electromag-
netic fields in the plane wave, in the ratio
1
dpx = dW (20.30)
c
• It follows for the above wave that
1
Px = U ; momentum density (20.31)
c
where the l.h.s. is the x-component of the momentum density, and the
r.h.s. is the energy density over c.

20.5.2 Radiation Pressure

Consider the previous electromagnetic wave normally incident on a surface
of area A (Fig. 20.5).
7 Recall Fig. 20.2.
194 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Fx

Fig. 20.5 Radiation pressure with normal incidence.

If the radiation is absorbed, the impulse exerted on the surface over the
time ∆t is

Fx ∆t = ∆Px = (Ac)Px ∆t (20.32)

where (Ac)∆t is the radiation volume, and Px is the appropriate momentum

density. The radiation pressure is then given by
Fx 1 ~
Prad ≡ = cPx = U = |S | ; absorption (20.33)
A c

where S~ is the Poynting vector, defined above [see Eqs. (20.23)–(20.24)].

If the wave is reflected, the radiation pressure is twice as large
2 ~
Prad = |S | ; reflection (20.34)
c
As an example, consider a 10 m × 10 m solar-panel absorber in space at
the surface of the earth. The magnitude of time-average solar energy flux
at the earth’s surface is8
W
S̄ = 1.4 × 103 ; solar flux (20.35)
m2
The energy flux into the solar panel is then
W
energy flux = S̄A = 1.4 × 103 × 102 m2
m2
= 1.4 × 105 W (20.36)

which is large. The corresponding force from the radiation pressure is

1 1.4 × 105 W 1
Fx = APrad = S̄A = ≈ × 10−3 N (20.37)
c 3 × 108 m/s 2
8 See [Ohanian (1985)], p. 817.
 Electromagnetic Waves 195

This is
1 1 lb
Fx = × 10−3 N × ≈ 10−4 lb (20.38)
2 4.45 N
which is small, but finite.

20.6 Amplitude Modulation

Consider the electric field in the previous wave

h  x i
Ey = A cos kc t − (20.39)
c
Suppose one has two such waves with slightly different wavenumbers k −∆k
and k + ∆k, where ∆k/k ≪ 1.9 Then, by superposition,
n h  x i h  x io
Ey = A cos (k − ∆k)c t − + cos (k + ∆k)c t − (20.40)
c c
With the aid of a little trigonometry, this is10
n h  x io h  x i
Ey = 2A cos (∆k)c t − cos kc t − (20.41)
c c
The first factor provides a slow amplitude modulation of the carrier wave
(Fig. 20.6).

carrier

t-x/c
t=x/c

amplitude modulation

t-x/c
t=x/c

Fig. 20.6 Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave.

9 Equivalently, the waves have slightly different frequencies.
10 Use cos (a + b) + cos (a − b) = 2 cos a cos b.
196 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

A more complicated superposition will produce a more complicated am-

plitude modulation, all still with a small band width ∆k/k ≪ 1.

20.7 Detection

Consider a detector that will pick up the electromagnetic signal (Fig. 20.7).

antenna
(t)

i
i
rectifier
tuned
i

Fig. 20.7 Resonant detector for amplitude modulated (AM) signal.

• An LCR (series) circuit is resonant at an angular frequency ω 2 = 1/LC,

and can be tuned to resonate at the carrier frequency;11
• The signal will now be amplitude modulated (AM);
• A rectifier can be placed in the detection circuit which only passes
current in one direction, converting an alternating-current (AC) signal
to a direct-current (DC) signal;
• This DC signal can be used, for example, to drive headphones

There are many examples of rectifiers:

(1) With a crystal in a crystal set, the electrons only flow off the tip of the
probe, and not the other way around (Fig. 20.8);
11 There will always be some dissipation in the resonating LC circuit (see Sec. 16.5.4

and Probs. 16.3–16.4). One can think of the coil as adding a resistance to yield the
previously-studied LCR (series) circuit, and it is clearer if the signal is then picked up
across the resistor. The detector in Fig. 20.7 is analyzed in Prob. 16.5.
 Electromagnetic Waves 197

crystal

probe e-

Fig. 20.8 Crystal rectifier. The electrons only flow off the tip of the probe.

(2) With a diode, the electrons only flow off the heated cathode, and not
the other way around (Fig. 20.9);

cathode anode

e-

i
heater

V
Fig. 20.9 Diode rectifier.

(3) Semiconductors are solid-state devices that provide a whole host of

circuit elements.12

12 We leave the topics of semiconductors, transistors, and integrated circuits, which lie

at the heart of our modern technological era, for another course. We do now understand
the basic principles of electricity and magnetism.
b2530   International Strategic Relations and China’s National Security: World at the Crossroads

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 Chapter 21

More Electromagnetic Waves

21.1 Standing Waves

Let us expand our discussion of waves on a string with fixed endpoints.

21.1.1 String with Fixed Endpoints

The strings on a guitar or violin provide common examples of strings with
fixed endpoints (Fig. 21.1).

0 x l

Fig. 21.1 String with fixed endpoints.

The disturbances on a string with constant mass density µ and un-

der constant tension τ , at least for small displacements, obey the one-
dimensional wave equation1

∂2φ 1 ∂2φ τ
2
= 2 2 ; c2 = , wave velocity (21.1)
∂x c ∂t µ
Let us look for a normal-mode solution where everything oscillates with the
1 See Sec. 19.1 and Prob. 21.1.

199
200 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

same frequency 2

φ(x, t) = A sin kx cos ωt ; normal mode (21.2)

Substitution gives
ω2
−k 2 (A sin kx cos ωt) = − (A sin kx cos ωt) (21.3)
c2
Hence, we have a solution provided that the dispersion relation is satisfied

ω = kc ; dispersion relation
or; νλ = c (21.4)

We now must impose the boundary conditions. With fixed endpoints,

the conditions are

φ(0, t) = φ(l, t) = 0 ; fixed endpoints (21.5)

The first relation is satisfied identically by sin kx. The second relation

sin kl = 0 (21.6)

produces a series of eigenvalues 3

nπ
kn = ; n = 1, 2, 3. · · ·
l
nπc
ωn = (21.7)
l
Hence, the normal-mode solutions are
nπx nπct
φn (x, t) = An sin cos ; n = 1, 2, 3. · · · (21.8)
l l
Since k = 2π/λ, the condition kn = nπ/l gives
2π nπ
= (21.9)
λ l
or, upon re-writing,
λ
n =l (21.10)
2
2 This standing wave is the superposition of two running waves moving in opposite

directions (see Prob. 19.2).

3 Note that the symbol n is again used here, locally, for the positive integer charac-

terizing the normal modes; this should not cause any confusion.
 More Electromagnetic Waves 201

This implies that for the normal modes, we must be able to fit an integral
number of half-wavelengths into the string, giving rise to the fundamental
and overtone oscillations (Fig. 21.2).

n=1

n=2

n=3

Fig. 21.2 Fundamental and first two overtone oscillations of a string with fixed end-
points.

21.2 Electromagnetic Waves in a Cavity

Suppose we try to find a solution to Maxwell’s equations in vacuum between

two parallel metal plates perpendicular to the x-axis and separated by a
distance l (Fig. 21.3). In analogy with the analysis in section 20.1, we look
for fields of the following form

~ = Ey (x, t) ŷ
E
~ = Bz (x, t) ẑ
B (21.11)

Since the tangential component of the electric field vanishes at a metallic

surface, we have the boundary conditions

Ey (0, t) = Ey (l, t) = 0 ; metallic surface (21.12)

202 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

y
E
cB
x
l

metallic plates

Fig. 21.3 Profile of electromagnetic standing waves between two parallel metal plates
perpendicular to the x-axis and separated by a distance l. Shown here is the fundamental
mode with n = 1.

In analogy to the string with fixed endpoints, let us try the following
normal-mode solution (Fig. 21.3)
nπx nπct
Ey (x, t) = A sin cos
l l
1 nπx nπct
−Bz (x, t) = A cos sin (21.13)
c l l
Just as in Eqs. (20.4), it is established that the fields are transverse

~ ·E
∇ ~ =∇
~ ·B
~ =0 (21.14)

Then, exactly as in Eqs. (20.5)–(20.7), the third and fourth Maxwell’s equa-
tions reduce to
∂Ey ∂Bz
=−
∂x ∂t
∂Bz 1 ∂Ey
=− 2 (21.15)
∂x c ∂t
It is readily established that these relations are satisfied by the above normal
modes. This resonant cavity stores electromagnetic radiation of definite
frequencies satisfying
λ c
n =n =l ; stored frequencies (21.16)
2 2ν
 More Electromagnetic Waves 203

Thus, starting from Maxwell’s equations in vacuum, in addition to the

electromagnetic plane waves travelling with velocity c in Fig. 20.2, we have
found electromagnetic standing waves in the cavity between two metallic
plates, where the fundamental mode is sketched in Fig. 21.3.4

21.3 Source of Electromagnetic Waves

The source of electromagnetic radiation is accelerated charge. Just how this

takes place is a topic for future study. For now, just remember

Accelerated charges radiate electromagnetic waves.

There are many examples:

• Charged particles moving in strong fields;
• Oscillating currents;
• Electron transitions in atoms;
• Nucleon transitions in nuclei, ; etc.

21.4 Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation

It is important to realize that we have found solutions to Maxwell’s equa-

tions in vacuum for any wavelength λ, and corresponding frequency ν, sat-
isfying
m
νλ = c = 3.00 × 108 (21.17)
s
The vast spectrum of electromagnetic radiation is illustrated in Fig. 21.4.
The range of applicability of electromagnetism is absolutely amazing — from
astronomical distances, to terrestrial, to tabletop, to atomic, down to the
nuclear domain!

4 See Prob. 21.3.

204 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. 21.4 Electromagnetic spectrum from [Wiki (2017)].

 Chapter 22

The Theory of Special Relativity

22.1 Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum

We have shown that Maxwell’s equations in vacuum imply the one-

dimensional wave equation

∂2φ 1 ∂2φ
2
= 2 2 (22.1)
∂x c ∂t

√
Here φ = Ey or Bz , and c = 1/ µ0 ε0 is the velocity of light. The travelling
wave solution we found is reproduced here in Fig. 22.1.

y
E
c

z cB
Fig. 22.1 Travelling wave solution to Maxwell’s equations in vacuum.

205
206 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

22.2 Lorentz Transformation

Lorentz observed that there is a mathematical transformation that leaves

this wave equation unchanged (“invariant”). Define

(x′ + vt′ )
x≡ p ; Lorentz transformation
1 − v 2 /c2
(t′ + vx′ /c2 )
t≡ p (22.2)
1 − v 2 /c2

These equations are inverted by taking the differences of the first and v
times the second, and the second and v/c2 times the first

(x − vt)
x′ = p
1 − v 2 /c2
(t − vx/c2 )
t′ = p (22.3)
1 − v 2 /c2

It is readily demonstrated that this Lorentz transformation leaves the fol-

lowing quadratic form invariant1

x′ 2 − c2 t′ 2 = x2 − c2 t2 (22.4)

The proof that the wave equation is left invariant follows from
the chain rule for differentiation. Consider the transformed function
φ[x(x′ , t′ ), t(x′ , t′ )]. As a shorthand, we define this as

φ(x′ , t′ ) ≡ φ[x(x′ , t′ ), t(x′ , t′ )] (22.5)

where the primed variables on the l.h.s. call for this transformed function.
Now differentiate this transformed function using the chain rule2
 
∂φ ∂φ ∂x ∂φ ∂t ∂φ v ∂φ 1
= + = + (22.6)
∂x′ ∂x ∂x′ ∂t ∂x′ ∂x c2 ∂t
p
1 − v 2 /c2

A second application of the chain rule to this expression gives

∂2φ
    
∂ ∂φ v ∂φ v ∂ ∂φ v ∂φ 1
= + + 2 + (22.7)
∂x′ 2 ∂x ∂x c2 ∂t c ∂t ∂x c2 ∂t (1 − v 2 /c2 )
1 SeeProb. 22.1.
2 Note the distinct meaning of the partial derivatives here; one refers to the set (x, t),
while the other refers to (x′ , t′ ).
 The Theory of Special Relativity 207

In a similar fashion, the first time derivative is given by

 
∂φ ∂φ ∂x ∂φ ∂t ∂φ ∂φ 1
′
= ′
+ ′
= +v p (22.8)
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂x 1 − v 2 /c2
and the second follows as before
1 ∂2φ
    
1 ∂ ∂φ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ∂φ 1
= 2 +v +v +v (22.9)
c2 ∂t′ 2 c ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t ∂x (1 − v 2 /c2 )
In the difference of Eqs. (22.7) and (22.9) the mixed derivatives cancel, and
the result is
∂2φ 1 ∂2φ ∂2φ 1 ∂2φ
′ 2
− 2 ′2 = 2
− 2 2 (22.10)
∂x c ∂t ∂x c ∂t
This is the relation that was to be established. The function φ(x′ , t′ ),
defined above, obeys the same wave equation, with the same velocity c, as
does φ(x, t).

22.3 Einstein’s Theory

It was Einstein’s profound contribution to take the Lorentz transformation

seriously and interpret it as a physical transformation between one inertial
frame with space-time coordinates (x, t) and another inertial frame moving
with a relative velocity ~v , with space-time coordinates (x′ , t′ ).
Consider two events in space-time as viewed from the two inertial frames
(Fig. 22.2).

t
0 (x,t)
x

v
x
0 (x ,t ) t

first event second event

Fig. 22.2 Two events in space-time, as viewed in two inertial frames moving with a
relative velocity ~
v. The timing starts with the first event, where the spatial origins are
taken to coincide.
208 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

• Let the first event occur when the spatial origins coincide, and use this
event to synchronize the clocks. The coordinates of this first event are
then (x, t) = (x′ , t′ ) = (0, 0);
• The second event in space-time is then assigned the coordinate (x, t) in
the first frame, and (x′ , t′ ) in the second frame, which is moving with
velocity ~v relative to the first frame.

In Einstein’s theory of special relativity, the coordinates of the second event

are related to each other by a Lorentz transformation.

22.4 Consequences

The most immediate consequence of Einstein’s theory of special relativity is

that time is no longer absolute, as it is in Newtonian physics, but is relative
between inertial frames, and the relative relation even depends upon where
you are in those frames. Some specific consequences of the theory are the
following:

22.4.1 Velocity of Light

One immediate consequence of special relativity is that the velocity of light
is the same in every inertial frame.
Suppose a light signal is emitted from the origin at the first event, and
the second event involves the detection of that light signal. Then in the
first frame the coordinates satisfy

x2 − c2 t2 = 0 ; c = velocity of light (22.11)

where c is the light velocity. It follows from Eq. (22.4) that the coordinates
in the second frame then satisfy

x′ 2 − c2 t′ 2 = 0 (22.12)

Hence an observer in the second frame again measures the same light
velocity c!
One finds the same velocity, even though the second frame is moving
with a relative velocity ~v ! This is completely at odds with how velocities
transform from one frame to another in Newtonian physics, but experi-
mental evidence that the speed of light is the same in all inertial frames
had been obtained earlier in the celebrated Michelson-Morley experiment,
which provided one of the motivations for Einstein’s theory.
 The Theory of Special Relativity 209

22.4.2 Time Dilation

Suppose a particle sits at the origin in the second frame, so that x′ = 0.
Then from the first of the Lorentz transformation Eqs. (22.3) x = vt, which
is eminently sensible. Now suppose the particle decays after some time
t′ = τ (the “proper time”). Then from the second of Eqs. (22.3), the
corresponding time in the first frame is
τ
t= p (22.13)
1 − v 2 /c2

A moving particle actually lives longer in the laboratory frame! This time
dilation is observed every day with cosmic rays, particle beams at acceler-
ators, etc.

22.4.3 Lorentz Contraction

Suppose two observers measure the length of a moving yardstick (“meter
stick”). The first event is the back end of the yardstick passing the origin.
The observer in the first frame measures the length x = l at the same
instant t = 0. The observer in the second frame, where the yardstick is
at rest, measures the length x′ = d (the “proper length”) whatever the
appropriate t′ . From the first of the Lorentz transformation Eqs. (22.3)
one then has
p
l = d 1 − v 2 /c2 (22.14)

The moving yardstick appears shorter (“Lorentz contracted”) in the labo-

ratory frame! The two-mile long SLAC linear electron accelerator appears
to be less than 1 m long, if you sit on the emerging electron!

22.5 Transformation Law for Electromagnetic Fields

Consider the fields of an electric charge +q, at a position ~r, as viewed from
a frame moving with −~v (Fig. 22.3).

• First, there is the Coulomb field

~ = q ~r
E ; Coulomb (22.15)
4πε0 r3
210 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

E
v
cB
observer
r
v
-v
+q

Fig. 22.3 Fields of an electric charge +q as viewed from a frame moving with −~
v.

• In addition, by Biot-Savart, there is a magnetic field due to the moving

charge

~ = µ0 q~v × ~r
B ; Biot-Savart (22.16)
4π r3
These fields satisfy the relation

B ~ = 1 ~v × E
~ = µ0 ε0 ~v × E ~ (22.17)
c2
But this must just be a property of the fields! A moving electric field has
associated with it a magnetic field.3

22.6 Applications

22.6.1 Two Moving Charges

Suppose a second charge +q, also moving with ~v , is placed at the position
~r in Fig. 22.3. There is a magnetic field, and corresponding Lorentz force
on the second particle due to the first

B~ = 1 ~v × E
~
c2
q ~
F~12 = 2 ~v × (~v × E) (22.18)
c

This points toward the first particle (Fig. 22.4).

~ ⊥~
3 This analysis assumes E ~ =E
v, but E ~⊥ + E
~ k and Ek × ~
v = 0, so Eq. (22.17) is
quite general.
 The Theory of Special Relativity 211

E
+q v
Fmag

Fmag
+q v
E

Fig. 22.4 ~ is that due to the other

Magnetic forces on two moving charges. The field E
charge.

Exactly the same analysis now holds if the role of the two particles is
reversed, and
q
F~21 = 2 ~v × (~v × E)
~ (22.19)
c
This points toward the second particle. Thus, two moving charges feel a
magnetic attraction.4

22.6.2 Electromagnetic Wave

An electromagnetic wave moves with velocity v = c, and hence the magnetic
field associated with the moving electric field satisfies
~ = ĉ × E
cB ~ (22.20)
where ĉ is a unit vector in the direction of propagation. This is just the
result illustrated in Fig. 22.1!

22.7 Basic Principle

The basic principle of special relativity is that one must have the same
laws of physics, including the fact that there is a limiting velocity on the
propagation of signals, namely c the speed of light, in every inertial frame.5

4 This effect is of order (v/c)2 , and readers should be aware of the fact that there are

other effects of this same order in special relativity.

5 The coordinates in the inertial frames are related by a Lorentz transformation, and

the theory must be Lorentz covariant. This indeed holds for electromagnetism, with
Maxwell’s equations and the Lorentz force (see, for example, [Walecka (2008)] ).
b2530   International Strategic Relations and China’s National Security: World at the Crossroads

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 Chapter 23

Review of Electromagnetism

23.1 Maxwell’s Equations

Maxwell’s equations provide the synthesis of the laws of electromagnetism.

23.1.1 Gauss’ Law

~ out of an enclosed
Gauss’ law for the electric field relates the flux of E
volume at any instant to the electric charge contained within that volume
(Fig. 23.1)
 
q
Z
~ · dS
E ~= ; Gauss’ law
closed surface S ε0 enclosed
1
Z
≡ ρ(~x, t)dv (23.1)
ε0 enclosed volume V

Here ρ(~x, t) is the charge density.

dS

V E

S
Fig. 23.1 Gauss’ law for the electric field.

Since there is no free magnetic charge, the corresponding relation for

213
214 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

~ is
the magnetic field B
Z
~ · dS
B ~=0 ; Gauss’ law (23.2)
closed surface S

As a familiar application, consider a static isolated point charge q

(Fig. 23.2). By symmetry
~ = Er r̂
E
~ = r̂ dS
dS (23.3)

It follows that
~ = 4πr2 Er = q
Z
~ · dS
E (23.4)
S ε0
This is Coulomb’s law
~ = q r̂
E ; Coulomb’s law (23.5)
4πε0 r2

r E
dS
r
q
S

Fig. 23.2 Electric field from a point charge.

As a second familiar application, consider a sheet of surface charge den-

sity σ (Fig. 23.3). From the indicated gaussian pillbox, the electric field
above the sheet (opposite to that below the sheet) is calculated to be
 
~ σ
E= ẑ ; above sheet (23.6)
2ε0
The use of Gauss’ theorem allows the integral form of Gauss’ law in
Eq. (23.1) to be re-written in terms of the divergence of the field as
1
Z   Z
~ ~
∇ · E dv = ρ(~x, t)dv (23.7)
V ε0 V
 Review of Electromagnetism 215

E
z
n1
dS
+++++++ n2

n3

Fig. 23.3 Sheet of charge with surface charge density σ and gaussian pillbox.

Since this holds for an arbitrary volume V , one has the differential state-
ment of Gauss’ law for the electric field

∇ ~ x, t) = 1 ρ(~x, t)
~ · E(~ ; Gauss’ law (23.8)
ε0
The corresponding relation for the magnetic field is

~ · B(~
∇ ~ x, t) = 0 ; Gauss’ law (23.9)

These relations are true for all times in electromagnetism, even if the flux
lines move. They form the first two of Maxwell’s equations.

23.1.2 Ampere’s Law with Displacement Current

Ampere’s law, augmented by the displacement current, reads (Fig. 23.4)
I
~ · d~l = µ0 [i + idisp ]
B through enclosed surface S
closed curve C
 
d
Z
= µ0 i + ε 0 ~
D · dS~ (23.10)
dt through S

Note that the displacement current arises from the time-dependence of the
electric flux through the surface. The above is re-written in vacuum, with
a charge density ρ(~x, t) and current density ~j(~x, t) , as
" #
I Z
∂ ~
E
~ · d~l = µ0
B ~ · ~j + ε0
dS ; Ampere’s law extended (23.11)
C S ∂t

Again, as a familiar application, consider the magnetic field arising from

216 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

i
dS
S

dl
C
B
Fig. 23.4 Ampere’s law.

a line of stationary current (Fig. 23.5). By symmetry

~ = Br φ̂
B
d~l = rdφ φ̂ (23.12)

It follows that
I
~ · d~l = 2πrBr = µ0 i
B (23.13)
C

This gives the magnetic field surrounding a line of current

~ = µ0 i φ̂
B ; line of current (23.14)
2πr

r
C B

Fig. 23.5 Magnetic field from a line of current.

As a second familiar application, the field in a solonoid is readily calcu-

lated from the appropriate amperian loop (Fig. 23.6)
~ = µ0 ni ŷ
B (23.15)

Here n is the number of turns per unit length.

 Review of Electromagnetism 217

z l
C
B
i y
n turns/length

Fig. 23.6 Magnetic field in a solonoid together with the amperian loop.

With the aid of Stokes’ theorem, the integral form of Ampere’s law in
Eq. (23.11) can be re-written in terms of the curl of the field as
" #
Z   Z ~
∂E
~ ~ ~
∇ × B · dS = µ0 ~ ~
dS · j + ε0 (23.16)
S S ∂t

Since this holds for an arbitrary surface S, one has the differential statement
of the extended form of Ampere’s law
" #
~ x, t)
∂ E(~
~ ~ ~
∇ × B(~x, t) = µ0 j(~x, t) + ε0 ; Ampere’s law extended
∂t
(23.17)

This forms the third of Maxwell’s equations.1

23.1.3 Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s law states that (Fig. 23.7)

~ · d~l = − d
I Z
E ~ · dS
B ~ ; Faraday’s law (23.18)
closed curve C dt enclosed surface S

The l.h.s. is the induced EMF around C, and the r.h.s. is the negative time
rate of change of the magnetic flux through C.
With the aid of Stokes’ theorem, this integral statement of Faraday’s
law can again be converted to a differential statement, just as before,
~
∇ ~ x, t) = − ∂ B(~x, t)
~ × E(~ ; Faraday’s law (23.19)
∂t
1 As relations between vector fields, there are four Maxwell equations. In terms of

individual components there are eight. Any reference to the number should be clear
from the context.
218 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

B
dS
S

dl
C
E
Fig. 23.7 Faraday’s law.

This forms the fourth of Maxwell’s equations.

23.1.4 Maxwell’s Equations

In summary, Maxwell’s equations in vacuum, in the presence of a charge
density ρ(~x, t) and current density ~j(~x, t), read

∇ ~ x, t) = 1 ρ(~x, t)
~ · E(~ ; Maxwell’s equations
ε0
~ · B(~
∇ ~ x, t) = 0
~
~ x, t) = − ∂ B(~x, t)
~ × E(~
∇
∂t
~
∇ ~ x, t) = µ0 ~j(~x, t) + µ0 ε0 ∂ E(~x, t)
~ × B(~ (23.20)
∂t

23.1.5 Superposition
Maxwell’s equations are linear. Hence, provided the sources are reproduced,
the fields obey the principle of superposition
~ =E
E ~1 + E
~2 + · · · + E
~N ; superposition
~ =B
B ~1 + B
~2 + · · · + B
~N (23.21)

23.2 Lorentz Force

Given the electric and magnetic fields (E,~ B

~ ), the Lorentz force on a par-
ticle with electric charge q is
 
F~ = q E~ + ~v × B
~ ; Lorentz force (23.22)
 Review of Electromagnetism 219

23.3 Electromagnetic Waves

The travelling-wave solution we found to the source-free set of Maxwell’s

equations in vacuum is reproduced in Fig. 23.8.

y
E
c

z cB
Fig. 23.8 Travelling-wave solution to Maxwell’s equations in vacuum.

• The electromagnetic wave propagates with velocity c, where

1 m
c= √ = 3.00 × 108 ; velocity of light (23.23)
ε 0 µ0 s

• The energy flux in the wave is given by the Poynting vector

~= 1E
S ~ ×B
~ ; energy flux
µ0
; Poynting vector (23.24)

• The radiation pressure for absorption at normal incidence is

1 ~
Prad = |S | ; radiation pressure (23.25)
c
• The electromagnetic wave in Fig. 23.8 is polarized, with the electric
vector oscillating in the (x, y)-plane;2
• Electromagnetic waves are manifest in nature through a wide variety
of phenomena in the electromagnetic spectrum.
2A ~ oscillating in the (x, z)-plane.
similar solution exists with E
220 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

The quantum theory of electromagnetism, quantum electrodynamics

(QED), of which Maxwell’s equations form the classical limit, is one of the
great achievements of modern physics. Students can look forward to fu-
ture courses.3 Of particular note is the fact that electromagnetic radiation
consists of photons, each with energy E = hν and momentum p = hν/c.

3 See, for example, [Walecka (2008); Walecka (2010); Walecka (2013)] . QED is devel-

oped in detail in the latter two references.

 Chapter 24

Problems

2.1 What is the gravitational force between the two charges in the
example in section 2.2? Compare it to the electrostatic force.
3.1 Show that Eq. (3.9) still holds to the given order when the origin
~1
of the vector ~r lies at the midpoint of the displacement d.
3.2 Make a good numerical calculation of the dipole field in Eq. (3.9).
3.3 A particle of mass and charge (m, q) starts from rest a distance z0
above the sheet of charge in Fig. 3.7. Show that its velocity and position
after time t are
   
σq 1 σq
vz = t ; z= t2 + z 0
2mε0 2 2mε0

4.1 Suppose the positive point charge q lies outside the closed surface
S in section 4.2. Show the integrated electric flux from that charge then
vanishes.2 Conclude that this charge does not contribute to Gauss’ law.
4.2 Derive Eq. (4.15) by integrating Coulomb’s law for a line of charge.
4.3 Start from Fig. 3.8(b), and use Gauss’ law to derive the field in
Eq. (3.17).
4.4 Consider a metallic conductor with a hole inside of it. Start with a
solid conductor where the field vanishes inside and the charge is all on the
surface (see Fig. 4.6). Now take a chunk out its interior. Convince yourself
that nothing changes. Hence, conclude that the field E ~ still vanishes inside
a hole in the conductor.
1 Hint : Start from a new figure.
2 Hint : Draw tangent cones and consider the solid angles.

221
222 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

4.5 Show that Eqs. (5.56) and (5.57) reproduce Coulomb’s law for the
collection of charges in Fig. 5.6.3
4.6 An infinite line of positive charge density λ per unit length is sur-
rounded by a metallic conducting cylinder, of inner radius a and outer
radius b, whose axis lies along the line of charge. The cylinder is also of
infinite length. Let ρ
~ be a radius vector perpendicular to the line of charge.
(a) Show that the electric field for 0 < ρ < a is given by

~ = λ ρ̂
E
2πε0 ρ
(b) What is the electric field for a < ρ < b?
(c) What is the electric field for ρ > b?
4.7 More complicated electric field configurations can be obtained by
combining solvable components using the principle of superposition. For
example, suppose there are three sheets of charge, with surface charge den-
sity σ, in the (x, y), (x, z), and (y, z)-planes. Show the field in the first
octant is
~ = σ (x̂ + ŷ + ẑ)
E
2ε0

5.1 The unit of potential, the volt, is defined by

1J 1 Nm
1 volt ≡ = ≡ 1V
1C 1C
The electron volt is a unit of energy defined by

1 eV ≡ |e| × 1 volt

Show4

1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J

5.2 What is the electrostatic potential in the first octant in Prob. 4.7?
5.3 The electrostatic potential above the sheet of charge in Fig. 3.7 is
given in Eq. (5.22). Use energy conservation to derive the expression for
the position in Prob. 3.3.
5.4 With very many charges, the distribution of charges can be de-
scribed by a continuous charge density ρ(~x ), which gives the total charge
3 Hint : r − r~i )2 = (x − x0i )2 + (y − y0i )2 + (z − z0i )2 .
Write (~
4 See appendix B.
 Problems 223

per unit volume at the position ~x. Show that in this continuum limit, the
electrostatic potential in Eq. (5.18) becomes

1 ρ( ~x ′ )d3 x ′
Z
V (~x ) =
4πε0 |~x − ~x ′ |

6.1 A particle of mass m and charge qtest is placed halfway between two
heavy, fixed charges +q, which are separated by a distance d.
(a) What is the electrostatic potential at the initial position of the par-
ticle?
(b) The particle is moved slightly from its initial position and released
from rest; it accelerates away. Show that the velocity of the particle when
it is very far away from its initial position is given by
 1/2
qqtest 8
v∞ =
4πε0 md

6.2 Now suppose the two heavy charges +q in Prob. 6.1 are no longer
fixed, but are free to move. What is the sum of their kinetic energies when
they are very far apart?
7.1 A charge of 0.1 C is placed on a system of two 10 mF capacitors
connected in parallel. What is the voltage across the system? What is the
voltage if they are connected in series?
7.2 Two concentric oppositely charged conducting cylinders have the
region between them filled with a dielectric with dielectric constant κ.
(a) Use Gauss’ law in the presence of dielectrics to determine the dis-
~ and electric field E
placement field D ~ everywhere.5
(b) What is the capacity per unit length of the device?
7.3 Suppose the dielectric slab with dielectric constant κ only fills a
fraction x of the distance d between the plates of the parallel-plate capacitor
in Fig. 7.6. What is the capacity of the device?
7.4 The properties of a dielectric can be described with a polarization
vector P~ defined so that in the dielectric

D~ =E~ + P~ ; polarization
~
P~ = χe E ; electric susceptibilty
5 Recall Sec. 4.3.2.
224 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

(a) Refer to Fig. 7.6. Show that for the dielectric slab in the condenser,
the polarization gives the bound surface charge

ε0 P~ = σb ẑ

(b) Show that for the slab, ε0 P~ is the dipole moment per unit volume.
8.1 A voltage of 100 V across a 105 Ω resistor produces what current
(in mA)?
8.2 A voltage of 100 volts across two 100 ohm resistors in series produces
what current? What if the resistors are in parallel?
9.1 Show that Kirchoff’s second law for the outer loop in Fig. 9.7 is
satisfied by the solution in section 9.5.2.
9.2 Consider the multi-loop circuit in Fig. 9.7 and Eqs. (9.18). Show
the net power exerted by the batteries through Eq. (9.11) is equal to the
power dissipated in the resistors in Eq. (9.10).
9.3 (a) In Fig. 9.7, what must E2 be to make i2 = −1 A?
(b) What is the corresponding i1 ?
10.1 Two equal charges q sit at the points (±d/2, 0) in the (x, y)-plane.
(a) Show the field along the y-axis is

~ = q y
E ŷ
2πε0 (y 2 + d2 /4)3/2
(b) Show the field for x > d/2 along the positive x-axis is

~ = q x2 + d2 /4
E x̂
2πε0 (x2 − d2 /4)2

10.2 A point charge +q sits at the center of a metallic conducting sphere

of inner radius a and outer radius b.
(a) What is the electric field for 0 < r < a?
(b) What is the electric field for a < r < b?
(c) What is the electric field for r > b?
10.3 A sphere of radius R and total charge Q has the charge uniformly
distributed throughout.
(a) Use Gauss’ law to show that the electric field inside the sphere is
given by

~ = Q r
E r̂ ; r<R
4πε0 R3
 Problems 225

(b) Show that outside the sphere the electrostatic potential is that of a
point charge, so that V (R) = Q/4πε0 R;
(c) Integrate the field in from R to r to show the potential inside the
sphere is6
Z r
V (r) = V (R) − ~ · d~r
E
R
  r 2 
Q
= 3− ; r<R
8πε0 R R

11.1 (a) There is another way of writing the vector product of two
vectors. Introduce the completely antisymmetric Levi-Civita tensor

εijk = +1 ; (i, j, k) an even permutation of (1, 2, 3)

= −1 ; (i, j, k) an odd permutation of (1, 2, 3)
=0 ; otherwise

together with the summation convention that repeated Latin indices are
summed from 1 to 3. Label the (x, y, z)-axes with (1, 2, 3). Show that

(~a × ~b)i = εijk aj bk

(b) Show

εijk εilm = δjl δkm − δjm δkl

where δij is the Kronecker delta

δij = 1 ; if i = j
=0 ; if i 6= j

(c) Hence, establish the vector identity

(~a × ~b ) · (~c × d~ ) = (~a · ~c )(~b · d~ ) − (~a · d~ )(~b · ~c )

(d) Derive the vector identity

~a × (~b × ~c) = (~a · ~c ) ~b − (~a · ~b ) ~c

6 Note the harmonic oscillator potential energy seen by an oppositely charged particle

moving inside the sphere.

226 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

11.2 Show that the vector triple product is invariant under cyclic per-
mutations
~a · (~b × ~c ) = ~c · (~a × ~b ) = ~b · (~c × ~a )

11.3 Show that a vector ~v = vx x̂ + vy ŷ + vz ẑ can also be written as a

length times a unit vector denoting the direction ~v = vn̂ . What are (v, n̂)?
11.4 Show that if ~r is the position vector in three-dimensions, the di-
~ · ~r = 3. Show the gradient satisfies ∇f
vergence gives ∇ ~ (r) = (r̂ ∂/∂r)f (r).
12.1 Suppose one sits a distance h/2 + ε above the bottom Helmholtz
coil in Fig. 12.11, where the coils are a distance h apart. Show that to
leading order in the small displacement from the midpoint, the magnetic
field along the axis is7
( " #)
µ i 2 3  ε 2 5  h 2  2
h
~ = 0 2
B (πR ) 3 1 + −1 ẑ ; d2 ≡ R2 +
2π d 2 d 4 d 2

13.1 Suppose the two ends of the infinite solonoid in Fig. 13.6 are joined
to form a torus. Present an argument that the magnetic field is confined
to the interior of the torus.
13.2 N turns of a wire carrying a current i are wrapped closely around
the surface of a torus of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 lying in the
(x, y)-plane. The current flows in a clockwise direction when viewed in the
azimuthal φ̂-direction.
(a) Let C be a circle of radius r in the (x, y)-plane. Use Ampere’s law
to show the magnetic field for R1 < r < R2 is given by
µ  φ̂
~ = 0
B Ni
2π r
(b) What is the magnetic field for r > R2 ?
(c) If R2 and R1 become very large with R2 − R1 ≡ d fixed, show that
the result in (a) reproduces the correct result for an infinite, linear solonoid.
13.3 Given two identical, parallel, current line elements id~l separated
by a perpendicular distance ~r. Use the Biot-Savart law in Eq. (12.8), the
element of force in Eq. (13.40), and the vector identity in Prob. 11.1(d) to
show that the second current element is attracted to the first with a force
µ0
dF~12 = (id~l )2 (−r̂)
4πr2
7 Recall Eqs. (12.23) and (3.6).
 Problems 227

13.4 More complicated magnetic field configurations can again be ob-

tained by combining solvable components using the principle of superposi-
tion. For example, suppose there are two crossed lines of current i in the
(x, y)-plane flowing along the x and y-axes in the positive direction. Show
the field along the positive z-axis is

~ = µ0 i (x̂ − ŷ)
B
2πz

13.5 A particle of mass and charge (q, m) starts down the axis of the
solonoid in Fig. 13.6. Describe its orbit.
13.6 Given the mass spectrometer result in Eq. (13.34), suppose one
can measure the position to an accuracy dR/R ∼ 10−3 . What is the corre-
sponding accuracy in isotope mass dm/m? 8
14.1 A loop containing 100 turns of wire is wound in the form of a square
0.1 m on each side. It is rotated with angular frequency ω/2π = 10 sec−1
about a ŷ-axis in a uniform field B ~ = 1 T ẑ as shown in Fig. 14.5.
(a) Calculate the resulting voltage V in volts as a function of time;
(b) Sketch this voltage as a function of time. Label all axes carefully;
(c) Will this give rise to an alternating current or a direct current in an
external resistance?
14.2 In the caption to Fig. 14.11 on the DC motor, it is stated that
the torque on the rectangular armature is ~ ~ where ~
µ × B, µ = i(N A)n̂. Here
N is the number of turns, and A is the area of the rectangle. Verify this
statement.
14.3 In analogy to Fig. 14.11, design an AC motor.
14.4 A solonoid of radius 1 cm is wrapped with wire at 10 turns per cm.
What is its self-inductance per unit length in H/m?
15.1 With paramagnetic materials, one can introduce the local magne-
tization arising from the oriented dipoles in sections 15.2–15.3

~ ≡ µ0 ηsurface n̂
M ; magnetization

(a) In general, the magnetization will be proportional to the applied

field, and the constant of proportionality is known as the susceptibility

M ~
~ = χm H ; magnetic susceptibility
8 Same q.
228 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Show that the magnetic field in the material is then given by

~ =H
B ~ +M ~
~ = κm H
κ m = 1 + χm

(b) Suppose the sample in Fig. 15.5 is of finite length. The differential
form of Gauss’ law for the magnetic field is derived in Eqs. (18.16)
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0

Show from part (a), that this implies

~ ·H
∇ ~ = −∇
~ ·M
~ ≡ µ0 ρ m

where the r.h.s. defines ρm as an effective magnetic charge density. In the

absence of free currents the static applied field satisfies [see Eqs. (18.20)]
~ ×H
∇ ~ =0

The corresponding equations in electrostatics are

~ ·E
∇ ~ = ρe
ε0
~ ~
∇×E = 0

where ρe is the electric charge density. All of electrostatics follows from

these equations.
15.2 Now suppose the sample in Prob. 15.1 is a permanent magnet,
where the magnetization M ~ in the sample remains finite as the applied
~ = 0 and B
field goes to zero, so that in the sample, H ~ =M ~.
(a) Discuss how one can use the analogy to electrostatics to calculate
the magnetic field outside a permanent magnet in magnetostatics.9
(b) Sketch the field outside a long, thin bar magnet; also, sketch the
field of a c-shaped magnet.
R
15.3 Consider ρm dv over a gaussian pillbox on the transverse face of
the permanent magnet in Prob. 15.2. Use Gauss’ theorem to show that on
the face
~ = µ0 σm n̂
M
~ is only non-zero inside the magnets,
9 Recall Prob. 5.4. Note that in magnetostatics, M

and the magnetic field outside can be obtained from H ~ through B ~ with κm = 1.
~ = κm H,
(It helps to remember that the normal component of B ~ is continuous across an interface.)
Notice also that there may be a demagnetizing field inside the finite-length permanent
magnet due to the effective magnetic charges at the ends.
 Problems 229

where σm is an effective surface magnetic charge density.

15.4 (a) Explain the attraction and repulsion of bar magnets;
(b) Why do permanent magnets stick to your refrigerator door?
15.5 For clarity in this text, we have simply defined the fields (D, ~ H
~)
to be the applied fields. In the literature, in SI units, you will find these
auxiliary fields defined with the constants (ε0 , µ0 ) taken out so that

D ~ +P
~ = ε0 E ~
 
~ = µ0 H
B ~ +M~

~ H
(a) How are the auxiliary fields (D, ~ ) related to the fields (D,
~ H~ ) used
in this text?
(b) How are the polarization and magnetization (P, ~ M)~ related to the
~ M
(P, ~ ) introduced in Probs. 7.4 and 15.1–15.3?
~ P
(c) Show that (D, ~ ) are related to (σfree , σbound ) in Fig. 7.6 and sec-
tions 7.4–7.5 by
~ = σfree ẑ
D ~ = σbound ẑ
; P
~ M
(d) Show that (H, ~ ) are related to (ηfree , ηsurface ) in Fig. 15.5 and
section 15.2 by
~ = ηfree n̂
H ~ = ηsurface n̂
; M

16.1 For the LC oscillator in section 16.3, the sum of the energies in
the capacitor and inductor is
1 2 1 2
E= q + Li ; LC oscillator
2C 2
Take the time derivative and show
dE
=0
dt
Hence, conclude that the energy is a constant of the motion. Discuss.10
16.2 This problem is concerned with units.
(a) Show the units of inductance L are

1 Tm2 1 Nm2 1 1 Nms2

1H = = = ; units of L
1A 1 Cm/s 1 C/s 1 C2
10 Recall the footnote on p. 148.
230 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

(b) Show the units of capacity C are

1C 1C 1 C2
1F = = = ; units of C
1V 1 J/C 1 Nm
(c) Hence, show the units of LC are

1 H × 1 F = 1 sec2 ; units of LC

16.3 (a) Minimize the impedance for the LCR (series) circuit in
Eqs. (16.34) and find the resonant angular frequency. What is the min-
imum impedance? What is the corresponding phase angle?
(b) What are the impedance and phase angle if R2 ≪ (ωL − 1/ωC)2 ?
16.4 The LRC circuit shown in Fig. 24.1 is driven by an imperfect fre-
quency generator which puts out with equal amplitudes a desired frequency
ω1 = 1 kHz and undesired (“noise”) frequency ω2 = 100 kHz

E(t) = E0 [cos (ω1 t + φ1 ) + cos (ω2 t + φ2 )]

L
(t) R oscilloscope
C

Fig. 24.1 LRC circuit in Prob. 16.4, together with oscilloscope across the resistance.

(a) What would the ratio of E0 to the peak current be if only the first
frequency ω1 were present? If only the second frequency ω2 ?
(b) You have in your laboratory a capacitor with C = 100 µF and two
inductors:

L1 = 10 mH ; L2 = 0.5 mH

Which combination of capacitor and inductor gives the largest ratio of signal
to noise voltage as measured across the resistance R by the oscilloscope?11
16.5 The resonant LRC (series) circuit in Fig. 20.7 is analyzed in section
16.5.4 and Probs. 16.3–16.4. The applied EMF E, and current i in the
11 The LRC (series) circuit then acts as a band-pass filter.
 Problems 231

circuit, are given in Eqs. (16.26)

E = E0 cos (ωt + φ)
i = i0 cos (ωt)

where φ is the phase angle; in general, i and E are out of phase.

(a) Show from Eqs. (16.34) that for this circuit, i0 and E0 are related
by
E0
 
1 1
i0 R = ; tan φ = ωL −
(1 + tan2 φ)1/2 R ωC

(b) Show the voltage signal across the resistor is12

E0 cos (ωt)
∆Vsignal = iR =
(1 + tan2 φ)1/2
Discuss the angular frequency dependence of this response.
16.6 The signal can also be read out of an oscillator using mutual in-
ductance, as discussed in section 14.2.
(a) Suppose one completes the circuit for the second coil in Fig. 14.13
with a resistance R2 . Let the current in the first coil, which sits in the
oscillator, be driven as i1 = i10 cos (ωt). Show the EMF established in the
second coil is then
di1
E2 = −L12 = ωL12 i10 sin (ωt)
dt
where L12 is the mutual inductance of the two coils.
(b) Suppose a current i2 now flows in the second circuit. Show Kirchoff’s
rule for the second circuit gives
di2
E2 − L 2 = i2 R2
dt
where L2 is the self-inductance of the second coil.
(c) Write the current in the second coil as i2 ≡ i20 cos (ωt + η). Show
i20 L12 1 R2
=− ; tan η =
i10 L2 (1 + tan2 η)1/2 ωL2
The response voltage across the resistor in the second circuit, which can
contain a rectifier, is now ∆Vsignal = i2 R2 . Discuss this result.
12 From Eqs. (16.30), one has iR = E − L di/dt − q/C, with i = dq/dt. The following

problem discusses an alternate means of detecting the signal from the oscillator.
232 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

16.7 An external signal with an EMF of 1 kilovolt comes into a trans-

former substation. It is desired to have a useful output of 100 volts. What
is the ratio of output yoke-turns to input yoke-turns in the transformer?
17.1 Suppose the particle velocity in Fig. 17.6 acquires a component

~v → ~v + ~v⊥

where ~v again lies in the plane and ~v⊥ is perpendicular to it. Show the only
modification of Newton’s second law is

d
(m~v⊥ ) = 0
dt

Hence conclude that the general particle orbits in this case are spirals along
the magnetic field lines.
17.2 A thin toroid of N closely wound turns of wire of total resistance
R lies in the (x, y)-plane. A uniform time-dependent electric field

~ = E0 cos ωt ẑ
E

is applied in the ẑ-direction. The inner radius of the toroid is r = a and

the circular cross section of the toroid has radius b. The circuit is initially
open (Fig. 24.2).

E
2b
a r y
turns

x
switch
i
Fig. 24.2 Configuration for Prob. 17.2. The wire wraps completely around the toroid.

(a) Show the magnetic field and magnetic flux through the interior of
 Problems 233

the toroid are (neglect variations in r)

 
~ E0 aω
B=− sin ωt φ̂
2c2
 
2 E0 aω
Φm = −N πb sin ωt
2c2
(b) Show that the resulting applied EMF across the open circuit is
E0 aω 2
 
2
(EMF)app = N πb cos ωt
2c2
(c) The switch is now closed. Show that the current is determined by
the relation
di
(EMF)app − L = iR
dt
where (EMF)app ≡ V0 cos ωt, and L is the self-inductance of the toroid.
(d) Determine the amplitude and phase of the current in terms of V0 , L,
and R.
18.1 Derive the integral form of Maxwell’s equations from the differen-
tial form.
18.2 13 (a) Use the conservation of charge to justify the following rela-
tion
~=−d
Z Z
~j(~x, t) · dS ρ(~x, t)dv
closed surface S dt enclosed V
Now use Gauss’ theorem to deduce the continuity equation

~ · ~j(~x, t) = − ∂ρ(~x, t)
∇ ; continuity equation
∂t
(b) Show that for an arbitrary vector field
 
~ · ∇
∇ ~ × ~v = 0

Hence, demonstrate that Maxwell’s Eqs. (18.22) imply the continuity equa-
tion is satisfied for the source.14 Notice that it was essential to include the
displacement current for this to hold.
18.3 Four of the eight Maxwell’s Eqs. (18.22) do not involve the sources
(ρ, ~j ), but only the components of the electromagnetic fields (E,~ B~ ). It
13 Probs. 18.2 and 20.1 are particularly meaningful.
14 Note that the order of partial derivatives can always be interchanged.
234 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

is convenient to introduce a scalar potential Φ(~x, t) and vector potential

~ x, t) that allow these four equations to be satisfied identically.15 Define
A(~

~
E(~ ~ x, t) − ∂ A(~x, t)
~ x, t) ≡ −∇Φ(~ ; potentials
∂t
~ x, t) ≡ ∇
B(~ ~ × A(~
~ x, t)

(a) Show that for an arbitrary scalar field

 
~ × ∇χ
∇ ~ =0

(b) Hence, show that the following four Maxwell equations hold

~ · B(~
∇ ~ x, t) = 0
~
~ x, t) = − ∂ B(~x, t)
~ × E(~
∇
∂t

for any (Φ, A~ ) above.16 The other four Maxwell’s equations then relate
~ ) to the sources.
(Φ, A
18.4 One has freedom in choosing the potentials in Prob. 18.3, since the
defining relations are invariant under a gauge transformation. Let Λ(~x, t)
be an arbitrary scalar function. Make the following replacements

∂Λ(~x, t)
Φ(~x, t) → Φ(~x, t) − ; gauge transformation
∂t
~ x, t) → A(~
A(~ ~ x, t) + ∇Λ(~
~ x, t)

~ B
Show the electromagnetic fields (E, ~ ) are unchanged.
18.5 (a) Write Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential form in
the static case, where everything is independent of time;
(b) Relate these expressions to our previous discussion of electrostatics
and magnetostatics.17
18.6 Show that in electrostatics, the electrostatic potential in a source-
15 We first met Φ(~
x, t) as the electrostatic potential in chapter 5.
16 Recall Prob. 18.2(b).
17 It is enough here for magnetostatics to obtain Ampere’s law. With the aid of these

Problems, the dedicated reader can also obtain the Biot-Savart law from Maxwell’s equa-
tions, but that takes some effort.
 Problems 235

free region in two-dimensions satisfies Laplace’s equation18

 2
∂2

2 ∂
∇ V ≡ + 2 V =0 ; Laplace’s eqn
∂x2 ∂x

19.1 (a) Show the normal-mode eigenfunctions in section 19.4 satisfy

the orthonormality relation
l
2  nπx   mπx 
Z
dx sin sin = δm,n
l 0 l l

(b) Use this to construct the general solution in Eq. (19.15) for the
string with fixed endpoints corresponding to the initial conditions19

φ(x, 0) = f (x)
 
∂φ(x, t)
= g(x)
∂t t=0

19.2 Show the standing-wave solution in Eq. (19.11) can be interpreted

as the superposition of two travelling waves moving in opposite directions
A
φ(x, t) = [sin k(x − ct) + sin k(x + ct)]
2
Sketch this result.
19.3 If the far end of the string is free in Fig. 19.4, the second bound-
ary condition becomes [∂φ(x, t)/∂x]x=l = 0. What are the normal-mode
frequencies in this case?
19.4 Suppose f (x) represents a plane-wave disturbance on a two-
dimensional surface, perhaps a membrane, where the disturbance is in-
dependent of y at a given x. Let ~x = x x̂ + y ŷ denote an arbitrary position
on that surface and let n̂ be a unit vector specifying some direction.
(a) Show f (~x · n̂ − ct) then describes a disturbance that moves without
change in shape in the direction n̂ with velocity c;
(b) Show this f obeys the two-dimensional wave equation
 2
∂2 1 ∂2f

∂
2
+ 2
f = 2 2 ; two-dimensions
∂x ∂x c ∂t
18 Hint : ~ ·∇
First establish the vector identity ∇ ~ = ∇2 , where ∇2 is the laplacian.
19 The wave equation is second-order in the time. Thus we must specify the function
and its first time derivative everywhere, at the initial time, to define the solution.
236 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

20.1 The energy density and energy flux for the electromagnetic field
in vacuum are given in Eqs. (20.18) and (20.24)

ε0 ~ 2 1 ~ 2
U = |E | + |B | ; energy density
2 2µ0
~= 1E
S ~ ×B~ ; energy flux
µ0

(a) Use the analysis in Prob. 11.1 to establish the vector identity

~ · (~a × ~b) = ~b · (∇
∇ ~ × ~b)
~ × ~a) − ~a · (∇

(b) Now use Maxwell’s equations in vacuum to establish the continuity

equation for the electromagnetic energy

∂U (~x, t) ~ ~
+ ∇ · S(~x, t) = 0 ; continuity equation
∂t
This is energy conservation [see Prob. 18.2(a)].
20.2 Although we leave its development to another course, Eq. (20.40)
provides a simple introduction to optics. Suppose one has the coherent
superposition of two electromagnetic waves that have travelled a different
spatial distance d

Ey = A {cos [k(x + d) − ωt] + cos [kx − ωt]}

Coherence here implies the same (k, ω) and a constant relative amplitude,
as might be obtained, say, by passing a plane wave through two slits. Show
that for distances kd = nπ, with n = 0, 1, 2, · · · , the interference pattern is

Ey = A [1 + (−1)n ] cos [kx − ωt] ; kd = nπ

Interpret this result.

21.1 Show that the small displacement of a string with constant mass
density µ under a constant tension τ obeys the one-dimensional wave
Eq. (21.1).20
21.2 It is desired to tune into the AM broadcast band with a frequency
range of ν = 1–2 MHz. An LC oscillator is available with an inductance of
1 µH. What range of capacity of the variable capacitor is required, in µF?
20 See, for example, [Fetter and Walecka (2003)] .
 Problems 237

21.3 Show that a charged particle moving in the ŷ-direction at x = l/2

with the mode in the cavity in Fig. 21.3 feels an electric field in the ŷ-
direction oscillating with a frequency ν = c/2l, and no magnetic field.21
21.4 The electromagnetic spectrum represents an invaluable resource.
(a) Find out what part of the spectrum is used by today’s smartphones
and wi-fi devices;
(b) Find out how the electromagnetic spectrum is managed and dis-
tributed.
22.1 Show that the Lorentz transformation in Eqs. (22.2)–(22.3) leaves
the quadratic form in Eq. (22.4) invariant.
22.2 Take the travelling-wave solution to the one-dimensional wave
equation in Eq. (20.11), substitute the Lorentz transformation in
Eqs. (22.2), and show the new wave satisfies the same wave Eq. (22.10),
with the same velocity c.
22.3 (a) A muon lives τµ = 2.2 × 10−6 sec in its rest frame. How fast
must it be moving to have its laboratory lifetime extended to 10−3 sec?
(b) The total energy of a particle moving with velocity v in special
relativity is
m0 c2
E= p ; particle energy
1 − v 2 /c2

where m0 is the particle’s rest mass. The rest mass of the muon is mµ c2 =
105.6 MeV. What is the muon’s energy in part (a), in GeV? 22
(c) The muon in part (a) moves down a tube 100 m long. How long does
the tube appear to be if you sit on the muon?
22.4 What is the role of the second of the Lorentz transformation
Eqs. (22.3) in the discussion of Lorentz contraction in section 22.4.3 ?
22.5 A large, square, charged parallel-plate capacitor with a field E ~
between the plates is set in motion with a velocity ~v perpendicular to one
~
of its sides, and to E.
(a) Use Eq. (22.17) to determine the magnetic field B ~ between the
plates;
(b) Sketch the configuration. Interpret the result in (a) in terms of the
currents provided by the plates.23
21 Phased arrays of such cavities are used as particle accelerators.
22 Note 1 MeV = 106 eV, and 1 GeV = 109 eV.
23 See the discussion in Sec. 13.2.2.
238 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

22.6 (a) Compute the energy flux S ~ as the electric field in Prob. 22.5
moves through space.
(a) Show that to lowest order in v/c
~ = ε 0 |E
 
S ~ |2 ~v ; ~v → 0
2
(b) Show that as ~v → ~c , the energy flux is given by the Poynting vector24

~= 1E
S ~ ×B
~ ; ~v → ~c
µ0

23.1 A radio station in San Francisco emits electromagnetic waves with

an average power of P̄ = 105 W (Fig. 24.3).

5
P = 10 W

antenna

Vant 1m

50 km
San Francisco Stanford

Fig. 24.3 Configuration for Prob. 23.1.

(a) Calculate the time-average Poynting vector S̄ at Stanford, a distance

of d = 50 km away.25
~ and B
(b) From this, calculate the amplitude of the E ~ fields in the radio
signal received at Stanford.
(c) A dipole antenna is straight wire of length l = 1 m across which one
measures the voltage. The electromagnetic wave hits the wire (uniformly)
and produces a voltage. What is the maximum voltage ∆Vant produced in
the antenna at Stanford?
23.2 The device in Prob. 4.6 is viewed from a frame moving with a
velocity −~v pointing along the charge line (v/c ≪ 1). Work in that frame.
24 Recall Prob. 20.1 and the vector identities in Prob. 11.1.
25 Hint : The electromagnetic radiation is emitted in a spherically symmetric fashion.
 Problems 239

(a) Show the current arising from the moving line of charge is i = λv;
(b) Use Ampere’s law to show that for 0 < |~
ρ | < a there is an azimuthal
magnetic field

~ = µ0 i φ̂
B ; ρ ≡ |~
ρ|
2πρ
(c) What is the azimuthal magnetic field for a < |~ρ| < b?
(d) What is the magnetic field for |~
ρ| > b?
(e) Use Eq. (22.17), and derive the above results from the electric fields
in Prob. 4.6.
23.3 The magnetization in Probs. 15.1–15.3 can be related to the equiv-
alent surface current density ~jsurface in the following fashion (Fig. 24.4).

M
S
l j
surface

~ = µ0 ηsurface n̂. Both ~jsurface and dS

Fig. 24.4 Amperian loop used to demonstrate M ~
point into the page.

Define the local quantity

~ ×M
µ0~jsurface ≡ ∇ ~

(a) Now consider the amperian loop in the figure. Use Stokes’ theorem
to show the surface current through the loop is given by
Z Z   I
µ0 ~ ~
jsurface · dS = ~ ~ ~
∇ × M · dS = M~ · d~l
S S C

~ in Prob. 15.1
(b) Show this reproduces the expression for M
~ = µ0 ηsurface n̂
M

23.4 Suppose one writes Maxwell’s Eqs. (23.20) in a medium that has
both the dielectric polarization P~ of Prob. 7.4 and the magnetization M
~ of
240 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

Prob. 23.3.
(a) Show the effect is to replace the sources by26
ρ → ρfree + ρpol
~j → ~jfree + ~jsurface + ~jpol

where
~ · P~
ρpol ≡ −ε0 ∇

~ ×M
~ ∂ P~
µ0~jsurface ≡ ∇ ; µ0~jpol ≡ µ0 ε0
∂t
(b) Show the continuity equation of Prob. 18.2 continues to hold;
(c) What are the appropriate expressions in the proper SI units of
Prob. 15.5?
23.5 Given that electromagnetic radiation consists of photons, each with
energy E = hν and momentum p = hν/c, show that Eq. (23.25) for the
radiation pressure for absorption at normal incidence follows immediately
1 ~
Prad = |S | ; radiation pressure
c
23.6 This is not a problem in the ordinary sense, but I just wanted to
leave you with something to ponder. When one detects far red-shifted light
coming from the most distant galaxies, one is observing electromagnetic
radiation that has traveled through space, with the oscillating electric and
magnetic fields described by Maxwell’s equations, for almost the entire age
of the universe. Good luck with your future courses. Enjoy!

26 We suppress the (~
x, t) dependence.
 Appendix A

Significant Names in Electricity and

Magnetism

Isaac Newton (1642-1726)27

Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806)
James Watt (1736-1819)
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (1745-1827)
Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774-1862)
André-Marie Ampère (1775-1836)
Hans Christian Øersted (1777-1851)
Amedeo Avogadro (1777-1856)
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)
Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854)
Felix Savart (1791-1841)
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Joseph Henry (1797-1878)
Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz (1804-1865)
George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903)
Gustav Robert Kirchoff (1824-1887)
Guglielmo Marconi (1824-1937)
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
Hendrik Lorentz (1853-1928)
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894)
Pierre Curie (1858-1906)
Max Karl Ludwig Planck (1858-1947)
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Fritz Walther Meissner (1882-1974)
Niels Henrik David Bohr (1885-1962)
27 You can read about each of these individuals on Wikipedia.

241
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 Appendix B

Fundamental Constants

kB = 1.381 × 10−23 J/o K Boltzmann’s constant

NA = 6.022 × 1023 /mole Avogadro’s number
R = NA kB = 1.987 cal/mole-o K gas constant
|e| = 1.602 × 10−19 C electron charge
1/4πε0 = 8.988 × 109 Nm2 /C2 Coulomb’s law
µ0 /4π = 1.000 × 10−7 Ns2 /C2 = 1.000 × 10−7 Tm/A Ampere’s law
√ velocity of light
c = 1/ ε0 µ0 = 2.998 × 108 m/s
h = 6.626 × 10−34 Js Planck’s constant
~ = h/2π = 1.055 × 10−34 Js Planck’s constant/2π
~/me c = 3.862 × 10−13 m electron Compton wavelength
~/mp c = 2.103 × 10−16 m proton Compton wavelength
a0 = ~2 /me (e2 /4πε0 ) = 0.5292 × 10−10 m = 0.5292 Å Bohr radius
α = e2 /(4πε0 )~c = 1/137.0 fine-structure constant
me c2 = 0.5110 MeV electron rest mass
mp c2 = 938.3 MeV proton rest mass
R = α2 me c2 /2 = 13.61 eV Rydberg
|e|~/2me = 9.274 × 10−24 J/T Bohr magneton
|e|~/2mp = 5.051 × 10−27 J/T nucleon magneton
h/2|e| = 2.068 × 10−15 Js/C = 2.068 × 10−15 Tm2 flux quantum
σ = π 2 k 4 /60~3c2 = 5.670 × 10−8 J/s-m2 -o K4 Stefan-Boltzmann constant
B
G = 6.673 × 10−11 m3 /kg-s2 gravitational constant
1 cal = 4.184 J heat equivalent

243
244 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

B.1 Conversion Factors

1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
1 MeV/c2 = 1.783 × 10−30 kg
1 J = 107 erg
1 N = 105 dyne
1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 Å = 10−10 m
1 F ≡ 1 fm = 10−15 m
1 C = 2.998 × 109 esu
1 T = 104 Gauss
1 J/T = 103 erg/Gauss
1 eV/hc = 8066 cm−1
~c = 197.3 MeV-F
~2 /2mp = 20.74 MeV-F2
Gm2p /~c = 5.905 × 10−39
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Amore, P., and Walecka, J. D., (2014). Topics in Modern Physics: Solutions to
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Amore, P., and Walecka, J. D., (2015). Advanced Modern Physics: Solutions to
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246 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

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 Index

ampere, 62 power, 74, 224

Ampere’s law, 111, 137, 143, 173, 234 symbol, 72
amperian loop, 138, 143, 160 binomial theorem, 14
current sheet, 114, 239 Biot-Savart law, 104, 109, 162, 189,
infinite solonoid, 116, 216 210, 226, 234
extended, 174, 177, 215 current loop, 106, 107
infinite current sheet, 113 line of current, 105, 112
infinite solonoid, 116, 117, 139, magnetism, 158
159, 216, 226 Bohr magneton, 137, 141
line of current, 112, 159, 216, 238
magnetism, 159, 180 calculus, 3, 39
Stokes’ theorem, 217 chain rule, 206
torus, 226 differential operators, 96
two opposing sheets, 115, 237 curl, 96, 178, 217
with magnetic materials, 140 divergence, 96, 178, 214, 226
amplitude modulation, 150, 195, 196 gradient, 40, 84, 96, 226
atomic magnetism, 135, 142, 166 Gauss’ theorem, 97, 177
angular momentum, 135 multivariable functions, 39
Bohr magneton, 137 partial derivatives, 39, 182, 189,
magnetic dipoles, 135 206, 233
quantum mechanics, 136 Stokes’ theorem, 98, 178
spin, 136, 141 Taylor series, 39
total differential, 40
battery, 61, 73 capacitor, 51, 85, 230
anode, 71 capacity, 51
cathode, 71 condenser, 52
current, 72 conducting sphere, 51
Daniell cell, 71 dielectrics, 56, 86, 223
electronegativity, 72 energy stored, 57, 229
EMF, 72 parallel-plate, 86, 223
lead-acid, 72 spherical shell, 86

247
248 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

symbol, 52 point charge, 20, 32, 214

two capacitors superposition, 22, 35, 80
in parallel, 53, 86, 223 current, 6, 61, 87, 150
in series, 52, 86, 223 circuits, 71, 152
capacity, 51, 52, 85, 151 conductivity, 66, 67, 69
charge, 6 current density, 65, 66, 68, 87, 88,
charge density, 25, 67, 88, 175, 178, 112, 178, 179, 215, 239, 240
179, 223, 240 current element, 162
conserved, 6, 89, 233 current sheet, 113
coulomb, 6 DC current, 61
electron, 6, 65, 136 electrons, 66, 88
induced, 12, 53 EMF, 72, 152, 166
line of charge, 25 force in magnetic field, 121, 162,
magnetic, 102, 158, 176, 214, 228 226
point, 23 Kirchoff’s rules, 74, 89
proton, 6, 79 Ohm’s law, 62, 88, 145, 224
quantized, 6, 120 resistance, 62
sheet of charge, 24, 55, 214 resistivity, 66, 67
surface density, 15, 43, 81, 87, 214, source of magnetic field, 104–106,
224, 229 111, 158, 240
circuits surface current, 137, 143, 167, 227,
current, 61, 73 229, 239
DC circuit, 71, 89 cyclotron frequency, 118, 141, 161
EMF, 71, 75, 90, 125, 145, 166
integrated circuits, 197 determinant, 95, 188
Kirchoff’s rules, 74, 89, 145, 224 diamagnetism, 141, 142
multi-loop, 76, 77, 224 superconductors, 142
Ohm’s law, 73, 88 dielectric, 54, 139
simplest circuit, 73, 74 capacitor, 56, 86, 223
single-loop, 75, 76 Gauss’ law, 58
time-dependent, 145, 168 polarization, 223, 229, 240
classical mechanics, 4 surface charge density, 55, 86, 224,
conductivity, 26, 66, 67, 69, 88 229
conductor, 26, 27, 42, 83, 222, 224 dielectric constant, 56, 87, 223
charged sphere, 27 dipole field, 13, 101, 107, 139
equipotential surface, 42 dipole moment, 15, 54, 224
field at surface, 27 induced, 54
lightning rod, 43 magnetic, 103, 108, 136
no field inside, 26 permanent, 54
surface charge, 26 displacement
with hole inside, 221 current, 173, 180, 215, 233
continuity equation, 233, 236 field, 58, 59, 174, 223, 229
coulomb, 6, 52
Coulomb’s law, 7, 19, 22, 35, 45, 79, electric field, 11, 59, 61, 66, 80, 179,
81, 85, 189, 209, 221 210
collection of charges, 42, 80, 222 (See electromagnetic waves), 187
 Index 249

applied field, 58, 229 two solonoids, 130, 231

between two sheets, 28, 86, 221 Lenz’s law, 125, 141
charged-particle motion, 28, 37 magnetic flux, 124, 125, 139, 163
collection of charges, 42, 80 transformer, 154, 170
conservative, 75, 90 electromagnetic waves, 219, 238
dipole, 13, 15, 139, 221 amplitude modulation, 195
energy density, 49 band width, 196
flux, 17, 81 continuity equation, 236
Gauss’ law, 21, 113, 175, 213 detector, 150, 192, 196, 231, 236
gradient of potential, 42, 84 diode, 197
inside conductor, 26, 83, 143, 222, oscillator, 150, 196, 231, 236
224 rectifier, 150, 196, 231
inside dielectric, 56, 59, 87, 223, energy density, 191, 236
229 energy flux, 191, 192, 219, 236
line of charge, 25, 36, 221, 222 frequency, 190
lines of force, 13, 81 Maxwell’s equations, 189, 219
Lorentz force, 119, 161 momentum density, 193
monopole, 13 momentum flux, 192
point charge, 12, 18, 32, 41, 214,
plane wave, 190
224
polarization, 190, 219
sheet of charge, 15–17, 36, 41, 81,
Poynting vector, 192, 194, 219, 238
214, 221, 222
radiation pressure, 193, 219, 240
special relativity, 210
resonant cavity, 202, 237
spherical shell of charge, 82
solar flux, 194
superposition, 11, 22, 80, 222
source, 203
surface of conductor, 27, 83
two charges, 224 special relativity, 211
uniformly charged sphere, 224 spectrum, 203, 219
electric flux, 17, 21, 81 standing waves, 201, 203, 237
point charge, 18, 22 travelling wave, 187, 219
electrical forces, 5 velocity, 189, 190, 219
electromagnetic induction, 123, 163, wavelength, 190
227 electromagnetism, 6, 169, 203
AC generator, 126, 227 applications, 6
AC motor, 227 continuity equation, 233, 236
DC generator, 127 electromagnetic spectrum, 203, 237
DC motor, 128, 129, 227 electromagnetic waves, 187, 203,
Faraday’s law, 125, 163, 176, 227, 219, 240
233 energy density, 236
induced EMF, 125, 141, 146, 163, energy flux, 236
166, 233 Lorentz force, 119, 211, 218
inductance, 130, 165 Maxwell’s equations, 175, 179, 203,
induced EMF, 132, 146, 165, 211, 213, 234, 240
166 range of applicability, 203
magnetic materials, 139 special relativity, 209, 211, 239
one solonoid, 131, 166 electromotive force, 69, 71, 123
250 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

EMF, 71, 123, 125, 132, 145, 146, charged conductors, 47

148, 152, 166, 231 charged pair, 46, 85
alternating current, 151, 230 condenser, 57
Kirchoff’s rules, 74, 145, 233 with dielectric, 58
electron, 26, 61, 65 conservation of, 37, 75, 120, 148,
charge, 65 222, 223, 229, 236
charge density, 88 flux, 191, 219, 236, 238
current density, 65, 66, 88 in field, 191, 236
electron volt, 222, 237 electric, 49, 236
magnetic moment, 136, 140 magnetic, 133, 166, 236
spin, 136, 140 LC oscillator, 150, 229
electrostatic potential, 33, 83, 84, solonoid, 132, 166
222, 223, 234 work done, 45, 46, 57, 73, 84, 193
charged conducting sphere, 42
connected spheres, 42 farad, 52, 230
closed path, 34 Faraday’s law, 125, 155, 163, 165,
collection of charges, 35, 42, 47, 84 170, 176, 217, 227, 233
continuum limit, 223 AC generator, 126, 227
electric field, 38, 42, 84 AC motor, 227
ground, 33, 37, 51, 84 DC generator, 127
Laplace’s equation, 235
DC motor, 128, 129, 227
line of charge, 36
transformer, 155, 170
pair of charges, 46
ferromagnetism, 140
path independence, 33, 84
Curie temperature, 141
point charge, 33, 41, 84
iron, 140
potential drop, 51, 61–64, 66, 72,
permanent magnets, 140
87, 88, 120
permeability, 140
sheet of charge, 36, 41, 222
superposition, 35 force, 4
surface of conductor, 42, 83 electrical, 5
uniformly charged sphere, 225 electrostatic, 7, 9, 59, 79, 221
work done, 33, 57, 84 gravitational, 4, 221
electrostatics, 5, 7, 61, 79, 113, 189, Lorentz, 109, 117, 123, 140, 160,
228, 234 180, 192, 218
conductor, 26, 42, 83 magnetic, 101, 102, 109, 117, 160,
Coulomb’s law, 19, 35, 79 211
dielectric, 54, 86, 223, 229 fundamental constants, 243
displacement field, 58, 174, 229 1/4πε0 , 7, 243
electric charge, 6 µ0 /4π, 109, 243
electric field, 11, 80, 83 Avogadro’s number, 8
examples, 5, 12, 24, 36, 80, 81, 85 Bohr magneton, 137
Gauss’ law, 19, 81, 224 coulomb, 6
potential, 31, 84 faraday, 8
superposition, 22, 24, 80 gravitational, 4
energy, 31, 45, 85 Newton’s constant, 4
collection of charges, 47, 85 velocity of light, 179, 189, 243
 Index 251

Gauss’ law, 19, 21, 24, 26, 81, 85, multi-loop circuit, 76, 224
178, 221 single-loop circuit, 75
charged conducting sphere, 27 time-dependent circuits, 145
charged spherical shell, 82 first rule, 74
conductor, 26 second rule, 75, 132, 145–148, 233
gaussian Kronecker delta, 225
pillbox, 24, 25, 27, 58, 81, 214,
228 Laplace’s equation, 235
sphere, 82 laplacian, 235
line of charge, 25, 222 Lenz’s law, 125, 132, 141, 168
magnetism, 103, 158, 214, 228 Levi-Civita tensor, 225
point charge, 20, 214, 224 light, 189, 240
sheet of charge, 24, 81, 214 electromagnetic spectrum, 203
superposition, 24 velocity, 179, 189
uniformly charged sphere, 224 lines of force, 13, 81
with dielectrics, 58, 223 density, 17, 21, 81
Gauss’ theorem, 97, 177, 214, 228, Lorentz force, 109, 117, 119, 140, 160,
233 180, 192, 210, 218
generator, 61 circular motion, 118, 161
gradient, 40, 84, 226 electric and magnetic fields, 119,
gravitational 160
constant, 4 force on current element, 121, 226
force, 4 mass spectrometer, 120, 227
moving wire, 123, 162
harmonic oscillator, 3, 147, 225 special relativity, 211
henry, 130, 227, 229 velocity selector, 119
hertz, 191 Lorentz transformation, 206, 211, 237
Einstein’s theory, 207
impedance, 152, 170, 230 quadratic form, 206
phase angle, 152, 170, 230 wave equation, 237
inductance, 130, 152, 165
induced EMF, 132, 146, 165, 166 magnetic dipole, 101, 103, 107, 137,
inductor, 132 139
magnetic materials, 139 atom, 137
mutual, 130, 165, 231 bar magnet, 101
one solonoid, 131, 166 current loop, 107, 139, 141
self, 130, 165, 227, 231 electron, 137
two solonoids, 130, 231 moment, 103, 108, 141
inductor, 132, 230 torque on, 103, 108, 158
energy stored, 133, 166, 229 magnetic field, 101, 102, 157, 179, 210
inductance, 130 (See electromagnetic waves), 187
inertial frame, 4, 207, 211 Ampere’s law, 111, 113, 139, 159,
180, 234
Kirchoff’s rules, 74, 77, 89, 149, 152, applied field, 139, 229
153, 224, 231 bar magnet, 101, 228
applications, 75 Biot-Savart law, 104, 158, 162, 234
252 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

current loop, 106, 107 surface current, 137, 139, 167, 227,
current sheet, 113 229, 239
dipole, 101, 107 susceptibility, 227
energy density, 133, 166 magnetism, 101
Faraday’s law, 125, 163 applied field, 139
field lines, 157 compass, 101, 137, 157
Gauss’ law, 103, 158, 176, 214 magnets, 101, 229
Helmholtz coils, 108, 226 magnetization, 227, 229, 239, 240
in superconductor, 143 surface current, 227, 239
infinite solonoid, 117, 137, 159, magnetostatics, 113, 122, 157, 180,
216, 226 189, 228, 234
line of current, 105, 106, 159, 216, Ampere’s law, 111, 137, 139, 159,
238 180, 234, 239
Lorentz force, 109, 117, 140, 160 Biot-Savart law, 104, 158, 234
on current element, 121, 226 Gauss’ law, 103, 158
magnetic materials, 140, 167, 227, Lorentz force, 109, 117, 160
229 magnetic charge, 101, 158, 228, 229
moving charge, 122, 162 magnetic field, 102, 157, 228
of earth, 101 magnetic materials, 135, 227, 229
opposing current sheets, 115, 237 permanent magnets, 101, 140, 228,
particle orbits, 161, 227, 232 229
permanent magnet, 101, 228 permeability, 139
sources, 104 superconductor, 142
current, 104, 158, 240 superposition, 103
magnet, 104 susceptibility, 227
special relativity, 210, 237 mass, 4
superposition, 103, 158, 227 spectrometer, 120, 227
tesla, 161 Maxwell’s equations, 173, 179, 213,
torus, 226 218, 234, 240
magnetic flux, 125, 130, 139, 155, Ampere’s law extension, 174, 177,
158, 163, 170, 233 215
Faraday’s law, 125, 155, 163, 233 boundary conditions, 179
through circuit, 124 charges and currents in vacuum,
time derivative, 124 175, 215, 218
magnetic force, 101, 102, 157, 211 continuity equation, 233, 236
Lorentz force, 109, 117, 160 differential form, 179, 218, 233
magnetic materials, 166 displacement current, 173, 215, 233
Ampere’s law, 140 electrostatics, 234
diamagnetism, 141, 142, 168 Faraday’s law, 176, 217
ferromagnetism, 140, 168 Gauss’ law for B,~ 176, 214
magnetization, 227, 229, 239 Gauss’ law for E,~ 175, 213
paramagnetism, 137, 139, 142, 168, Gauss’ theorem, 177, 214
227 in medium, 240
permeability, 139, 167 in vacuum, 187, 203, 205, 218
self-inductance, 139 continuity equation, 236
superconductor, 142, 168 polarization, 190, 219
 Index 253

standing waves, 203 polarization, 223, 229, 240

transverse fields, 188 power, 74, 89, 132, 150, 193
travelling waves, 203, 219 Poynting vector, 192, 194, 219, 238
velocity, 189, 219
wave equation, 189, 205 quantum electrodynamics (QED), 220
integral form, 175, 213, 233 quantum mechanics, 136
light, 179
Lorentz force, 180 radio, 150, 238
magnetostatics, 174, 180, 234 AM radio, 150, 196, 231, 236
number of, 179, 217 resistance, 62, 63, 88, 150
potentials, 234 conductivity, 66, 69
gauge invariance, 234 copper
special relativity, 211 damping time, 69
Stokes’ theorem, 178 resistivity, 69
superposition, 218 drift velocity, 67
time derivatives, 177 microscopic picture, 65, 66
vacuum, 179 Ohm’s law, 62, 88, 224
muon resistivity, 66, 67
lifetime, 237 uniform wire, 67, 89
mass, 237 resistivity, 66, 67, 88
superconductor, 142
Newton’s laws, 3, 4 resistor, 63, 73, 75, 90, 224, 231
energy conservation, 37 power, 89, 224
inertial frame, 4 symbol, 63
second law, 4, 28, 37, 67, 68, 117, two resistors
119, 161, 192, 221, 232 in parallel, 64, 89, 224
third law, 4, 7, 45 in series, 63, 89, 224
right-hand rule, 95, 114, 126, 157
ohm, 62
Ohm’s law, 62, 66, 67, 73, 75, 88, 90, scalar field, 12, 35, 84, 234
145, 224 semiconductor, 197
resistance, 62, 88 solid angle, 23, 221
optics, 236 special relativity, 205, 208, 211
coherence, 236 basic principle, 211
interference, 236 Einstein’s theory, 207, 211
electromagnetic fields, 209, 237,
paramagnetism, 137, 139, 142, 227 239
oriented dipoles, 137, 139 inertial frame, 207, 211
permeability, 139 light velocity, 208
surface current, 137, 227 Lorentz contraction, 209, 237
permeability, 139, 167 Lorentz force, 211
diamagnetism, 142, 168 Lorentz transformation, 206, 211,
ferromagnetism, 140, 168 237
paramagnetism, 139, 168 Maxwell’s equations, 211
photons, 220, 240 Michelson-Morley experiment, 208
Planck’s constant, 136 particle energy, 237
254 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism

time dilation, 209, 237 units, 5, 63, 74, 76, 79, 229, 237, 240
spin, 136 ampere, 62
Stokes’ theorem, 98, 178, 217, 239 conversion, 69, 74
superconductivity, 142 coulomb, 6
diamagnetism, 142 farad, 52, 230
Meissner effect, 142 faraday, 8
resistivity, 142 henry, 130, 229
superconductor, 142 hertz, 191
surface current, 143 newton, 5
type-II, 142 ohm, 62
superposition, 11, 22, 24, 35, 56, 80, tesla, 109, 161
81, 84, 85, 103, 158, 195, 218, 222, volt, 63, 74, 222
227 watt, 74
susceptibility, 223, 227
vacuum, 175, 179, 187
tesla, 109, 161 vector, 3, 93, 157, 226
test charge, 13, 33, 45, 59, 80 addition, 93
time-dependent circuits, 145, 168 cartesian components, 31, 93
alternating current EMF, 151, 169 direction, 226
identities, 225, 234–236
capacitance, 151
length, 94, 226
inductance, 152, 231
right-hand rule, 95, 157
transformer, 154
scalar multiplication, 94
external EMF, 148, 151, 169
scalar product, 94, 157
Faraday’s law, 170
triple product, 226
impedance, 152, 170
unit vector, 4, 19, 31, 95, 226
LC circuit, 147, 150, 168 vector product, 95, 157, 225
energy content, 148, 150, 229 direction, 95, 157
radio, 150, 196, 236 length, 96, 157
LCR (series) circuit, 153, 169, 230, vector calculus
231 differential operators, 96
band-pass filter, 230 curl, 96, 178, 217
external EMF, 150, 153, 169, divergence, 96, 178, 214, 226
196, 230 gradient, 40, 84, 96, 226
oscillator, 150, 170, 196, 231 Gauss’ theorem, 97, 214
resonance, 150, 154, 170, 196, laplacian, 235
230, 231 Stokes’ theorem, 98, 217
phase angle, 152, 170, 231 vector field, 12, 96, 97, 217, 233
RC circuit, 145, 148, 168, 170 viscous damping
RL circuit, 146, 149, 168, 170, 231, damping time, 67, 69
233 limiting velocity, 67, 68
transformer, 154, 170, 232 particle in air, 67
torque, 95 resistance, 67, 68
on current loop, 108, 129 volt, 63, 74, 222
transformer, 154, 170, 232
transistor, 197 watt, 74
 Index 255

waves, 181
(See electromagnetic waves), 187
angular frequency, 183
boundary conditions, 184, 200, 235
dispersion, 184
dispersion relation, 184, 200
eigenfunctions, 235
eigenvalues, 185, 200
frequency, 183
initial conditions, 235
normal modes, 185, 200, 235
period, 183
sinusoidal, 182
standing waves, 184
string, 199, 236
fixed endpoints, 199, 201, 235
free end, 235
superposition, 182, 235
travelling waves, 182, 235
wave equation, 181, 199, 205, 207,
236
two-dimensions, 235
wavelength, 183, 201
wavenumber, 182
work, 31, 45, 73, 84, 193
electrostatic potential, 33, 46, 47,
84
power, 74, 132, 150, 193