Electrical & Electronics Materials

Unit-I
Unit – I: Classes of Engineering Materials & Conducting
Materials
Crystal structure of materials
Crystal structures: All metals, a major fraction of ceramics, and certain polymers acquire
crystalline form when solidify, i.e. in solid state atoms self-organize to form crystals. Crystals
possess a long-range order of atomic arrangement through repeated periodicity at regular intervals in
three dimensions of space. When the solid is not crystalline, it is called amorphous. Examples of
crystalline solids are metals, diamond and other precious stones, ice, graphite. Examples of
amorphous solids are glass, amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si, most plastics. There is very
large number of different crystal structures all having long-range atomic order; these vary from
relatively simple structures for metals to exceedingly complex structures for ceramics and some
polymers. To discuss crystalline structures it is useful to consider atoms as being hard spheres, with
well-defined radii. In this scheme, the shortest distance between two like atoms is one diameter. In
this context, use of terms lattice and unit cell will be handy. Lattice is used to represent a three-
dimensional periodic array of points coinciding with atom positions. Unit cell is smallest repeatable
entity that can be used to completely represent a crystal structure. Thus it can be considered that a
unit cell is the building block of the crystal structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue of its
geometry and the atom positions within. Important properties of the unit cells are
• The type of atoms and their radii R.
• Cell dimensions (Lattice spacing a, b and c) in terms of R and
• Angle between the axis α, β, γ
• a*, b*, c* - lattice distances in reciprocal lattice , α*, β*, γ* - angle in reciprocal lattice
• n, number of atoms per unit cell. For an atom that is shared with m adjacent unit cells, we
only count a fraction of the atom, 1/m.
• CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is
bonded.
• APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell actually
occupied by the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell. Some very
common crystal structures and relevant properties are listed in table below.

Table - Common crystal structures and their properties.

Unit Cell n CN a/R APF
Simple Cubic 1 6 4/√4 0.52
Body-Centred Cubic 2 8 4/√3 0.68
Face-Centred Cubic 4 12 4/√2 0.74
Hexagonal Close Packed 6 12 0.74

Figure 2.1: Common metallic crystal structures.

Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials:

1. Single Crystals: Crystals can be single crystals where the whole solid is one crystal. Then it
has a regular geometric structure with flat faces.
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2. Polycrystalline Materials: A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned
with each other. It is called polycrystalline. The grains can be more or less aligned with
respect to each other. Where they meet is called a grain boundary.
3. Non-Crystalline Solids: In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But amorphous
does not mean random, since the distance between atoms cannot be smaller than the size of
the hard spheres. Also, in many cases there is some form of short-range order. For instance,
the tetragonal order of crystalline SiO 2 (quartz) is still apparent in amorphous SiO 2 (silica
glass).

Crystal systems, Unit cells and space lattices

Solids are the chemical substances which are characterised by define shape and volume, rigidity,
high density, low compressibility. The constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) are closely
packed and held together by strong interparticle forces

Types of Solids
The solids are of two types : Crystalline solids and amorphous solids.
Distinction Between Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
S.No. Crystalline solid Amorphous solids
These have definite and regular These doesn’t have any regular
1. arrangement of the constituent particles in arrangement of the constituent particles in
space. space.
These are true solids. Theseare super cooled liquids or pseudo
2.
soilds
These have long order arrangement of the These have short order arrangement of
3.
particles particle
These are anisotropic in nature, i.e., their These are isotropic in nature i.e., their
4. physical properties are different in physical properties are same in all the
different directions. directions.
They have sharp melting points. They melt over a certain range of
5.
temperature.
6. They undergo a clean cleavage when cut. They undergo irregular cleavage when cut

Structure Determination by X-ray Diffraction (Bragg’s Equation)

When a beam of X-rays falls on a crystal plane composed of regularly arranged atoms or ions, the X-
rays are diffracted. If the waves are in phase after reflection, the difference in distance travelled by
the two rays ti.e., path difference) must be equal to an integral number of Wavelength, nλ for
constructive.
Thus, path difference = WY + YZ = XY sin θ + xy sin θ = 2 XY sin θ = 2d sin θ
∴nλ = 2d sin θ
This equation is called Bragg’s equation.
Where, n = 1. 2, 3… (diffraction order)
λ = wavelength of X·rays incident on crystal
d = distance between atomic planes
θ = angle at which interference occurs.

Unit Cell: The smallest geometrical portion of the crystal lattice which can be used as repetitive unit
to build up the whole crystal is called unit cell.
Types of Unit Cell
(i) Simple or primitive Unit cell In which the particles are present at the corners only.
(ii) Face centred unit cell In which the particles are present at the corners as well as at the
centre of each of six faces

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(iii) Body centred unit cell In which the particles are present at the corners as well as at the
centre of the unit cell.
(iv) End centred unit cell In which the particles are present at the corners and at the centre of
two opposite faces.

Number of Particles Per Unit Cell

Seven Crystal Systems
There are about 230 crystal forms, which have been grouped into 14 types of space lattices, called
Bravais Lattices, on the basis of their symmetry and seven different crystal systems on the basis of
interfacial angles and axes.
Seven Crystal Systems
Packing Fraction
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the unit cell that is occupied by the spheres to the volume of
the unit cell.
(i) Primitive cubic unit cell Atoms touch each other along edges.
Hence, d = a or r = a / 2
(r = radius of atom and a = edge length)
Therefore, PF = 4 / 3 πr3 / (2r)3 = 0.524 or 52.4%
(ii) Face centred cubic unit cell Atoms touch each other along the face diagonal. Hence, d = a / √2
or r = √2a / 4
Therefore; PF = 4 * 4 / 3 πr3 / (4r / √2)r3 = 0.74 or 74%
(iii) Body centred cubic unit cell Atoms touch each other along the body diagonal. Hence, √3a / 2
or r = √3a / 4
Therefore; PF = 2 * 4 / 3 πr3 / (4r / √3)r3 = 0.68 or 68%

Coordination Number
It is defined as the number of particles immediately adjacent to each particle in the crystal lattice. [In
simple cubic lattice, CN is 6, in body centred lattice, CN is 8 and in face centred cubic lattice, CN is
12]. High pressure increases CN and high temperature decreases the CN.
Close Packing in Crystals
Two Dimensional Packing of Constituent Particles
(i) Square close packing Space occupied by spheres is 52.4%.
(ii) Hexagonal close packing Space occupied by spheres is 60.4%.Hence. It is more
efficient.
Three Dimensional Packing of Constituent Particles
(i) ABAB arrangement gives hexagonal close packing (hcp).
(ii) ABCABC arrangement gives cubic close packing or face centred CUbIC packing (ccp or
fcc)
 In both these arrangements 740/0 space is occupied
 Coordination number in hop and ccp arrangement is 12 while in bcc arrangement, it is 8.
 Close packing of atoms in cubic structure = fcc> bcc > sc.
 All noble gases have ccp structure except He (hcp structure).

Void or Space or Holes

 Empty or vacant space present bet veen spheres of a unit cell, is called void or space or
hole or interstitial void. When particles are closed packed resulting in either cpp or hcp
structure, two types of voids are generated:
 Tetrahedral voids are holes or voids surrounded by four spheres Present at the corner of a
tetrahedron. Coordination number of a tetrahedral void is 4.
 Octahedral voids are holes surrounded by six spheres located on a regular tetrahedron.
Coordination number of octahedral void is 6. [The number of octahedral voids present in a

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lattice is equal to the number of close packed particles. The number of tetrahedral voids
present in a lattice is twice to the number of close packed particles.]

Density of Unit Cell (d) Density of unit ce11 = mass of unit cell / volume of unit cell
d = Z * M / a3 = ZM / a3 * NA
(The density of the unit cell is same as the density of the substance.)
where, d = density of unit cell
M = molecular weight
Z = no. of atoms per unit cell
NA = Avogadro number
a = edge length of unit cell.

The Structure of Ionic Crystals

The ionic radius ratios of cation and anion, play a very important role in giving a clue to the
nature of the crystal structure of ionic substances. Radius Ratio and Crystal Structure Ionic
crystals may be of two types
(i)AB type and
(ii) A2B or AB2

Crystalline solids and their role in influencing various properties

Imperfections in Solids: In a crystalline solid, the atoms, ions and molecules are arranged in a
Definite repeating pattern, but some defects may occur in the pattern. derivations from perfect
arrangement may occur due to rapid cooling or presence of additional particles.
The defects are of two types, namely point defects and line defects.
Point Defects
Point defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal arrangement around a point or an atom in
a crystalline substance Point defects can be classified into three types : (1) psychometric defects (2)
impuritydefects (3) non–stoichiometric defects
1 .Stoichiometric Defect: These are point defects that do not disturb’ the -stoichiometric of the
solid. They are also called intrinsic or thermodynamic defects. In ionic solids, basically these are of
two types, Frankel defect and Schottky defect AgBr has both Schottky and Frenkel defects. Frenkel
defects are not found in pure alkali metal halides because cations are of large size.
2. Impurity Defect
 It arises when foreign atoms or ions aloe present in the lattice. In case of ionic compounds,
the impurity 1S also ionic in nature. When the impurity has the same charge as the host
ion. it just substitutes some of the host ions.
 Impurity defects can also be introduced by adding impurity ions having different charge
than host ions. e.g. molten NaCl containing a little amount of SrCI2 is crystallised. In such
cases,
 Cationic vacancies produced = [number of cations of higher valence * Difference in
valence of the host cation and cation of higher valence
3. Non-Stoichiometric Defect: Non-stoichiometric crystals are those which do not obey the law of
constant proportions. The numbers of positive and negative ions present in such compounds are
different from those expected from their ideal chemical formulae. However, the crystal as a whole in
neutral.
Types of n-stoichiometric defects are as follows:
(i) Metal excess defect Metal excess defect due to anionic vacancies: Alkyl halides like NaC1 and
KCl show this type of defect. centres ale the sites from where anions are missing and the vacant sites
are occupied by electrons. F-centres contribute colour and paramagnetic nature of the crystal [F
stands for German wo\d Farbe meaning colour).
Metal excess defect due to presence of extra cations at interstitial sites, e.g., zinc oxide is white
in colour at room temperature. On beating, it loses oxygen and turns yellow.
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(ii) Metal deficiency defect due to cation vacancy It is due to the absence of a metal ion from its
lattice site and charge is balanced by ion having higher positive charge. Transition metals exhibit this
defect, e.g., FeO, which is found in the composition range from Fe0.93 O to Fe0.96O. In crystal of
FeO, some Fe2+cations are missing and the loss of positive charge is made up by the presence of
required number of Fe3+ ions.

Classification of Solids on the Basis of Electrical Conductivity[The electricity produced on

heating a polar crystal is called ‘pyroelectricity’.] When mechanical stress is applied on polar
crystals, electricity produced due to displacement of ions is called ‘piezoelectricity’
Semiconductors: Electronic conductors having electrical conductivity in the range of 10 4 – 107 Ω-1
cm-1are known as semiconductors. Examples Si, Ge Sn (grey), Cu2O, SiC and GaAs.
Intrinsic Semiconductors: Pure substances that are semiconductors are known as Intrinsic
Semiconductors e.g., Si, Ge
Extrinsic Semiconductors: Their conductivity is due to the presence of impurities. They are formed
by doping. It is defined as addition of impurities to a semiconductor to increase the conductivity.
Doping of Si or Ge is carried out with P, As, Sb, B, Al or Ga.
1. n·type semiconductors Silicon doped with 15 group elements like phosphorus is called
ntype semiconductor. The conductivity is due to the presence of negative charge
(electrons),
2. p·type semiconductors Silicon doped with 13 group element like gallium is called p-type
semiconductor. The conductivity is due to the presence of positive holes.
o Some typical 13-15 compounds are InSb, AlP and GaAs and SOme typical 12 16
compounds are ZnS, CdS. CdSe and HgTe.
o These exhibit electrical and optical properties of great use in electronic industry.
Magnetic Properties of Solids: Solids can be divided into different classes depending ontheir
response to magnetic field.
1. Diamagnetic Substances: These are weakly repelled by the magnetic field and do not have any
unpaired electron, e.g., TiO2, V2O5, C6H6, NaCI, etc.
2. Paramagnetic Substances: These are attracted by the magnetic field and have unpaired electrons
These lose magnetism in the absence of magnetic field, e.g., O2, Cu2+, Fe3+, etc.
3. Ferromagnetic Substances: These are attracted by the magnetic field and show permanent
magnetism even ill the absence of magnetic field e.g., Fe, Co and Ni.
4. Anti-ferromagnetic Substances: These substances have net magnetic moment zero due to
compensatory alignment of magnetic moments, e.g., MnO, MnO2, FeO, etc.
5. Ferrimagnetic Substances: These substances have a net dipole moment due to unequal parallel
and anti-parallel alignment of magnetic moments, e.g., Fe3O4, ferrites, etc.

Classes of Engineering Materials(R.K.Rajput):

From material science point of view engineering materials are classified in four broad groups:
i. Metals and Alloys
ii. Ceramic Materials
iii. Organic polymers
iv. Composite materials

1. Metals&Alloys - Metals are polycrystalline bodies consisting of a great numbers of fine

crystals (10-1 to 10-4 cm size) differently oriented with respect to one another. Depending upon
the mode of crystallization, these crystals may be of various irregular shapes, and, in contrast to
crystals of regular shape, are called crystallites or grains of the metal. Metal in the solid state
possess high thermal and electrical conductivity, and a positive temperature coefficient of
electrical resistivity. The general resistance of pure metals increases with the temperature. Many
metals display superconductivity; at temperatures near absolute zero, their electrical resistance
drops abruptly to extremely low values. Besides, all metals are capable of thermionic emission,
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i.e., the emission of electrons upon being heated; they are good reflectors of light and lend
themselves well to plastic deformation.
Pure Metals are of low strength and in many cases, do not possess the required
physiochemical and technological properties for some definite purpose. Consequently they are
seldom used in engineering. The over whelming majority of metals used are alloys.
Alloys areproduced bymelting or sintering two or more metals, or metal and a non-metal,
together. Alloys possess typical properties inherent in the metallic state, the substances that make
up the alloy are called its components. An alloy can also consist of two or more components.
Examples of metals and alloys: Steels, copper, aluminium, brasses, bronze, invar, superalloys
etc.
2. Ceramic Materials - These materials are non-metallic solids made of inorganic compounds
such as oxides, nitrides, borides, suicides and carbides. They are fabricated by first shaping the
powder with or without the application of pressure into a compact which is subsequently
subjected to a high temperature treatment, called sintering. Traditional ceramics were made from
crude naturally occurring mixtures of materials having inconsistent purity. These have been used
essentially in the manufacture of pottery, porcelain, cement and silicate glasses. New ceramics
possess exceptional electrical, magnetic, chemical, structural and thermal properties. Such
ceramics are now extensively used in the electronic control devices, computers, nuclear
engineering and aerospace fields.
Examples of ceramics: MgO, CdS, ZnO, SiC, silica, soda-lime, glass, concrete, cement, ferrites,
garnets etc.
3. Organic Materials - These materials are derived directly from carbon. They usually consist
of carbon chemically combined with hydrogen, oxygen or other non-metallic substances. In
many instances their structures are fairly complex.
Common organic materials are: Plastics and Synthetic rubbers. These are termed “polymers”
because they are formed by polymerization reaction in which relatively simple molecules are
chemically combined into massive long-chain molecules or “three dimensional” structures.
Examples of organic materials: Plastics: PVC, PTFE, polythene; Fibers: terylene, nylon,
cotton; Natural and synthetic rubbers, leather etc.
4. Composites:
A. Metals and alloys and ceramics:
i. Steel reinforced concrete
ii. Dispersion hardened alloys.
B. Metals and alloys and organic polymers:
i. Vinyl-coated steel
ii. Whisker-reinforced plastics.
C. Ceramics and organic polymers:
i. Fibre-reinforced plastics
ii. Carbon-reinforced rubber.

Classification of Solids from Electrical Engineering Point of View

(R.K.Rajput)

The electrical engineering materials may be classified into the following four types:
i. Conductors
ii. Semiconductors
iii. Insulators (or (dielectrics)
iv. Magnetic materials.

A. Conductors
 Conductors may be defined, as the materials which have free valence electrons in plenty for
electric conduction. The commonly used conductors are copper, aluminium, tungsten, iron
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and steel, lead, nickel, tin etc. In this case the valence and conduction bands overlap as shown
in Fig 1.1 (a). Since there is no physical distinction between the two bands, therefore, a large
number of free electrons (conduction) are available.
 The conductors are used in electric devices, instruments and all kinds of electrical machine
windings. They are also employed in manufacturing of cables and wires, for the distribution
of electrical energy over long distances and telephone and telegraph circuits.
B. Semiconductors
 Semiconductors are solid materials, either non-metallic elements or compounds which allow
electrons to pass through them so that they conduct electricity in much the same way as the
metals. They occupy an intermediate position between conductors and insulators. In this case,
the valence band is almost filled but conduction band is almost empty; they are separated by
a small energy gap as shown in Fig. 1.1 (b). The valence band is completely filled at 00K and
no electron is available for conduction. But, as the temperature is increased the width of
energy gap decreases and some of the electrons are liberated into the conduction band. In
other words the conductivity of semiconductors increases with temperature.
Semiconductors usually have high resistivity, negative temperature coefficient of resistance
and are generally hard and brittle.
 The main difference between a conductor and semiconductor relates to the dependence of
their conductivity on the degree of purity of metals. The conductivity of a good conductor
increases with purification whereas that of semiconductor generally decreases with
purification.
 Examples of elements which are semiconductors are: Boron (B), Carbon (C), Silicon (Si),
Germanium (Ge), Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Sulphur (S), Selenium (Se),
Iodine (I). A number of semi-conducting compounds in the form of oxides, alloys, sulphides,
and halides are also available.
 Semiconductors are used in different fields of electrical engineering, e.g., telecommunication
and radio-communication, electronics and power engineering. They also render their
services as amplifiers, rectifiers, photocells, special sources of electric current etc.

Fig. 1.1. Conductors, Semiconductors, Insulators.

C. Insulators
Insulatorsare those materials in which valence electrons are very tightly bound to their parent
atoms thus requiring very large electric field to remove them from attraction of nuclei.They are
not governed by electrodynamic phenomena involving the direction of flow of number of electric
charges by the electrostatic phenomena associated with the presence of an electric field. They
have (i) a full valence band, (ii) an empty conduction band and (iii) a large energy gap between
them. Fig. 1.1 (c) shows that for conduction to take place, electrons must be given sufficient
energy to jump from valence band to conduction band. At ordinary temperature the probability of
electrons from full valence band gaining sufficient energy so as to surmount energy gap and
becoming available for conduction in conduction band is slight. But increase in temperature
enables electrons to go to conduction band.
In electric circuits and devices the insulators insulate one current-carrying part from another.
The insulating materials may be of three types:

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i. Solid: Mica, micanite, porcelain, asbestos, slate, marble, bakelite, rubber, PVC,
polythene, paper, glass, cotton, silk, wood, vulcanised fibre, ceramic, aluminium oxide.
ii. Liquid: Natural resin varnishes, bituminous varnishes, phenolic varnishes, shellac
varnishes, etc.
iii. Gaseous: Air, nitrogen freon.
D. Magnetic Materials
 Magnetic materials are those materials in which a state of magnetisation can be induced. In
accordance with the value of relative permeability the materials may be classified in the
following three ways:
(i) Ferromagnetic materials. The relative permeability of these materials is much
greater than unity and is dependent on the field strength. The principal ferromagnetic
elements are: Iron, cobalt and nickel. Gadolinium however, also comes under this
classification. They have high susceptibility.
(ii) Paramagnetic materials. They have relative permeability slightly greater than unity
and are magnetised slightly. Aluminium, platinum and oxygen belong to this category.
(iii) Diamagnetic materials. The relative permeability of these materials is slightly less
than unity. The examples arc bismuth, silver, copper and hydrogen.
 The magnetic properties of materials arise from the spin of electrons and orbital motion of
electrons around the atomic nuclei. In several atoms the opposite spin neutralises one
another, but when there is an excess of electrons spinning in one direction, a magnetic field is
produced. All substances, except ferromagnetic materials which can form permanent
magnets, exhibit magnetic effects only when subjected to an external electromagnetic field.
 Since magnetic materials strengthen the magnetic field in which they arc placed and possess
high magnetic permeability, they claim wide field of applications in the form of magnetic
waves, magnetic screens and permanent magnets.

Conducting Material(R.K.Rajput)
A “conductor” of electricity is any substance or material which will afford continuous
passage to an electric current when subjected to a difference of potential, the greater the density
of current for a given potential difference, the more efficient the conductor is said to be.

1. Properties of conductors(TTTI, Madras):

a. Electrical Properties
i. The conductivity must be good.
ii. Electrical energy displayed in the form of heat must be low.
iii. Resistivity must be low.
iv. Temperature resistance ratio must be low.
b. Mechanical Properties
i. Ductility: It is that property of a material which allows it to be drawn into a wire.
ii. Solderability: The joint should have minimum contact resistance.
iii. Resistance to corrosion: Should not get rusted when used outdoors.
iv. Withstand stress and strain.
v. Easy to fabricate.
c. Economical Properties
i. Low cost
ii. Easily available
iii. Easy to manufacture

2. Characteristics of Good Conductor Materials (TTTI, Madras)

The conductor materials should have low resistivity so that the desired power can be transmitted
without much loss in the conductor. The choice of a conductor material depends on the following
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factors:
a. Resistivity of the materials
b. Temperature coefficient of resistance
c. Resistance against corrosion
d. Oxidation characteristics
e. Ease of soldering and welding
f. Ductility
g. Mechanical strength
h. Flexibility and abundance
i. Durability and low cost
j. Resistance to chemicals and weather

3. Commonly Used Conducting Materials (TTTI, Madras)

a. Copper
Properties:
i. Pure copper is one of the best conductors of electricity and its conductivity is highly
sensitive to impurities.
ii. It is reddish-brown in colour.
iii. It is malleable and ductile.
iv. It can be welded at red heat.
v. It is highly resistant to corrosion.
vi. Melting point is 10840C.
vii. Specific gravity of copper is 8.9.
viii. Electrical resistivity is 1.682 micro ohm cm.
ix. Its tensile strength varies from 3 to4.7 tonnes/cm2.
x. It forms important alloys like bronze and gun-metal.
Uses: Wires, cables, windings of generators and transformers, overhead conductors, busbars.
Hard (cold-drawn) copper conductor is mechanically strong with tensile strength
40kg/mm2. It is obtained by drawing cold copper bars into conductor length. It is used for
overhead line conductors and busbars.

b. Aluminium
Properties:
i. Pure aluminium has silvery colour and lustre. It offers high resistance to corrosion. Its
electrical conductivity is next to that of copper.
ii. It is ductile and malleable.
iii. Its electrical resistivity is 2669 micro ohms cm at 200C.
iv. It is good conductor of heat and electricity.
v. Its specific gravity is 2.7.
vi. Its melting point is 6580C.
vii. It forms useful alloys with iron, copper, zinc and other metals.
viii. It cannot be soldered or welded easily.
Uses: Overhead transmission line wires, busbars, ACSR conductors. Well suited for cold
climate.
c. Annealed Copper (Soft Copper) Conductor. It is mechanically weak, tensile
strength 20 kg/mm2, easily shaped into any form.
d. Low-Resistivity Hard Copper.It is used in power cables, windings, and coils as an
insulated conductor. It has high flexibility and high conductivity.

e. Comparison of Copper and Aluminium as Conductors for Power

Transmission Lines
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Copper Aluminium
i.Metal is costly i.Metal is cheap
ii.100 per cent conductivity ii.75 per cent conductivity
iii. Good resistance to corrosion iii. Good resistance to corrosion
iv. Heavier as compared to aluminium iv. Lighter as Compared to copper
v. Good ductility and malleability v. Good ductility and malleability
vi. Excellent soldering and welding capacity vi. Poor solderability and weldability
vii. Less suited for low temperature vii. Well suited to cold climate
viii. Very small cross-Section can carry heavy viii. Cross-section should be 50 per cent more to
current carry the same current as that of copper
ix. Because of softness and flexibility, it can ix. Due to brittleness, cannot be twisted
easily be twisted repeatedly
x. The wind pressure and weight of snow is x. The wind pressure and weight of snow is
less because of smaller cross-section more because of higher cross-section
xi. The tensile strength and permissible xi. The tensile strength and permissible tension
tension is more is only 0.53 times that of copper

f. Iron and Steel.Steel contains iron with a small percentage of carbon added to it. Iron itself
is not very strong but when carbon is added to it, it assumes very good mechanical properties.
The tensile strength of steel is higher than that of iron. The resistivity of steel is 8-9 times
higher than that of copper. Hence, steel is not generally used as conductor material.
Galvanised steel wires are used as overhead telephone wires and as earth wires. Aluminium
conductors are steel-reinforced to increase their tensile strength.
g. Brass
Properties:
i. It is an alloy of 60% copper and 40% zinc
ii. It has high tensile strength but has a lower conductivity.
iii. It can be welded and soldered easily
iv. It has high resistance to corrosion.
v. It can be drawn into wires easily.
vi. It is cheaper than copper.
vii. Its specific gravity is 3.3.
viii. Its resistivity is 7.5 micro ohm cm.
ix. It has high melting point of 8900C.
Uses: Used as fuse holders, lamp holders, switches, knife switches, caps of valves, tubes, lamps,
socket outlets, sliding contacts for starters and rheostats.

h. Bronze. Bronzes are named on the third element which is added to copper and tin to form
an alloy like phosphor bronze, silicon bronze, cadmium bronze
Properties:
i. It is an alloy of copper and tin.
ii. It is very hard and brittle.
iii. It resists corrosion better than brass.
Uses: Phosphor bronze is used for current-carrying springs, brush holders, knife switch blades,
sliding contacts and parts exposed to salty water or sea water. Silicon bronze is used for
aerial wires, telephone parts. Cadmium bronze is used for contacting conductor and
commutator segments.

i. Mercury
Properties:
i. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
ii. It is a heavy silver-white metal.
iii. It is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature.
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iv. Its electrical resistivity is 95.8 micro ohm cm.
v. Oxidation takes place if heated beyond 3000C in contact with air or oxygen.
vi. It expands and contracts in regular degrees when temperature changes.
Uses: Mercury vapour lamps, mercury arc rectifiers, gas tilled tubes; for making and breaking
contacts; used in valves, tubes.

j. Silver. It is best-known electrical conductor.

Properties:
i. It is very costly.
ii. It is not affected by weather changes.
iii. It is highly ductile and malleable.
iv. Its resistivity is 1.65 micro ohm cm.
Uses: Used in special contacts, high rupturing capacity fuses, radio frequency conducting
bodies, loads in valves and instruments.

k. Zinc
Properties:
i. It is a bluish white metal and is very cheap.
ii. Its electrical conductivity is almost half of that of copper.
iii. It is brittle, but has good malleable and ductile properties at high temperatures.
iv. It is not affected by air but moisture forms a coating.
v. Its resistivity is 15.5 micro ohm cm.
vi. Its temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.0036 at 20C.
Uses: It is used for galvanising steel parts and wires against rusting. It is used in electric cells. It
makes extremely useful alloys like brass, bronze, etc.

l. Lead.
Properties:
i. It is a soft bluish-gray metal.
ii. It has good malleable and ductile properties.
iii. Soft and heavy metal.
iv. It alloys with many other metals.
v. It is corrosion-resistant.
Uses: Covering electric cables; load accumulators. It makes useful alloys.

m. Selenium. It is a non-metallic element and has a greyish appearance.It comes in the form of
dark red crystals. It has a peculiar property that its conductivity varies with the intensity of
light falling on it. Its conductivity suddenly increases, if taken from darkness to sunlight.
Uses: As selenium rectifiers, photo-electric cells, light motors, safety devices for recording and
reproduction of sound in cinema.

n. Nickel
Properties:
i. It is a silvery-white metal capable of taking high polish.
ii. It is resistant to the attack of most acids.
iii. It is hard, malleable and ductile.
iv. It is highly resistant to corrosion and oxidation.
Uses: Electroplating; nickel-iron accumulators, thermocouples, supports of glow lamps,
sparking-plug electrodes, resistance grids.

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o. Tin
Properties:
i. It is a bluish-white metal with lustre.
ii. Its conductivity is poor.
iii. Its tensile strength is low.
iv. It has excellent malleable property.
v. Air has no action on it.
vi. It can be drawn into wires.
vii. It is very soft.
viii. Its electrical resistivity is 11.5 micro ohm cm.
ix. Melting point is 2320C and temperature coefficient is 0.00410C.
Uses: To enamel porcelain; cable sheathing, tubes, tinning of parts exposed to corrosion and
acids.

p. Tungsten
Properties:
i. It is greyish in colour when in metallic form.
ii. It has a very high melting point (33000C).
iii. It is a very hard metal and does not become brittle at high temperature.
iv. It can be drawn into very thin wires for making filaments.
v. Its resistivity is about twice that of aluminium.
vi. In its thinnest form, it has very high tensile strength.
vii. It oxidises very quickly in the presence of oxygen even at a temperature of a few hundred
degrees centigrade.
viii. In the atmosphere of an inert gas like nitrogen or argon, or in vacuum, it will reliably
work up to 20000C.
Uses: It is used as filaments of electric lamps and as a heater in electron tubes. It is also used in
thermionic valves, radars, grids of electronic valves, sparking and contact points.

q. Molybdenum Conductor Material

Properties:
i. It has a specific weight of 10.29/cm2.
ii. It has a melting point of 26200C.
iii. Its boiling point is 37000C.
iv. It has a thermal coefficient of expansion of 5.3 x 10-6C.
v. Its resistivity is 4.8 micro ohm cm.
vi. Its temperature resistance coefficient is 0.047 per 0C.
Uses: It is used as the target in X-ray tubes and as a structural member in high-vacuum electron
tubes because of its ability to form a tight seal with glass. Used for high-temperature
applications in refractory elements.

4. Conductor Materials for Overhead Lines

Electrical and Mechanical Properties - The function of overhead lines is to transmit electrical
energy. The important properties which the line conductors must have are:
i. High electrical conductivity
ii. High tensile strength
iii. Low density
iv. Low cost

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5. Types of Conductors
a. Copper - The conductor used for transmission is bard-drawn copper.
Properties:
i. It has the best conductivity.
ii. It has high current density.
iii. The metal is quite homogeneous.
iv. It has low specific resistance.
v. It is durable and has a high scrap value.

b. Aluminium - Next to copper it is used as a conductor.

Properties:
i. It is cheaper than copper.
ii. It is lighter in weight.
iii. It is second in conductivity.
iv. For the same ohmic resistance, its cross-section is about 1.27 times that of copper.
v. At higher voltages, it causes lower corona loss.
vi. As the diameter of the conductor is more, it is subject to greater wind pressure due to
which the swing of the conductor and sag will be greater.
vii. Since the conductors are liable to swing, it requires larger cross- section.
viii. As the melting point of the conductor is low, the short-circuit current will damage it.
ix. Welding of aluminium is much more difficult than that of any other material.

c. AluminiumConductor with Steel Reinforcement (ACSR) - An aluminium

conductor having a central core of galvanised steel wires is used for high-voltage
transmission purposes. Reinforcement is done to increase the tensile strength of aluminium
conductor.The galvanised steel core is covered by one or more strands of aluminium wires.
Steel conductors used are galvanised in order to prevent rusting and electrolytic corrosion.
The cross-sections of the two metals are in the ratio 1:6. For high-strength conductor, their
ratio is 1:4. The steel-reinforced aluminium conductor has lower sag and longer span than the
copper conductor line since it has high tensile strength. The ACSR conductor has a larger
diameter than any other type of conductor of sameresistance.For all calculation purposes, it is
assumed that the current is passing only in the aluminium section.

6. Conductor Materials Used for Underground Cables:

a. Electrical and Mechanical Properties - Cables are most useful for low-voltage distribution
in thickly populated areas.
b. Advantages:
i. The cable transmission is not subjected to supply interruptions caused by lightning or
thunderstorms, birds and other severe weather conditions.
ii. It reduces the accidents caused by breaking of the conductors.
iii. Its use does not spoil the beauty of cities.
The numbers of strands in cables are 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, 127 or 169 as these conductors give the
cylindrical formation.

1 + 6 = 7 Strands 1 + 6 + 12 = 19 Strands
Fig. 1.2. Stranded Conductor

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c. Required Properties of Cables:

i. High insulation resistance.
ii. Moisture and water percolated due to rain or other causes should not come in contact with
conductor.
iii. Low discharge current.
iv. Sufficient strength for mechanical handling and cable laying.
v. Resistant to chemical action due to chemical content in earth or damages due to insects.
vi. As there is not much opportunity for heat dissipation from conductor, the insulator must
be capable of withstanding, without any change in qualities, the temperature within the
cable.
vii. It must be flexible, light and occupy loss space.
viii. Available in right quantity and at low rate.
d. Materials Used for Manufacturing Cables: Paper (impregnated), varnishedcambric,
vulcanised bitumen, rubber, compressed air, petroleum jelly, metal sheath (lead or lead
alloy), galvanised steel or tapes for armouring and jute.

Uses:
i. LT (low-tension) cables up to 1000 V (Fig. 1.3).
ii. NT (high-tension) cables up to 11000 V.
iii. ST (super-tension) cables from 22000 to 33000 V.
iv. EHT (extra high tension) cables from 33000 to 66000 V.
v. Oil or gas filled under pressure cables for 66000 to 132000 V.

Fig. 1.3. Details of materials used for the construction of an

L.T. cable (Single Core Armoured Cable)

7. Conductor Materials Used for Electrical Machines Winding

a. Enamelled copper wire for generator, motor windings, field windings
b. Super-enamelled copper wire for transformer
c. Rolled copper bars for busbars
d. Silver for special contacts, high rupturing capacity fuses
 Trade Names
Commonly used trade names for conductors used for overhead line transmission of
electrical power: (As per IS: 398 - 1953):
a. Mole b. Squirrel c. Weasel d. Ferret e. Rabbit f. Mink
g. Bearer h. Raccoon i. Otter j. Cat k. Dog l. Leopard
m. Coyot n. Tiger o. Wolf p. Lynx q. Panther r. Lion
e
s. Bear t. Goat u. Sheep v. Deer w.Lek x. Moose
The above trade names of conductors have different current-carrying capacities. For
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details, refer to IS: 398 - 1953.

8. Materials for Busbar(HVE, Mazen Abdel-Salam)

Several factors determine the proper choice of busbar conductor material. These factors are
determined largely by the type of installation and the size of electrical load to be carried. Factors
to be considered when making this choice are voltage drop, power loss, current-carrying
capacity, ice and wind loads, short-circuit loads, and conductor corrosion.
The busbar materials in general use are aluminum and copper. Heat-treatable aluminum
alloys, especially in tubular shapes, are most widely used in HV and EHV outdoor substations.
They combine high strength and good conductivity.
Aluminum is one-third the weight of copper for a specified length. Aluminum and its alloys
require little maintenance. For a given current rating and for equal temperature rise, the
aluminum bus would have a 33% larger cross-section than the equivalent copper bus. The
resulting deflection for the copper bus is about 31% greater than for the aluminum bus. As
aluminum has several advantages over copper, most rigid bus installations use tubings of
aluminum or its alloys.

Resistor materials(TTTI, Madras)

These are mostly alloys of different metals which arc also conductors of electricity. The
resistivity of these materials is more than the resistivity of materials which are considered as
good conductors. The special properties of these resistor materials are (i) loss of energy in
overcoming resistance and (ii) the energy so lost gets dissipated as heat energy.
Examples: phosphor, bronze, nichrome, eureka, manganin and constantan, etc. These are divided
into three groups based on their practical applications.
i. The first groupconsists of materials used in precision electrical measuring instruments,
standard resistances and resistance boxes.
ii. The second group consists of materials used for all types of rheostats and similar control
devices. Example: constantan.
iii. The third groupconsists of the materials used for high-temperature heating elements,
loading rheostat, etc. Example: nichrome.

1. Types of Resistor Materials(TTTI, Madras)

First Group Second Group Third Group
a. Low temperature a. High temperature a. High working
coefficient of resistance coefficient of resistance temperature of 13000C
b. Good stability in b. Thermo emf is large b. Non-corrosive
resistance value for a
long period
c. Thermo emf is minimum c. Working temperature is c. Cost is high
with copper 5000C
d. Working temperature is d. Low Cost d. High melting point of
600 to 700C 17700C
e. Hard and brittle

2. Properties and Applications of Important Resistor Materials(TTTI, Madras)

a. Tungsten
Properties:
i. It is a hard metal.
ii. Resistivity is about twice that of aluminium.
iii. It can be drawn into very thin wires.
iv. High tensile strength.
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v. Melting point 33000C.
vi. Working temperature is 2000C.
vii. It is an excellent magnetic material.

Applications:
i. Is commonly used as filaments in incandescent lamps and in heater in electron tubes.
ii. Used as a constituent in magnets and high-speed steels.
iii. Copper tungsten is suitable for all immersed motor starters.

b. Carbon. Carbon is mostly available as graphite which contains about 90% of carbon.
Amorphous carbon is found in the form of coal, coke, charcoal, petroleum, etc. Electrical
carbon is obtained by grinding the raw carbon materials, mixing with binding agents,
moulding and baking it.
Properties:
i. Carbon has very high resistivity (about 4600 micro ohm cm).
ii. It has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
iii. It is a pressure-sensitive resistance material and has low surface friction.
iv. The current density is 55 to 65 A/cm2.
v. This oxidises at about 3000C and is very weak.
vi. It has very good abrasive resistance.
vii. It withstands arcing and maintains its properties at high temperature.

Applications:
i. It is used as a brush in electrical machines.
ii. It is used for electrodes in cells and arc lamps, in projectors and in microphones.
iii. Carbon arcing tips are used in circuit breaking as they effectively withstand arcs.
iv. As components in electronics and communication equipment.

c. Nichrome. It is an alloy of nickel (75 to 78%), chromium (20-30%), manganese (1.5%)

and iron (balance).
Properties:
i. Its resistivity is high.
ii. Temperature coefficient of resistance is low.
iii. Withstands high temperature for a long time without melting or oxidising.
iv. It is silvery-white in appearance and has good ductile, mechanical and thermal properties.

Applications: In making electric irons, tubular beating elements, furnace and heating
elements.

d. Manganin. It is a copper alloy with copper (80%), manganese (17-18%) and nickel (1.5 to
2%). Its resistance is quite stable for a long time.
Properties:
i. Specific resistance is 44 micro ohms,
ii. Low temperature coefficient of resistance (.00015).
iii. Melting point is 10200C.
iv. Specific gravity is 8.19.

Applications: It is particularly suitable for use in standard resistance toils and for instruments
shunts.

e. Eureka. This is an alloy of copper (60%) and nickel (40%). It is silver like in appearance.
Properties:
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i. Very stable alloy with very high working temperature.
ii. Heat resisting properties are poor.
iii. It does not rust or corrode due to air, heat and moisture.
iv. Resistivity is 49 micro ohm cm.
v. Specific gravity is 1.9.
vi. Melting point is 13000C.

Applications: It is used for making different types of rheostats, resistance wires, resistance
boxes, arc lamps, motor starters, loading in and supporting wires for electric filaments.

f. Platinum.
Properties:
i. It is a grayish-white metal.
ii. It is non-corroding.
iii. It is resistant to most chemicals.
iv. It can be drawn into thin wires and strips.
v. Its melting point is 17750C.
vi. Its resistivity is 10.5 micro ohm cm.
vii. It is not oxidised even at high temperature.

Applications:
i. It is used as heating element in laboratory ovens and furnaces.
ii. It is used as electrical contact material and as a material for grids in specialpurpose
vacuum tubes.
iii. Platinum - rhodium thermocouple is used for measurement of temperatures up to 16000C.

Thermal Conductivity of Metals(R.K. Rajput)

The heat is conducted by all solids; however, the metals are the best heat conductors. Among
the metals the best electrical conductors are also best heat conductors. In such conductors like
electrical conductivity, the heat conduction is mostly through valance (free) electrons. Thermal
conductivity, which denotes the transport of thermal energy through a material, generally consists
of two terms:(i) Lattice term; (ii) electron term. In the case of insulating materials in which
electrons are held tightly by individual atoms or molecules, absorption or transport of thermal
energy takes place only through lattice vibrations, and the electrons do not make a contribution.
On the other hand, electrons in metals are relatively free from specific attraction to individual
ion cores, and therefore, electrons in addition to thermal vibrations absorb and transmit thermal
energy.
If a homogeneous isotropic material is subjected to a temperature gradient, a flow ofheat
dT
results in the direction opposite to the gradient. Thus when dx represents thetemperature
gradient and Q represents the heat flow density, then the thermal conductivity K is given by the
expression:
Q=−K ( dTdx ) …(i)
2
Where Q is expressed in watts/m
dT
And dx is expressed in 0C/m.
The value of K is in watts/m0C.
In insulating solids, the heat is carried by the lattice vibrations. This, in part is also the case in
the metals, but the thermal conductivity due to the conduction electrons predominates in both
insulators and conductors. The electrons at the hot end have a higher kinetic energy. They move
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to the cold end where the excess energy is released to the atoms whereby the thermal agitation of
the atoms and the temperature increase. The electrons of the cold end have less kinetic energy, so
in passing to the hot end they decrease the thermal agitation and the temperature. Since the same
electrons also conduct electric current, the transfer of heat and the conduction of current must be
closely related processes.
The total energy transferred across a cross-section is dependent upon the following:
i. The number of electrons/m3(n)
ii. The average velocity of the electrons (V)

iii. The energy gradient

( dWdx )
iv. The mean free path (λ)
v. The area of cross-section (A).

dW
Q∝nV A⋅λ
Thus dx
The above formula checks dimensionally, hence we conclude that:
dW
Q= constant×nV A⋅λ
dx
The constant is a numeric (having no dimensions) and will accordingly have the same value
for all materials.
Further, since energy is a function of temperature which in turn is a function of position, we
may write as follows:
dW dT
Q= constant×nV⋅λ ⋅ ⋅A
dx dx …(ii)
Comparing (i) and (ii), we observe that the co-efficient of thermal conductivity is given by:
dW
K= constant×nV⋅λ
dT
dW
Where, dT =rate at which the average energy of an electron increases with temperature. It
is called specific heat of an electron in the metal.

Table 1: Thermal conductivities of various materials

Thermal conductivity
Material →
(Kca/m-hr-degree)
Aluminium 180
Brass 73.5
Cast iron 54
Copper 335
Gold 269
Mercury 25
Silver 360
Cardboard 0.12 – 0.30
Glass 0.64
Paper 0.12
Cork 0.03 – 0.12
Firebrick 0.4 – 0.9
Plastic 0.1 – 0.4
Porcelain 0.7 – 1.6

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