Instructor's Manual For Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspective Seventh Edition
Instructor's Manual For Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspective Seventh Edition
Instructor’s Manual
for
Multivariate Data Analysis:
A Global Perspective
Seventh Edition
Joseph F. Hair, Jr
William C. Black
Barry J. Babin
Rolph E. Anderson
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................................... 41
ADVANCED DIAGNOSTICS FOR MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS ......................................... 55
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 58
CHAPTER SIX .......................................................................................................................... 66
CHAPTER SEVEN ..................................................................................................................... 79
CHAPTER EIGHT ..................................................................................................................... 97
CHAPTER NINE ..................................................................................................................... 106
CHAPTER TEN ....................................................................................................................... 115
CHAPTER ELEVEN ................................................................................................................. 129
CHAPTER TWELVE ................................................................................................................ 138
SAMPLE MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS ............................................................................... 160
INTRODUCTION
This manual has been designed to provide teachers using Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global
Perspective, 7th edition, with supplementary teaching aids. The course suggestions made here are the
result of years of experience teaching the basic content of this text in several universities. Obviously, the
contents may be modified to suit the level of the students and the length of the term.
Multivariate data analysis is an interesting and challenging subject to teach. As an instructor, your
objective is to direct your students' energies and interests so that they can learn the concepts and
principles underlying the various techniques. You will also want to help your students learn to apply the
techniques. Through years of teaching multivariate analysis, we have learned that the most effective
approach to teaching the techniques is to provide the students with real world data and have them
manipulate the variables using several different programs and techniques. The text is designed to
facilitate this approach, making available several data sets for analysis. Moreover, accompanying sample
output and control cards are provided to supplement the analyses discussed in the text.
WHAT’S NEW AND WHAT’S CHANGED
First, the authors are continuously working to simplify and streamline coverage of the techniques, and the
7th edition is no exception. This edition is shorter and simpler in its organization, with chapters focusing
on a single topic. Moreover, all chapters have been revised to incorporate advances in technology.
Moreover, the initial discussion of topics focuses on a basic understanding of a technique and how to
apply it. More advanced issues and concerns are addressed either later in the chapter or in a separate
chapter, such as with structural equations modeling. Two chapters, cluster analysis and conjoint, were
extensively revised to more effectively demonstrate straightforward approaches to obtain solutions.
Also new to this edition is a return of a chapter on canonical correlation analysis. Special thanks are due
to Pei‐ju Lucy Ting and Hsin‐Ju Stephanie Tsai, both from University of Manchester, for the revision of this
chapter. They updated this chapter with an example using the HBAT database, added recently published
material, and reorganized it to facilitate understanding.
Metrics increasingly are relied upon in both scholarly and business applications. This edition updates and
expands coverage of important metrics, such as power and effect size. Based on much positive feedback,
the “Rules of Thumb” for the application and interpretation of the various techniques have been
expanded in this edition, including important issues like sample size. The rules of thumb are highlighted
throughout the chapters to facilitate their use. We are confident these guidelines will facilitate your
utilization of the techniques.
Another major change is the expansion and reorganization in coverage of structural equations modeling.
We focus even more extensively this increasingly important technique plus a comparison with partial least
squares. Chapter 11 provides an overview of structural equation modeling. Chapter 12 focuses first on
confirmatory factor analysis and estimating and testing structural models. It then reviews a few more
advanced topics in both confirmatory factor analysis and structural equations modeling, such as testing
higher‐order factor models, group models, and moderating and mediating variables. We also worked to
eliminate and minimize the use of technical terms and mathematical and statistical notation that often is
confusing. These two chapters provide a comprehensive overview and explanation of this technique.
An important development is the continuation of the Web site “Great Ideas in Teaching Multivariate
Statistics” at www.mvstats.com, which can also be accessed as the Companion Website at
www.pearsonhigher.com/hair. This website acts as a resource center for the textbook as well as everyone
interested in multivariate analysis, providing links to resources for each technique as well as a forum for
identifying new topics or statistical methods. In this way we can provide more timely feedback to
researchers than if they were to wait for a new edition of the book. We also plan for the Web site to be a
clearinghouse for materials on teaching multivariate statistics—providing exercises, datasets, and project
ideas.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTERS IN THE TEXT
The text is designed to help make your teaching as enjoyable and as simple as possible. Each chapter
begins with a "Chapter Preview" so that students will understand the major concepts they are expected to
learn. To facilitate understanding of the chapter material and as a ready reference for clarification,
definitions of key terms are presented at the front of each chapter. The text is designed for those
individuals who want to obtain a conceptual understanding of multivariate methods‐‐what they can do,
when they should be used, and how the results should be interpreted.
Following this design, each chapter is structured in a step by step manner, including six steps. The end of
each chapter includes an illustration of how to apply and interpret each technique. Basically, the
approach is for the "data analyst," therefore, the math formulae and symbols are minimized. We believe
it is the most practical, readable guide available to understanding and applying these otherwise complex
statistical tools. At the end of each chapter, we review the Learning Objectives to provide the student
with an overview of what has been covered in the chapter in relation to those major concepts or issues
defined in the Learning Objectives. Finally, a series of questions are provided to stimulate the student to
evaluate what has been read and to translate this material into a workable knowledge base for use in
future applications.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER MATERIALS
This instructor's manual is designed to facilitate the preparation and conduct of classes, exams, and
seminars. Materials included in the manual are organized in two sections for each chapter.
(1) Chapter summaries: to refresh the instructor's memory without the necessity of re‐reading the entire
chapter prior to class. Each chapter summary is organized around four major sections. The
objective of these sections is to identify particular issues that may be useful in organizing class
discussion. The four sections are:
a. What – an overview, or brief description, of the technique.
b. Why – a description of the basic objectives of the technique.
c. When – identification of the types of problems the technique may be used to address.
d. How – description of the assumptions applicable to the technique, the data requirements for
its use, the major points which are essential to the successful implementation of the
research plan and the key points contained in the computer output needed for a
complete and accurate interpretation of the results.
(2) Answers to the end‐of‐chapter questions: suggested answers to the questions that can form the basis
for further elaboration if desired.
Sample exam questions: while essay or short answer questions are probably preferable for examinations,
many times multiple choice questions can be used as a method for assessing specific knowledge about the
subject. To ease the burden of writing exam questions, multiple choice questions are provided for each
chapter. All of the sample exam questions have been placed in a separate section at the end of the
Instructor’s Manual.
THE COMPANION WEBSITE – MVSTATS.COM
The authors have established a website entitled “Great Ideas in Teaching Multivariate Statistics” with the
objective of providing a clearinghouse for instructional materials and a forum for discussions about
pedagogical issues. Accessed directly at www.mvstats.com or through the Companion Website link at the
Prentice‐Hall website (www.pearsonhigher.com/hair), the website will offer all of the supplementary
materials for the text (datasets, control card files and output files) as well as links to additional datasets
for use in class and web‐based materials for each technique. A complete set of datasets and related
materials are available not only for the sixth edition, but the fifth edition (HATCO dataset) as well. We
sponsor a mailing list MVSTAT‐L that is open to the interested participants for asking questions related to
either the teaching or application of multivariate statistics.
An important adjunct is a “faculty‐only” section of the website where additional pedagogical materials will
be made available to all adopters of the textbook. The permission‐based section will allow for providing
the text‐related materials (e.g., PowerPoint slides and image files of all Figures in the text) as well as
acting as a forum for faculty interested in teaching multivariate statistics. We encourage any faculty
member to contribute to the mailing list or even contribute class‐related materials which we will
disseminate among all those interested in the subject area. We envision this to be an evolutionary
project, with its growth and focus guided primarily by its users and contributors. We hope that we can
provide an easy and readily available forum for discussion and collaboration among interested faculty
members.
The understanding and interpretation of multivariate analysis is enhanced immeasurably by the ability of
students to actually analyze data (e.g., derive research questions and execute the analysis) and/or
examine actual computer output to ascertain what is the form and content of the results. To avoid any
unnecessary duplication of effort on the part of the instructor, the website contains a number of
computer files related to the analyses conducted throughout the text:
Datasets
There are a number of datasets provided to students and faculty to perform all of the multivariate
analyses described in the textbook. While some techniques require specialized datasets (e.g.,
multidimensional scaling, conjoint and structural equation modeling), many of the techniques can be
performed using conventional survey data. To this end, a common dataset has been developed for use
with many of the techniques to allow students to see the interrelationships among techniques as well as
the techniques themselves. The HBAT dataset has three forms utilized throughout the text:
• HBAT – the primary database described in the text which has multiple metric and nonmetric
variables allowing for use in most of the multivariate techniques.
• HBAT200 – an expanded dataset, comparable to HBAT except for 200 rather than 100
respondents, that allows for multiple independent variables in MANOVA while still
maintaining adequate sample size in the individual cells.
• HBAT_MISSING – a reduced dataset with 70 respondents and missing data among the
variables. It is utilized to illustrate the techniques for diagnosis and remedy of missing data
described in Chapter 2.
In addition to these datasets, there are several others used with specific techniques, including conjoint
analysis, multidimensional scaling and structural equation modeling. These datasets include:
• HBAT_CPLAN and HBAT_CONJOINT – the datafiles needed to perform the “full profile”
conjoint analysis available in SPSS.
• HBAT_SEM – the original data responses from 400 individuals which are the basis for the
structural equation analyses of Chapters 12 through 15. HBAT_COV is the covariance matrix
derived from HBAT_SEM that is used as input to structural equation programs such as
LISREL, EQS or AMOS.
Finally, two additional datasets are provided to allow students access to data other than the HBAT
datafiles described in the textbook:
• HATCO – this dataset has been utilized in past versions of the textbook and provides a
simplified set of variables amenable to all of the basic multivariate techniques.
• SALES – this dataset concerns sales training and is comprised of 80 respondents,
representing a portion of data that was collected by academic researchers. Also, a copy of
the sales training questionnaire is provided.
Given the widespread interchangeability of data formats among statistical programs, all of the datasets
are provided in two formats. First is the .SAV format used in SPSS, which allows for documentation of
variable descriptions, etc. in a standard format. Also, all of the datasets are contained in an EXCEL
worksheet, amenable to input to any statistical program. Between these two formats the student or
faculty member should be able to employ the data with any available statistical software program.
Control Card Files:
To assist the instructor in performing the analyses illustrated in the text, control card files containing
program syntax commands are provided for the statistical software programs SPSS (Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences, SPSS Inc.), AMOS and LISREL (Scientific Software, Inc.).
Computer Outputs
If computer access is not available for a particular technique, files of the actual outputs (from SPSS for
Chapters 2 – 10 and LISREL or AMOS for Chapters 11 and 12) for each analysis are also provided. This
enables faculty and students with the complete computer outputs even without actually running the
programs.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This presentation will approach the general idea of multivariate data analysis by attempting to answer the
basic questions of "What?," "Why?," "When?," and "How?".
WHAT IS MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
1. Multivariate analysis, in this text, includes both multivariable techniques and multivariate techniques.
The term "multivariate analysis" really stands for a family of techniques, and it is important that
you realize this fact from the onset. The common characteristic is that multiple variables are
used for the dependent and/or independent variables in the analysis. Each technique has its
own special powers and unique instances of applicability. These will be revealed to you in detail
in subsequent chapters in the text.
2. For now, it is only necessary that you realize in general terms the special powers represented by this
family of analyses:
• Description – Some of the techniques have rather amazing abilities to describe phenomena.
They can find patterns of relationships where the human eye and even univariate or
bivariate statistics fail to do so.
• Explanation – Other techniques have special capabilities to explain or to help explain
relationships. For instance, they can isolate the impact of one variable on another; show
relative differences between the magnitude of impact for two or more variables; or even
reveal how one set of variables impinges on another set.
• Prediction – Certainly every decision maker desires the ability to predict, and multivariate
techniques afford that promise. Certain multivariate analyses are explicitly designed to yield
predictive modes with specific levels of accuracy.
• Control – Finally, certain multivariate techniques can be used for control. Of course, the
techniques themselves will not institute control, but their application can help a decision
maker develop cause‐and‐effect relationships and models which will ultimately enhance
their ability to control events to some degree.
3. While multivariate analyses are descended from univariate techniques, the extension to multiple
variables or variates introduces a number of issues which must be understood before examining
each technique in detail.
• The Role of the Variate – Multivariate techniques differ from univariate techniques in that
they employ a variate.
o Definition: a linear combination of variables with empirically determined weights.
o Variables are specified by the researcher, and the weights are assigned by the
technique.
o Single value: When summed, the variate produces a single value which represents the
entire set of variables. This single value, in addition to the specific contribution of each
variable to the variate, is important in all multivariate techniques.
• Specification of measurement scales – Each multivariate technique assumes the use of a
certain type of data. For this reason, the type of data held by the researcher is instrumental
in the selection of the appropriate multivariate technique. The researcher must make sure
that he or she has the appropriate type of data to employ the chosen multivariate
technique.
o Metric vs nonmetric: Data, in the form of measurement scales, can be metric or
nonmetric.
Nonmetric data are categorical variables which describe differences in type
or kind by indicating the presence or absence of a characteristic or
property.
Metric data are continuous measures which reflect differences in amount
or degree in a relative quantity or distance.
• Identification of measurement error
o Definition: the degree to which the observed values in the sample are not
representative of the true values in the population.
o Sources: several sources are possible, including data entry errors and the use of
inappropriate gradations in a measurement scale.
o All variables in a multivariate analysis have some degree of measurement error, which
adds residual error to the observed variables.
o Need for assessment of both the validity and the reliability of measures.
Validity is the degree to which a measure accurately represents what
it is supposed to.
Reliability is the degree to which the observed variable measures the
true value and is error free.
• Statistical significance and statistical power. Almost all of the multivariate techniques
discussed in this text are based on statistical inference of a population's values from a
randomly drawn sample of the population.
o Specifying statistical error levels. Interpretation of statistical inferences requires the
specification of acceptable levels of error.
Type I error (alpha) is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
when it is actually true.
Type II error (beta) is the probability of failing to reject the null
hypothesis when it is actually false. Alpha and beta are inversely
related.
o Power: the probability (1‐beta) of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it should be
rejected.
Specifying type II error (beta) also specifies the power of the statistical
inference test.
Power is determined by 3 factors:
• its inverse relationship with alpha
• the effect size
• the sample size.
When planning research, the researcher should:
• estimate the expected effect size
• then select the sample size and the alpha level to achieve the
desired power level.
Upon completion of the analyses, the actual power should be
calculated in order to properly interpret the results.
WHY IS THERE MULTIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS
The need for multivariate analysis comes from the simple fact of life that just about everything is in some
way interrelated with other things. Inflation, for instance, is related to taxes, interest rates, the money
supply, oil prices, the business cycle, foreign wars, and a good deal more. Buyers' reactions to an
advertisement are related to the price of the item, competitors, warranty terms, previous experiences
with the product, conversations with neighbors, credibility of the actor used in the commercial, and
season of the year.
To managers or persons responsible for making decisions within an organization, each decision is affected
by many "variables." These variables are identifiable entities which have some impact or relationship to
the focal topic. In addition to the main impact of these variables, the variables interact with each other as
well. In short, a manager is faced with a complete system of complicated relationships in any single
decision‐problem.
Humans, by their very nature, strive to make some sense out of their environment. They seek some order
to the chaos of interrelationships. There are many ways of attempting to achieve order. You can use
intuition, logical systems such as set theory, or simplification. You could even choose to ignore the
impacts of some variables. But most intelligent managers prefer to rely on some framework which is
more accepted.
From these two situations‐‐the myriad of interrelated variables and the need for an accepted framework‐‐
springs the need for multivariate analysis techniques. They are the means of achieving parsimonious
descriptions, explanations, and predictions of reality.
WHEN DO YOU USE MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS?
Essentially, multivariate analysis is appropriate whenever you have two or more variables observed a
number of times. In fact, it is most commonly the case that you have several variables observed a great
many times, also known as a "data set." It is traditional to envision a data set as being comprised of rows
and columns. The rows pertain to each observation, such as each person or each completed questionnaire
in a large survey. The columns, on the other hand, pertain to each variable, such as a response to a
question or an observed characteristic for each person.
Data sets can be immense; a single study may have a sample size of 1,000 or more respondents, each of
whom answers 100 questions. Hence the data set would be 1,000 by 100, or 100,000 cells of data.
Obviously, the need for parsimony is very evident.
Multivariate techniques aid the researcher in obtaining parsimony by reducing the number of
computations necessary to complete statistical tests. For example, when completing univariate tests, if
an average were computed for each variable, 100 means would result, and if a correlation were computed
between each variable and every other variable, there would be close to 5,000 separate values computed.
In sharp contrast, multivariate analysis would require many less computations. For example, factor
analysis might result in ten factors. Cluster analysis might yield five clusters. Multiple regression could
identify six significant predictor variables. MANOVA might reveal 12 cases of significant differences.
Multiple discriminant analysis perhaps would find seven significant variables. It should be evident that
parsimony can be achieved by using multivariate techniques when analyzing most data sets.
HOW DO YOU USE MULTIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES?
This text follows a structured approach to multivariate model building. The six steps defined in the
following chapters should be viewed as guidelines for better understanding the process of applying each
technique. The conceptual, as well as the empirical, issues for each technique are discussed. The
following summary provides an overview of each of the six steps.
Step 1: Define the Research Problem, Objectives, and Multivariate Technique To Be Used.
Based on an underlying theoretical model, the researcher should define the research question(s).
Depending on the type of question, the researcher should also identify the type of multivariate
technique, dependence or interdependence, which is most appropriate.
Step 2: Develop the Analysis Plan
Each multivariate technique has an associated set of issues which are relevant to the design of an
analysis plan. Sample sizes, scaling of variables, and estimation methods are common issues
which must be evaluated by the researcher prior to data collection.
Step 3: Evaluate the Assumptions Underlying the Multivariate Technique
Once the data are collected, the researcher must evaluate the underlying assumptions of the
chosen multivariate technique. All techniques have conceptual and statistical assumptions which
must be met before the analysis can proceed.
Step 4: Estimate the Multivariate Model and Assess Overall Model Fit
Following a testing of the assumptions, a multivariate model is estimated with the objective of
meeting specific characteristics. After the model is estimated, the overall model fit is compared
to specified criteria. The model may be respecified for better fit if necessary.
Step 5: Interpret the Variate
Once an acceptable model is achieved, the nature of the multivariate relationship is investigated.
Coefficients of the variables are examined. Interpretation may lead to model respecification.
The objective is to identify findings which can be generalized to the population.
Step 6: Apply the Diagnostics to the Results
Finally, the researcher must assess whether the results are unduly affected by an single or small
set of observations and determine the degree of generalizability of the results by validation
methods. These two actions provide the researcher with support for the research findings.
SOME GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
Further, six guidelines which are applicable to all multivariate analyses are given below. As you
review each chapter, you will find that these issues are identified several times across a number
of multivariate techniques. For this reason, these guidelines serve as a "general philosophy" for
completing multivariate analyses.
• Establish Practical Significance as Well as Statistical Significance
Not only must the researcher assess whether or not the results of a multivariate analysis
are statistically significant, but he or she must also determine whether or not the results
have managerial, or practical, implications for action.
• Sample Size Affects All Results
The size of the sample will impact whether or not the results achieve statistical
significance. Too little or too much power can be the result of sample sizes.
Researchers should always assess the analysis results in light of the sample size.
• Know Your Data
Multivariate analyses require rigorous examination of data. Diagnostic measures are
available to evaluate the nature of sets of multivariate variables.
• Strive for Model Parsimony
The researcher should evaluate those variables chosen for inclusion in the analysis. The
objective is to create a parsimonious model which includes all relevant variables and
excludes all irrelevant variables. Specification error (omission of relevant variables) and
high multicollinearity (inclusion of irrelevant variables) can substantially impact analysis
results.
• Look at Your Errors
Often, the first model estimation does not provide the best model fit. Thus, the
researcher should analyze the prediction errors and determine potential changes to the
model. Errors serve as diagnostics for achieving better model fit.
• Validate Your Results
The researcher should always validate the results. Validation procedures ensure the
analyst that the results are not merely specific to the sample, but are representative and
generalizable to the population.
SELECTING A MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUE
Figure 1.1 in the text provides a general decision process with which to select the appropriate multivariate
technique. In doing so, the analyst must address two issues: objective of the analysis and type of
variables used. First, the analyst must evaluate the theoretical nature of the problem and determine if
the objective is to assess a dependence relationship (predictive) or is an interdependence approach
(structure seeking) needed. If the relationship is dependence based, the analyst must first determine the
number of dependent variables. Second, the analyst must determine how the dependent variables will be
measured. In selecting among the interdependence techniques, the analyst must define whether
structure among variables, respondents or objects is desired.
ANSWERS TO END‐OF‐CHAPTER QUESTIONS
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(1) IN YOUR OWN WORDS, DEFINE MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS.
Answer
a. The authors adopt a fairly inclusive description of the term. In so doing, they avoid
becoming bogged down in the nuances of "multi‐variable" and "multivariate." The
distinction between these terms is made as follows:
Multi‐variable ‐ usually referring to techniques used in the simultaneous analysis of
more than two variables.
Multivariate ‐ to be considered truly multivariate, all the variables must be random
variables which are interrelated in such ways that their different effects cannot easily be
studied separately. The multivariate character lies in the multiple combinations of
variables, not solely in the number of variables or observations.
(2) NAME SEVERAL FACTORS THAT HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE INCREASED APPLICATION OF
TECHNIQUES FOR MULTIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS IN RECENT YEARS.
Answer
a. The ability to conceptualize data analysis has increased through the study of statistical
methods;
b. Advances in computer technology which make it feasible to attempt to analyze large
quantities of complex data;
c. The development of several fairly sophisticated "canned" computer programs for
carrying out multivariate techniques; and
d. The research questions being asked are becoming more and more complex, and more
sophisticated techniques for data analysis are needed.
(3) LIST AND DESCRIBE THE MULTIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES DESCRIBED IN THIS
CHAPTER. CITE EXAMPLES FOR WHICH EACH TECHNIQUE IS APPROPRIATE.
Answer
a. DEPENDENCE TECHNIQUES ‐ variables are divided into dependent and independent.
(1) Multiple Regression (MR) ‐ the objective of MR is to predict changes in a single
metric dependent variable in response to changes in several metric
independent variables. A related technique is multiple correlation.
(2) Multiple Discriminant Analysis (MDA) ‐ the objective of MDA is to predict group
membership for a single non‐metric dependent variable using several metric
independent variables.
(5) Conjoint Analysis ‐ used to transform non‐metric scale responses into metric
form. It is concerned with the joint effect of two or more non‐metric
independent variables on the ordering of a single dependent variable.
b. INTERDEPENDENCE TECHNIQUES ‐ all variables are analyzed simultaneously, with none
being designated as either dependent or independent.
(1) Factor Analysis (FA) ‐ used to analyze the interrelationships among a large
number of variables and then explain these variables in terms of their common,
underlying dimensions. The two major approaches are component analysis and
common factor analysis.
(2) Cluster Analysis ‐ used to classify a sample into several mutually exclusive
groups based on similarities and differences among the sample components.
(4) EXPLAIN WHY AND HOW THE VARIOUS MULTIVARIATE METHODS CAN BE VIEWED AS A
FAMILY OF TECHNIQUES.
Answer
The multivariate techniques can be viewed as a "family" of techniques in that they are all based
upon constructing composite linear relationships among variables or sets of variables. The family
members complement one another by accommodating unique combinations of input and output
requirements so that an exhaustive array of capabilities can be brought to bear on complex
problems.
(5) WHY IS KNOWLEDGE OF MEASUREMENT SCALES IMPORTANT TO AN UNDERSTANDING OF
MULTIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS?
Answer
Knowledge and understanding of measurement scales is a must before the proper multivariate
technique can be chosen. Inadequate understanding of the type of data to be used can cause the
selection of an improper technique, which makes any results invalid. Measurement scales must
be understood so that questionnaires can be properly designed and data adequately analyzed.
(6) WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STATISTICAL AND PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE? IS ONE A
PREREQUISITE FOR THE OTHER?
Answer
Statistical significance is a means of assessing whether the results are due to change. Practical
significance assess whether the result is useful or substantial enough to warrant action.
Statistical significance would be a prerequisite of practical significance.
(7) WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS OF LOW STATISTICAL POWER? HOW CAN THE POWER BE
IMPROVED IF IT IS DEEMED TOO LOW?
Answer
The implication of low power is that the researcher may fail to find significance when it actually
exists. Power may be improved through decreasing the alpha level or increasing the sample size.
(8) DETAIL THE MODEL‐BUILDING APPROACH TO MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS, FOCUSING ON THE
MAJOR ISSUES AT EACH STEP.
Answer
Stage One: Define the Research Problem, Objectives, and Multivariate Technique to Be Used The
starting point for any analysis is to define the research problem and objectives in conceptual
terms before specifying any variables or measures. This will lead to an understanding of the
appropriate type of technique, dependence or interdependence, needed to achieve the desired
objectives. Then based on the nature of the variables involved a specific technique may be
chosen.
Stage Two: Develop the Analysis Plan A plan must be developed that addresses the particular
needs of the chosen multivariate technique. These issues include : (1) sample size, (2) type of
variables (metric vs. non‐metric, and (3) special characteristics of the technique.
Stage Three: Evaluate the Assumptions Underlying the Multivariate Technique All techniques
have underlying assumptions, both conceptual and empirical, that impact their ability to
represent multivariate assumptions. Techniques based on statistical inference must meet the
assumptions of multivariate normality, linearity, independence of error terms, and equality of
variances. Each technique must be considered individually for meeting these and other
assumptions.
Stage Four: Estimate the Multivariate Model and Assess Overall Model Fit With assumptions
met, a model is estimated considering the specific characteristics of the data. After the model is
estimated, the overall model fit is evaluated to determine whether it achieves acceptable levels
of statistical criteria, identifies proposed relationships, and achieves practical significance. At this
stage the influence of outlier observations is also assessed.
Stage Five: Interpret the Variate With acceptable model fit, interpretation of the model reveals
the nature of the multivariate relationship.
Stage Six: Validate the Multivariate Model The attempts to validate the model are directed
toward demonstrating the generalizability of the results. Each technique has its own ways of
validating the model.
CHAPTER TWO
EXAMINING YOUR DATA
Similar to the style of Chapter One, this presentation will address the basic questions of "Why?," "What?,"
"When?," and "How?" as applied to examining your data prior to the application of a multivariate
technique.
WHY EXAMINE DATA?
Data examination is needed for several reasons:
1. To gain a basic understanding of the data set, including information about the relationships
among the variables. The two approaches are:
• Case‐by‐case evaluation ‐‐ although necessary in the examination of response bias,
this approach is time consuming and does not enable the researcher to get the "big
picture."
• Compilation of cases ‐‐ this preferred method provides a more meaningful
interpretation of the cases. Descriptive statistics, or data examination, provide the
analyst with a means to present data descriptors in a manageable form.
Examining a compilation of cases reduces individual observations to easily interpretable
summaries. In addition, variable associations, or relationships, can be calculated from
the raw data and represented simply in reduced form.
2. To ensure that the statistical and theoretical underpinnings of the chosen multivariate
technique are upheld.
Data examination enables the researcher to analyze the multivariate assumptions of
normality, homoscedasticity, linearity, and independence of error terms. Each
multivariate technique has underlying assumptions which will be highlighted in the
following chapters.
3. To analyze the impacts of uncertainties inherent in data collection, including controllable and
uncontrollable factors which may influence the data set.
• Controllable factors ‐‐ controlled by the researcher or analyst, such as the input of data. No
matter how carefully the data is input, some errors will occur. For example, errors may
result from incorrect coding or the misinterpretation of codes. Data examination provides
the analyst an overview of the data, which will call attention to any impossible or
improbable values which require further attention.