FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

CHAPTER 3.2

Setting Up The Level

The leveling instrument may be set up at any suitable or desired location. When starting a leveling operation the
instrumentman should first consider where he intends to position the instrument. The level is then pulled from its box
by holding the level bar or base plate and screwed securely onto the tripod head. Care should be exercised in screwing
the level. The instrument should fit snugly and bear firmly. If loosely fitted, the instrument will wobble and be unstable;
if too tight due to excessive pressure, it would be difficult to unscrew the instrument later and may cause some damage.

Solid ground should be selected when setting up the instrument. Muddy and wet areas should be avoided as these are
unstable to stand on and may only cause serious errors in leveling work. Tripod legs are spread so that the foot plate will
be approximately horizontal. It will be easier and quicker to level the instrument later if the plate is already horizontally
positioned. The legs should be far enough apart for a rigid set up, and they should be pushed firmly into the ground to
make it stand stable. The instrument should see to it that the telescope is at a convenient height for sighting and he
must be able to stand comfortably between the tripod legs. A preferable and convenient height of setup is one which
will enable the instrumentman to sight through the telescope without having to stretch or stoop.

When setting up the instrument on hillsides or along a slope, one of its legs should extend uphill and two downhill. It is
advisable for the instrumentman to carry along a hand level to determine the approximate height at which the
instrument should be set up in order that points to be sighted will fall within the established line of sight.

Leveling the Instrument

A considerable amount of practice in leveling the instrument will be needed by a beginner. It is only by constant practice
that one would really be able to feel and experience the proper turning of leveling screws to bring the bubble in a level
vial to its center. Most conventional levels are designed with four leveling screws. The screws are used to center the
bubble in a level tube which is attached to the telescope of the instrument. Newer models often have only three leveling
screws to center the bubble of either a level tube or a circular bull’s eye level. The procedures followed in leveling each
type of instrument are outlined as follows:

1. Instruments with Four Leveling Screws

The bubble is first centered approximately over one pair of opposite leveling screws. Time is wasted by exact centering
in the first attempt, since the bubble will be thrown off during cross leveling. The telescope is next tuned 90 degrees
(either clockwise or counterclockwise) and positioned over the two other opposite leveling screws. The bubble is again
centered approximately. This procedure is repeated about three or more times with increasing care until the bubble
finally remains centered in any direction the telescope is pointed. The instrument is leveled if the bubble reamin
centered. This condition will occur only with a properly adjusted level vial since its vertical axis assumes a truly vertical
position when the bubble is centered.

The thumb and the index finger of each hand are used to turn the screws. Screws are turned always in opposite
directions; that is, the thumbs should move either away from each other or toward each other. It is only during final
centering when just one screws needs to be turned to move the bubble thru a small graduations on the level vial. It will
be important to remember that when the leveling screws are turned, the bubble moves in the direction of motion of the
left thumb. Since all screws have exactly the same thread length, one should be extended and the other shortened by
turning in opposite directions. Turning opposite screws should be at the same time and also at about the same rate. This
procedure will allow the screws to constantly bear evenly on the foot plate while the instrument is being leveled. The
instrumentman must see to it that the screws should be snug and not set too tight to avoid damage to threads and the
base plate. It should yield easily to a turn when held between the thumb and index finger.
2. Instruments with Three Leveling Screws

For instruments with only three leveling screws, the telescope is turned until the bubble tube is positioned parallel to
the line through any two of the screws. The bubble is then centered on the level vial by turning these two screws in
opposite directions. As usual, the thumb and the index finger of each hand are used to turn the screws. Also, the bubble
will still move in the direction of motion of the left thumb.

The telescope is next rotated about the vertical axis of the instrument so that the bubble tube is brought perpendicular
to a line through the two screws turned earlier. Again, the bubble is brought carefully to center by means of the third
screw alone. This process of leveling is illustrated in figure:

The instrument is leveled if the bubble remains centered on the level vial when the telescope is brought back to its first
position. If the bubble does not remain within the center graduations, the process is repeated until it remains in the
center for any position of the telescope. This method of repeated centering will only work if the level vial is in
adjustment. Should it be out of adjustment, no amount of repeated centering will work.

In automatic and tilting levels, a three-screw head and a circular bull’s eye level are usually employed. Prior to leveling it
is important that the legs of the tripod are positioned so that leveling head is nearly horizontal, and the bubble in the
circular level is brought as close to the center of the vial. With the telescope in any convenient position, the bull’s eye
bubble is centered, in one direction by operating two leveling screws. It is then centered in the other direction by means
of the third screw. The process of centering the bubble is done by alternately turning two screws and then the other one
singly. The telescope does not have to be turned to any direction during the process of leveling.

Holding the Leveling Rod

The leveling rod is held on a points by a rodman when a sight is to be taken on it. To obtain the correct distance from the
line of sight to the point on which the rod is placed, it is extremely important that the rod be held plumb when the
reading is made. The instrumentman checks the rod by observing through the telescope and noting if it is held parallel to
the vertical cross hair. If the rod is not correctly plumbed, the instrumentman gives out a signal to plumb the rod. The
accuracy of a leveling operation is significantly improved if the rod is always held correctly, and it also increases the
speed with which the work may be performed.
The rodman either stands beside the rod or behind it. He should face the instrumentman and see to it that the rod is
held nearly at right angles to the line of sight. The vertical side of a building, a smokestack, or a flagpole are convenient
aids to the rodman in judging if his rod is plumbed properly when a reading is taken on it. The rod is lightly supported
between the fingers of both hands and is allowed to balance on its own weight. The fingers must not cover the face of
the rod. The rodman should see to it that the graduations are always clearly visible and not obstructed.

In high precision surveys the leveling rods used are equipped with a rod level. Although this device is not generally used
in ordinary leveling work, it is advisable to use one when inexperienced rodmen are employed. A rod level is securely
held against the back of the rod or it may be permanently attached to it. It should not in any way obstruct the rod
graduations.

Taking Rod Reading

Before rod readings are taken on a rod, it is important to first examine how the graduations are indicated on it. The
metric rod in the figure is graduated in centimeters and numerals are indicated for every full meter and decimeter mark.
The single dot shown below each numeral indicates that readings taken on it are in the 1-m range. Since most rods
extend to lengths of either 3 or 4 meters, three or four dots are used to correspondingly identify each meter and
decimeter graduations.

Each blackened graduation and each space between graduation is one centimeter (0.01 m) high. The full meter marks
are identified on the rod by large numerals which are usually painted in red. The decimeter marks are identified by
smaller black-painted numerals. In figure, the readings for six different positions are given as examples. It will be noted
that readings to thousandths of a meter are estimated as in d and f which are 2.165 m and 2.235 m, respectively.
Once the instrument is set up and leveled, the following steps are performed in taking rod readings:

1. Position the Rod

The leveling rod is held by the rodman on a designated point whose elevation is to be determined. He stands beside or
behind the rod, faces it toward the instrumentman, and holds it as nearly plumb as possible. Since directions and signals
emanate from the instrumentman, the rodman should always focus his attention on him.

2. Focus on the Rod

The instrumentman aims and focuses the telescope on the rod at the same time seeing to it that the bubble continues
to remain in the center of the level vial. He makes use of the vertical hair to check if the rod is held plumb.

3. Read the Rod

If the self-reading rod is used, the instrumentman observes directly from the telescope and records the reading
indicated by the line of sight. The reading is shown by the apparent position of the horizontal cross hair on the rod. The
view through the telescope is similar to that shown in figure. When using a target rod, the process of reading is identical
except that the target is set (raised or lowered) so that the horizontal cross hair bisects it while the bubble is in the
center of the level vial. The instrumentman directs the setting of the target but the rod is read by the rodman. It is
extremely important that a check is made on the centering of the bubble before and after readings are taken on the rod.

Determining Difference In Elevation

In figure illustrates a typical set up for determining difference in elevation between two points, A and B, using the
engineer’s level and leveling rod.

The sequence of steps involved are as follows:

2. Sight on the rod held vertically at point A and record the rod reading. In the given illustration the rod reading at A is
2.00 meters. This means that point A on the ground is 2.00 m below the horizontal plane of reference (or line of sight)
established by the level.

3. Rotate the telescope carefully about the vertical axis and sight on a rod held vertically at B. Record the rod reading at
B. To avoid instrumental errors only one rod should be used during the measurement. The illustrated rod reading at B is
3.50 m which means that point B on the ground is 3.50 m below the same horizontal plane of reference.

4. The difference in elevation between points A and B is determined by noting the difference in their respective rod
readings, or 3.50 m – 2.00 m = 1.50 m. This value corresponds to the vertical distance between the two imaginary level
surfaces (assumed to be horizontal lines) passing through points A and B.

From the given illustration, it can easily be seen that point B is lower in elevation that point A since its vertical distance
measured downward from the established line of sight is greater than that taken at point A. Also, if the elevation of
point A is known, the elevation of point B may be determined by subtracting the computed difference in elevation from
the elevation of A. The procedure just described where the enigneer’s level and a leveling rod were employed for
measuring differences in elevation is called direct or spirit leveling.

Lengths of Sight

It is always best to take slight at moderate lengths to attain speed and accuracy in leveling work. However, very short or
extremely long sights should be avoided. The most suitable sight lengths will depend upon the required degree of
precision, the surface of the terrain, the type of instrument used, and upon the distance at which the rod remains
readable to the instrumentman. Under ordinary conditions the length of sight should not exceed about 90 meters where
elevations to the nearest 0.001 m are desired. Beyond this length it is difficult to read the rod accurately and the errors
caused by curvature and refraction have to be considered.

Irregular refraction during summer months usually causes “boiling” of the air. In such a condition, the refraction is quite
large and precise results could not be expected when very long sights are taken. They should be made considerably
shorter especially if the line of sight clears the ground surface by only as much as one-half meter. Extra long sights,
however, may be taken where the terrain is fairly level, only an ordinary degree of accuracy is required, and completion
time is of primary importance. Very short sights cannot be avoided when the ground surface rises or falls rapidly such as
in mountain ous areas and where the terrain is significantly rough.

Waving the Rod

By aligning the rod with the vertical cross hair, the instrumentman can determine if a rod is held in a vertical plane
passing through the instrument. He cannot, however, tell if the rod is tipped forward or backward in this plane. This can
only be accomplished by waving the rod. The procedure is used to determine whether the rod is plumb when a reading
is taken on it. It is accomplished by slowly waving or tilting the top of the rod through an arc, first toward the
instrumentman and then away from it. To the instrumentman, it will appear that the cross hair is moving up and down
the rod.

As the rod is waved, the instrumentman takes note of the rod readings which will alternately increase and decrease. The
minimum reading observed is considered as the correct rod reading at the particular point sighted.

When the long rod is used it is always advisable to wave the rod if the target rod is used, it must be raised or lowered
until there is found just one position when the target rises as high as the line of sight while the rod is being waved.

Carrying the Instrument

The level should always be kept in a box when it is not used. It should remain in its carrying case when transported to
the work site or when it has to be moved to another distant set up or over rough terrain. The level does not have to be
detached from the tripod when transferring to another nearby station, provided that it is securely fastened to the tripod
and is carried properly. In open spaces, the level may be carried on the shoulder in preferably a near-vertical position.
The spindle is clamped slightly so that the telescope does not rotate when carried.

Arm and Hand Signals

An arm and hand signal is any gesture or motion that conveys information or gives a command, direction or warning.
The use of signals is essential in surveying since it is usually difficult or impossible at times to communicate verbally in
the field due to distance, wind conditions, and surrounding noise. In many instances it is necessary or practical to use
signals rather than call out directions since much of the work involves long sights where calling out to one another is
impractical. It is in such instances that arm and hand signals allow the survey party members to better communicate
with each other.

Any set of signals which can be mutually understood by the members of a survey party are acceptable. In surveying, no
standard set of hand signals has as yet been accepted. It is usually left upon the surveyors themselves to devise their
own signals. Each survey party should adopt some set of definite signals as these will speed up and improve the
efficiency of surveying procedures and operations. All signals used, however, must be distinct so as to leave no doubt as
to their meaning. To fit unusual situations, special signals can be invented for a particular need. They can easily be
devised for different kinds of distant work and for various conditions.

The set of arm and hand signals illustrated in figure are suggested for use in leveling work. These signals are used to
transmit the following commands:

1. Move Right or Left

The instrumentman uses this signal to direct the rodman to move either to the left or to the right. The desired direction
of movement is pointed out by the forefinger.

2. Give a Sight

The right or left hand is raised up and held for a moment in a vertical position.

3. All Right
The levelman extends both arms horizontally and moves them up or down. When both arms are brought still and
horizontal it is meant to transmit a command to “hold steady”

4. This is a Point

The rodman raises the rod and holds it in a horizontal position over his head. It could also be taken to mean, “Give me a
Line”

5. Move Back

The instrumentman uses this signal to direct the rodman to move back farther. He transmits the command by raising his
right hand with the palm facing toward the rodman and then moving it into a horizontal position with his palm down.

6. Pick Up Instruments

When a new set of the level is desired, the chief of party signals the instrumentman by first extending both arms
downward then raising them up quickly as thought an object is being lifted.

7. Raise (or Lower) Target

The instrumentman motions to the rodman by either raising his arm above his shoulder to raise the rod, or by dropping
his arm below his waist to lower the target. When the raised or lowered target approaches the desired setting, the arm
is brought back to a horizontal position.

8. Come In

The chief of party or the instrumentman uses this signal to direct any member of the survey party to come in or
assemble. It is executed by moving the arm into a circular motion starting from below the waist to the front of his face.

9. Plumb The Rod

The hand is extended vertically above the head and moved slowly in the direction it is desired to plumb the rod.

10. Establish A Turning Point

To establish a turning point, the arm is swung slowly in a circle above the hand.

11. This is A Turning Point

To identify a turning point, the leveling rod (or range pole) is raised overhead in a horizontal position. It is then lowered
into a vertical position and held on the point.

12. Wave The Rod

The instrumentman holds his arm above his head and continuously waves it back and forth.

13. Face The Rod

This is a signal given out by the instrumentman to direct the rodman to face the rod towards the line of sight. It is
executed by raising both arms above the head and twisting both hands back and forth.

14. Reverse The Rod

The command to reverse the rod is transmitted to the rodman by extending the arms above the head and slowly
rotating both arms in a circular motion towards one side of the body.

15. Move Forward

From a position where both arms are extended horizontally, the arms are slowly bent on the elbows and the hands
raised into a vertical position. This signal is used to direct the rodman to move forward.

16. Use The Long Rod

To give the signal to use the long rod, the instrumentman extends both arms downward then slowly raises it over his
head.