1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Radiation is the energy which is transported either in the form of particles or

electromagnetic waves through space or material medium. Artificial and natural

radioactivity are the two main sources of radiation exposure to humans. The

natural sources of radiation exposure are from terrestrial and Cosmogenic

radionuclides, they both lead to internal and external radiation exposure due to
238 226 232 40
the presence of U, Ra Th and their decay products and k. External

exposure occurs due to gamma decay of primordial radionuclides, and internal

exposure result from the inhalation of airborne contaminants and by ingestion of

food and water contaminated by radionuclides. (UNSCEAR, 2008). Natural

constituents of our environments such as rocks, soil, water, air and food crops

are found to contain Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORMS) in

varying quantities. The concentration is dictated to a good degree by the

underlying geological features of an area, its geographical location, and its

anthropogenic activities, among other factors (Ajayi, 2009; Mann et al., 2017).

Radon (222Rn) is a radioactive gas produced by the decay of naturally occurring

radionuclide Radium (226Ra), which in turn is a by-product in the Uranium ( 238U)

decay series (Ruano-Ravina, 2009). About 160mg being formed every twenty –

four hours from 1g of radium. The well-known three naturally existing radon
222 220 219
isotopes Rn, Rn and Rn are distinctively known as: radon, thoron,

actinon respectively (Ishimori et al., 2013).

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Radon been a colourless and odourless inert gas, emanates from soil –its major

source, and decays into radioactive metal ions by α-decay in air (Appleton,

2007). The internal exposure of humans to nuclear radiation due to inhalation of

radon constitutes about 50% of the worldwide average annual effective dose of

2.4 mSv y-1 (Ajayi, 2009). As a gas, it may escape into the air from the material

in which it is formed, since it is ubiquitous outdoors as well as indoors; the air

that we inhale contains Radon. When inhaled it penetrates into the lungs

emitting damaging α particles, the continues deposition and interaction of such

high energy particles with the lungs leads to its damage and incidence of lungs

cancer (Maria et al., 2010).

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

Radon and other radionuclides gained interest as a result of their detrimental

health effects on humans, According to Chinnaesakki et al. (2011), over 80% of

the estimated radiation dose to the world population is from natural sources. it is

an establish fact that acute and chronic exposures to radiation can lead to

harmful tissue reactions such as cataract, lesions, and stochastic effects such as

cancer induction and hereditary diseases (Cember & Johnson, 2012; Kaul et al.,

2005). Most building materials produce some radon but building materials of

certain types can act as significant sources of indoor radon. Such building

materials have a combination of elevated levels of 226Ra and a high porosity that

allows the radon gas to escape. Examples are lightweight concrete made with

alum shale, phosphogypsum and Italian tuff (IAEA, 2003). Also one of the
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radionuclides around man’s environment that contributes high amounts of

potential lethal dose is radon, which causes the majority of deaths resulting

from lung cancer (Maria et al, 2010). Therefore it is necessary to estimate

natural radioactivity levels particularly radon ansd it progeny in both water and

soil since they are used as building material for dwellings and to know if the

radon level is within the limits set by radiation protection Agencies.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Research

The aim of this research work is to measure natural radionuclides concentration

and radon gas in surface soil and water samples within Jalingo metropolis,

North East Nigeria.

The specific objectives of this study include;

i. Determination of the activity concentration of Naturally Occurring

Radionuclides (226Ra, 232Th and 40K) in soil and water.

ii. Evaluate the radiological hazards due to radionuclides through

assessment of absorbed dose rate, radium equivalent index and

internal health hazards in soil.

iii. Assessment of annual effective dose due ingestion of radionuclides in

soil and water samples.

iv. Estimation of Radon (222Rn) concentration in soil and water samples

base concentration of radium.

v. To make recommendation based on the outcome of this study.

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1.4 Significance of the Study

This research is important in the sense that it provides baseline data necessary

for radionuclide analysis of surface soil and water so as to avoid the use of soil

and water with high radon concentration.

Also the knowledge of radon and its progeny content of surface soil and water

provide radiological information to policy makers as well as the residence of

Jalingo metropolis in order to establish radiation protection protocol in the

environment.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The work was focus on 10 samples each of surface soil and water selected at

random within Jalingo Metropolis, north east, Nigeria.

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2.0 LITRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Previous Works

A study by Saphina et al. (2014), accessed the radiological risk of radon

exposure in selected areas in eastern Uganda using activated charcoal canisters

and sodium iodide detector. The radon concentration levels were found to vary

from 28±1 to 97±5 Bqm -3 and the effective dose varied from 0.71±0.03

to 2.4 4±0.13 mSvy-1 , respectively. Over all the mean radon concentration

values reported were all below the United Nations Scientific Committee on the

Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) and International Commission

on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommended radon action level of

200 Bqm-3 . Some average radon concentration values were close 100

Bqm-3 an action level recommended by World Health Organization

(WHO).

Ajaiya et al. (2013) studied the radioactivity of surface soils from Oyo state,

south western, Nigeria and reported that, specific activity concentration of the

radionuclides ranged from 1± 0.4 Bq/kg for 137Cs - 1190 ± 30 Bq/kg for 40K.

The estimated outdoor absorbed dose rates in air varied from 52 nGy/h in

Egbeda (rural area) - 414n Gy/h in Eruwa (also rural area). The annual effective

dose for urban areas was 0.1mSv/y while that of rural areas was 0.3 mSv/y with

a standard deviation of 0.02 mSv/y - 0.3 mSv/y respectively. The investigation

concluded that mean annual effective dose values for urban and rural areas are

higher than the world average annual outdoor terrestrial radiation value of
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0.07mSv/y reported by the United Nation for Scientific Committee on Effects of

Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR. 2000).

Sombo et al. (2016) worked on the assessment of radioactivity and health

implications of some surface soils in Guma local government area of Benue

State, North Central, Nigeria.The results showed that the soil activity for urban

areas ranged from 38.12–58.10Bq/kg, 3.53–4.41Bq/kg, and3.35 –7.11Bq/kg for

40K, 238U and 232Th respectively for urban areas while in the rural areas the

concentrations ranged from 54.06 –76.17Bq/kg, 3.66 – 5.27Bq/kg and 4.74 –

7.18Bq/kg 40K, 238U and 232Th respectively. The absorbed dose and annual

effective dose range from 5.89 – 7.70nGy/h and 0.01mSv/y in the urban areas

with mean of 6.48nGy/h and 0.01mSv/y while in the rural area, the values

ranges from 7.48 – 8.52nGy/h and 0.01 – 0.02mSv/y withmean values of

8.00nGy/h and 0.01mSv/y. All the computed values are much lower than

permissible value recommended by the United Nation for Scientific Committee

on Effect of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR, 2008).

Mehdizadeh et al. (2011) carried out a comprehensive study of natural

radioactivity in building materials in Iran using a high purity germanium

(HPGe) detector. Their results showed that cement samples had maximum

values of Ra-226 and Th-232 concentrations, wish is 39.6 and 28.9 Bq/kg,

respectively, while the lowest value for mean concentration of these two

radionuclides were found in gypsum to be 2.2 Bq/kg. The highest (851.4 Bq/kg)
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and lowest (116.2 Bq/kg) value of K-40 mean concentration were found in brick

and gypsum respectively.

A research on annual and seasonal variation of indoor Randon levels in

dwelling houses by Muntean et al. (2014), indoor radon was measured during

four seasons in 12 houses and 7 blocks of flats respectively, with the

alpha track CR-39 detector. The annual indoor radon concentration was 105±5

2Bq/m³, a value in agreement with the results previously reported for the

Transylv ania area (115 Bq/m³, 126 Bq/m³ respectively). In order to assess the

relative indoor radon concentration, the variation coefficient (CV) was

calculated, ranging between 0 and 85%, with an arithmetic average of

35.7%.

A research carried out by Christopher (2012), a total of three meta - analyses

were identified that pooled a total of 22 prospective case - control studies,

including 11860 cases of lung cancers with age matched controls. The

studies reported a consistent increase risk (8.4%, 13.3% and 10% for

European, Chinese and North American meta - analyses, respectively) of

lung cancer with every 100 Bq/m3 increase of indoor radon concentration.

A study was carried by Smith et. al., (2007), a Bayesian analysis that allowed

for the joint prediction of county-average radon levels and estimation of the

associated leukemia risk, reported suggestive evidence of a positive association

between county radon levels and both Chronic lungs leukemia (CLL) and

chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML).

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A research was carried out to measure the Radon gas concentration by Andam

and Amoo (2007) in two deep gold mines in Ghana i.e Tarkwa Goldfields and

Prestea Goldfields. Radon concentrations measured underground at Tarkwa

were in the range 56 Bq/ m3 to 268 Bq/ m3. Corresponding values for Prestea

were 43 Bq/ m3 to 878 Bq/ m3. These results represent data on underground

radon concentration in deep gold mines in Ghana. Measurement of the radon

gas was done by means of the solid state nuclear track technique, with CR – 39

plastic recording medium for the alpha particles from radon decay.

(Habu, 2008) reported the activity concentration of water samples analyzed for

gross alpha and beta activity with mean values of 0.153±0.06, 0.638±0.06,

0.207±0.04 and 0.207±0.07BqL-1 for gross alpha and 0.245±0.02, 0.679±0.05,

0.393±0.03 and 0.293±0.05 BqL-1 for gross beta for river Yobe respectively.

The overall results showed that activity concentrations of river Yobe is within

the typical world average values of 0.5Bq/L and 1Bq/L for alpha and beta

respectively, and concluded that although some extreme values are obtained.

Therefore the river, have no significance radiological health burden on the

environment and the populace.

Recently, two large-scale epidemiologic studies, a North American study and a

European study, pooled data from 20 previously performed epidemiologic

studies that directly assessed the lung cancer risk of prolonged residential radon

exposure (WHO, 2001). Both the North American as well as the European

pooled studies support the risk projections extrapolated from occupational

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studies of radon-exposed underground miners, and provide direct evidence that

prolonged residential radon exposure represents a major cause, even below the

U.S. EPA’s action level of 4 pCi/L, of lung cancer.

According to Bruce and Scott, (1996), Ground-water samples collected from

267 wells were analyzed for radon as part of a water-quality reconnaissance of

subunits of the Lower Susquehanna and Potomac River Basins conducted by the

United States Geological Survey (USGS) as part of the National Water-Quality

Assessment (NAWQA) program. Radon is a product of the radioactive decay of

uranium. Airborne radon has been cited by the Surgeon General of the United

States as the second-leading cause of lung cancer and the United States

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has identified ground-water

supplies as possible contributing sources of indoor radon. Eighty percent of

ground-water samples collected for this study were found to contain radon at

activities greater than 300 pCi/L (Pico curies per liter), the USEPA's proposed

Maximum Contaminant Level for radon in drinking water, and 31 percent of

samples contained radon at activities greater than 1,000 pCi/L. The 10 subunits

where samples were collected were grouped into three classes - median ground-

water radon activity less than 300 pCi/L, between 300 pCi/L and 1,000 pCi/L,

and greater than 1,000 pCi/L. Subunits underlain by igneous and metamorphic

rocks of the Piedmont Physiographic Province typically have the highest

median ground-water radon activities (greater than 1,000 pCi/L); although there

is a large variation in radon activities within most of the subunits. Lower

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median radon activities (between 300 pCi/L and 1,000 pCi/L) were found in

ground water in subunits underlain by limestone and dolomite.

2.2 Soil Radioactivity

According to the IAEA, soil typically contains the following four natural

radioisotopes: 40K, 226Ra, 238U, and 232Th. In one kilogram of soil, the potassium-

40 amounts to an average 370 Bq of radiation, with a typical range of 100–

700 Bq; the others each contribute some 25 Bq, with typical ranges of 10–50 Bq
232
(7–50 Bq for the Th). Some soils may vary greatly from these NORMs

(Vukovic, 2006).

Soils vary greatly in their ability to bind radioisotopes, the clay particles and

humic acids can alter the distribution of the isotopes between the soils.

Potassium-40 is the most significant of the natural radionuclides in soils

(Soudek, 2006). The specific radioactivity of potassium-40 in natural potassium

is 31 Bq/g (Yamamoto, 2006). Assuming a content of 2% of elemental

potassium in 'average' mineral soil of bulk density of 1.5 g cm -3 to a rooting

depth of 20 cm, this corresponds to a level of potassium-40 in soil of the order

of 2 x 105Bq m-2. Likewise, on the basis of 2.5% biogenic elementary carbon in

the soil and the known cosmogenic carbon-14 content of approx. 0.2 Bq/g

natural non-fossil carbon (UNSCEAR, 2007).

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Natural tritium (hydrogen-3) will be, effectively, in steady-state equilibrium

with the hydrogen of surface soil and water (UNSCEAR, 2007). Assuming the

necessary soil 'field capacity' and average water content equivalent to 6 cm

rainfall and known cosmogenic tritium level of 0.5 Bq/l of atmospheric water

the tritium content of the soil was estimated. All these estimates, together with

other data (NCRP, 2006), are summarized in Table 4 below. Radon-222 (an

isotope of the chemically-inert gas radon) is also included in Table 1 because in

the confined air spaces of soil it will tend to accumulate to a steady-state level

as a result of uranium-238 decay.

Table 1: Estimated levels of radionuclides naturally present in mineral soil to rooting

depth of 20 cm and of bulk density of 1.5 g cm-3(NCRP, 2006).

Radionuclide Radioactive half-life Radiation emitted Radioactivity Bq m-2

Radon-222 3.8 d a 3 x 10-1
Tritium (hydrogen-3) 12.4 y b¾ 3 x 101
Carbon-14 5730 y b 3/4 5 x 103
Radium-226 1600 y a, b 1 x 104
Thorium-232 1 4 1010 a,b 1 x 104
Uranium-238 4.5 x 10 y a 1 x 104
Rubidium-87 4.7 x 1010 y b, 3/4 5 x 104
Potassium-40 1.3 x 10 y b, ¾ 2 x 105
    Total of the order 2 x 105

2.3 Water Radioactivity

Radiation exposure through drinking water results from naturally occurring

radionuclides in drinking water sources, in particular alpha-radiation–emitting

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uranium, radium, and their progeny, including radon. According to the World

Health Organization (WHO), when activity concentration in drinking water

exceeds the recommended level of 0.5 Bq/L for gross-α or 1 Bq/L for gross-β

activities [simultaneously measured activity from a mixture of natural alpha

[uranium-238 (238U), 234

U, thorium-232 (232Th), radium-226 (226Ra), and

polonium-210 (210Po)] and beta emitters [228Ra and lead-210 (210Pb)],

radionuclide-specific concentrations should be brought into compliance with

234
WHO guidance levels: 0.1 Bq/L for 228Ra; 1Bq/L for 223–226Ra, U, and

235U; 10 Bq/L for 238U; 100 Bq/L for radon-222 ( 222Rn), and 15 µg/L for total

uranium (WHO, 2004). Ingested radionuclides are absorbed into the blood

(International Commission on Radiological Protection 2007) and accumulate in

specific tissues that they may damage. Of absorbed uranium, 66% is rapidly

eliminated via urine, while the rest is distributed and stored in the kidney (12–

25%), bone (10–15%), and soft tissue. Radium deposits mostly in the bone.

Ingested radon gas diffuses into the stomach wall, making the stomach wall the

tissue most irradiated by ingested radon because of its short half-life (3.8 days)

(Hopke et al., 2000).

Minute traces of radioactivity are normally found in all drinking water. The

concentration and composition of these radioactive constituents vary from place

to place, depending principally on the radiochemical composition of the soil and

rock strata through which the raw water may have passed.
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Many natural and artificial radionuclides have been found in water, but most of

the radioactivity is due to a relatively small number of nuclides and their decay

products. Among these are the following emitters of radiation of low linear

energy transfer (LET): potassium-40 (40K), tritium (3H), carbon- 14 (14C), and

rubidium-87 (87Rb). In addition, high-LET, alpha-emitting radionuclides, such

as radium-226 (226Ra), the daughters of radium-228 (228Ra), polonium-210

(210Po), uranium (U), thorium (Th), radon-220 (220Rn), and radon-222 (222Rn),

may also be present in varying amounts.

2.4 Radioactivity in Nature

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei with the

release of particulate radiation and γ -rays. If the parent radioisotope produces

excited daughter nuclei, it will emit γ -rays, when the daughter nuclei undergo

de-excitation.

Example A → B¿ → B+ γ −rays , where A is the parent isotope, B¿ is the excited

daughter isotope and B is the de-excited daughter.

Radioactivity is a natural part of our environment, natural radioactivity in the

environment arises primarily from uranium and thorium including the series of

decay products, and from potassium. Present-day Earth contains all the stable

chemical elements from the lowest mass [Hydrogen (H)) to the highest (Lead

(Pb) and Bismuth (Bi)]. Every element with higher atomic number (Z) than

Bismuth (Bi) is radioactive (Agba, 2017).

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Radioactivity is due to nuclear instability and nuclear instability is influenced

by the following factors or conditions:

n
i Neutrons to protons ratio ( p )

For stability, the neutron to proton ratio for light elements should be close

n n
to 1 ( p ≈ 1 ), while for heavy elements, it is close to 1.5 ( p ≈ 1.5 ). Any

n
deviation from the above p ratios leads to nuclear instability hence,

radioactivity.

ii Average binding energy per nucleon

Element with high average binding energy per nucleon tend to be very

stable, while those with small or low binding energy per nucleon tend to

be unstable. In most cases, light nuclei have high binding energy per

nucleon, while heavy nuclei have on the average, low binding energy per

nucleon.

B.E
Nucleon=
931 δ
MeV /nucleon (1)
A

Where δ = mass defect of the nuclei

A = Atomic mass number of the nuclei

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δ is a measure of the cohesive strength of the nucleus. It is also the energy

or work required to separate the nucleus into its components nucleons. A

particular nucleus of an element is called a nuclide (Mustapha, 2011).

iii Paring of similar nucleons

Isotopes of atoms with even numbers of both protons and neutrons tend to

be more stable than isotopes with odd numbers of protons and neutrons.

The nuclear instability means that, there is at least one neutron too many

or too little in nucleus. If there are too many neutrons, the excess neutrons

change its form to protons, and if it is too little, protons changes into

neutrons. For excess neutron in the nucleus, we have this transformation

n → p+ β−¿+ v́ ¿ (anti neutrino) ̶ (Beta decay) for less neutron, we have the

transformation p →n+ β+¿+ v¿ (neutrino) ̶ (positron decay). For each case,

the atomic number Z changes, but the mass number A of the daughter

nuclide remains the same. Examples of γ – emissions are α, β and

positron (β+) emissions are accompanied γ – ray emissions as in equation

2 and represented in Figure1.

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226
i 88 R α → 222
86 Rα +Q+α +γ (2)

                                                                                                                     226Ra (parent)
α 1 4.59 MeV
( 5.7 % )

Rn 222
α 1 4.777 MeV (94.3 % )

γ −ray
0.18 MeV 222 R n (daughter)
Fig.1: Rα - 226 Decay Scheme

¿
Excited states of ( 22288 Rn ) are as shown in equations 3, 4, 5 and 6

203

H g → 203z β−¿+γ + T 1 +0.279 MeV

ii z+ 1
¿ (3)

42

iii 42
❑ K → β−¿+γ + ❑C a +1.53 MeV ¿
(4)

131

iv I → 131❑β−¿+γ + ❑ Xe +0.364 MeV

¿ (5)

v N a → 22❑β−¿ + γ+ 22❑N e +1.277 MeV ¿ (6)

2.5 Artificial Radioactivity

Naturally, there are elements that are radioactive however; radioactivity can be

artificially induced with shorter half – life compared to half – life of the

naturally occurring radioisotopes. This can be achieved by two main ways viz:

i By bombardment of elements with neutrons.

ii By bombardment of elements with protons

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2.5.1 Neutron Bombardment or Neutron Capture

Neutron is uncharged, and can penetrate the nucleus of an atom thereby

n
increasing the number of neutron by 1. This produces nuclear instability since p

ratio is altered, the atom becomes radioactive and in some cases, produces γ -

rays as shown in equation 7 and 8.

P+ 31 32 −¿+ γ
15 P+ 16 β ¿ (7)

C 0+ n → 59 1 60
27 0C 0+ 28 ¿ β
−¿+γ
¿¿ (8)

31
The 15 Porp−32 and Co – 60 are all radioactive; Co – 60 is common source of γ -

rays used in hospitals.

2.5.2 Proton Bombardment

n
When a nucleus captures a proton, the p ratio is altered and instability ensures,

leading to radioactivity. This process is however very expensive since only very

high energy protons can penetrate the repulsive electrostatic nuclear field of the

nucleus. A neutron is ejected from the nucleus following the proton

bombardment. In addition to this α particle is produced together with γ - rays in

some cases as shown in equation 9 and 10.

23
11 N a + 24 20 4
12 M g → 10 N a + 2a (9)

7
3 Li + 11 H → 84 B¿e →+ 48B e + γ → 422 a (10)
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2.6 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORMs)

Generally, all minerals and raw materials contain radionuclides of natural

origin. For most human activities involving minerals and raw materials, the

levels of exposure to these radionuclides are not significantly greater than

normal background levels and are not of concern for radiation protection.

However, certain work activities can give rise to significantly enhanced

exposures that may need to be controlled by regulation (IAEA, 2015). The

materials that give rise to these enhanced exposures are called naturally

occurring radioactive materials (NORMs).

Radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium, potassium and any of their

decay products, such as radium and radon are examples of NORMs. These

elements have always been present in the Earth's crust and atmosphere, and are

concentrated in some places, such as uranium ore bodies which may be mined

(Gooding, 2006).

2.6.1 Sources of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORMs)

Basically, the isotopes which contribute to natural radiation can be divided into

two; these are Terrestrial sources and cosmic sources.

NORM levels are typically expressed in one of two ways; Becquerels per

kilogram (or gram) indicates level of radioactivity generally or due to a

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particular isotope, while parts per million (ppm) indicates the concentration of a

specific radioisotope in the material.

2.6.2 Primordial NORMs

Primordial NORMs consists of the radioactive materials from the Earth’s crust

and mantle. The materials may be original (such as uranium and thorium) or

decay products thereof, forming part of characteristic decay chain series, or

potassium-40. The two most important chains providing nuclides of significance

in NORMs are the thorium series and the uranium series.

Another major source of terrestrial NORM is potassium 40 (K-40). The long

half-life of K-40 is 1.25 billion years, meaning it exists in measurable quantities

till today. Potassium is the seventh most abundant element in the Earth’s crust,

and K-40 averages 850 Bq/kg. Human beings have about 65 Bq/kg of K-40

(IAEA, 2015).

2.6.3 Cosmic NORMs

Cosmic NORMs is formed as a result of interactions between certain gases in

the Earth’s atmosphere and cosmic rays. Since most cosmic radiation is

deflected by the Earth’s magnetic field or absorbed by the atmosphere, very

little reaches the Earth’s surface. At higher altitudes, the dose due to both

increases, meaning that mountain dwellers and frequent flyers are exposed to

higher doses than others. By contrast, terrestrial NORMs – especially radon –

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contribute to the majority of natural dose, usually over 1000 microsieverts (1

mSv) per year (Dale, 2006). Some of the main comsogenic nuclides are shown

in Table 2, carbon-14 being important for dating early human activities.

Table 2: Radiological characteristics of cosmic NORMs

Nuclide decay mode half life

C-14 β- 5700 y
H-3 (tritium) β- 12.32 y
Na-22 β+ and electron capture 2.6 y
Be-7 Electron capture 53.22 d

(IAEA, 2015)
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2.7 Formation and release of Radon

Radon is continuously produced by α – decay of radium and its compounds,

about 160mg being formed every twenty – four hours from 1g of radium.
222 220 219
The well-known three naturally existing radon isotopes Rn, Rn and Rn
226 224 223
are produced on the alpha decay of their radium parents Ra, Ra and Ra.
222 220 219
Rn, Rn and Rn are distinctively known as: radon, thoron, actinon

respectively; they are all isotopes of radon (Ishimori et al., 2013). Equations 11-

13 illustrate the mode of formation of the three isotopes of radon.

226
Ra → 222 4
88 86 Rn + 2 He +Q(1 1)

224
Ra → 220 4
88 86 Rn + 2 He +Q(1 2)

223
Ra → 219 4
88 86 Rn + 2 He +Q(1 3)

The energies of emitted alpha particles ranges from 4.0 to 10.0 MeV. Otherwise

hanging radon is trapped within the solid since diffusion rate in the solid is low

compared with radioactive decay (UNSCEAR, 1993). Radon can also gain

access into building by convection as a result of slightly negative pressure

difference that usually exists between the indoor and outdoor atmospheres. The

mechanisms involved in this process include; wind blowing on the building and

heating inside the building (NCRP, 1989).

Radon that is produced or dissolved in water is held only by solubility. The

solubility is sufficient so that emanation at normal temperatures and pressures is

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small compare with the same area of soil. It is estimated that the total radon

emanation rate from land of the earth is 50 Ci/sec, produces an equilibrium

activity in atmosphere of 25 x 106 Ci. Measured emanation rate from the soil are

as high as 1.4pCi/m2-sec. The radon concentration at ground levels strongly

depends on meteorological conditions.

2.8 Properties of Radon

Radon is a natural inert radioactive gas, without any taste and smell, it has

density of approximately 8 times higher than that of air. It dissolves in water

and easily mixes with other gases and water vapour, thus producing remarkable
238
concentrations. The earth’s crust contains trace amounts of U and 232Th which
222 220
decompose to Rn (radon) and Rn (thoron) respectively. The first four

offspring of radon—218Po, 214

Pb, 214
Bi, and 214
Po—are also radioactive and are

altogether called radon decay products or simply progeny. They are all solid

metals and have half-lives spanning from a fraction of a second to several

minutes. 218Po and 214Po are alpha emitters, while 214Pb and 214Bi are beta/gamma

emitters (Assad and Salih, 2008).

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Table 3: Physicochemical Properties for 222Rn, 220Rn and 219Rn

222 220 219
Parameter Notation Rn Rn Rn
Half-life T1/2 3.8232(8)d 55.8(3)s 3.98(3)s
Decay constant ⋋ 2.0984x10-6/s 1.242x10-2/s 1.74x10-1/s
Diffusion coefficient in air Dair 1x10-5m2/s
Diffusion coefficient in water Dwater 1x10-9m2/s
(Ishimori et al., 2013).
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2.9 Sources of Radon

Uranium is present in the earth’s crust and it occurs in building materials,

groundwater and natural gas. Nevertheless, the ground is the major radon

source. The lower air pressure indoors gives rise to a pressure-driven flow of

radon-rich soil air into the indoor environment through cracks in the bottom slab

and cellar walls. Uranium concentration in rocks and soil, such as some granites

and shales, is high compare to other types of rocks. However, ground with

moderate contents of uranium and/or radium can also give high indoor radon

concentrations (Hubbard et al., 1991). The inflow depends largely on the

building construction and the permeability of the ground materials.

Building materials made from soil (e.g. clay bricks) or rock contains uranium

and radium. The content is usually low, but some materials may have high

concentrations of radium-226, as in alum shale concrete and building materials

made of volcanic tuff, gypsum waste, etc. The radon concentration can reach

several thousand bequerels per litre (Bq/l) in water from drilled wells in regions

with granite rock, such as Finland and Sweden which contributes to indoor

radon exposure via ingestion (Salonen, 1994).

2.10 Route of exposure

The highest exposure usually results from inhalation of radon and its progeny.

High levels of radon in domestic water might also give high exposures through

the intake of water taken directly from the tap (Kendall et al., 1988). Radon can

present a hazard in a wide range of workplaces other than mines. This includes
 25

below the ground workplaces such as subways, tunnels, stores, show caves,

closed-out mines open to visitors, and radon spas, and the majority of such

workplaces are above ground. Some proportion of workplaces above the ground

such as factories, shops, schools and offices are also affected.

In buildings with high radon levels, the main mechanism for the entry of radon

is the pressure driven flow of gas from soil through cracks in the floor.

This flow arises because buildings are normally at a slight lower pressure with

respect to their surroundings. This low pressure is a consequence of the air

inside buildings being warmer than that outside, especially in temperate and

cold regions, and also of the drawing effect of the wind blowing over chimneys

and other openings. Nevertheless, other mechanisms can affect the

concentrations of radon in dwellings (IAEA, 2003).

Levels of radon can be high in groundwater, particularly in areas of granite

rock. Radon levels may be high in workplaces such as laundries and restaurant

kitchens as a result of the use of such water. Since many municipal water

supplies are provided from surface reservoirs filled by rain catchment, radon

levels in public water supplies are not normally high. In Germany some

treatment and distribution stations for water supplies drawn from groundwater

have been found to have radon concentrations in air of up to several hundred

thousand Bq/m3 (ICRP, 1997). Generally, the annual exposure time of workers

in these workplaces is low, but several such water treatment plants are subject to
 26

monitoring. Some countries such as USA and Canada have issued

recommendations on radon concentrations in drinking water (Åkerblom, 1999).

Elevated levels of radon have been found in workplaces in various countries.

Most of these countries have identified certain workplaces with radon

concentrations exceeding 1000 Bq/m3. However, some of the surveys were

small and even if the mean concentration is low most distributions are skewed,

so there could be a minority of workplaces in which radon concentrations are

significantly above the average (IAEA, 2003).

Underground miners have historically been exposed to very high concentrations

of radon, especially in uranium mines. Nowadays the levels in most mines have

been reduced substantially. The general population in several regions is exposed

to high concentrations of radon due to the geology, building construction and

domestic habits. Indoor concentrations of 10 000 Bq/m3 and higher have been

found in dwellings (Swedjemark and Mjönes 1983).

2.12 Decay and Build up of Radon and its Daughters

When a radioisotope disintegrates, it does not disappear but modifies itself into

a new type of higher binding energy. It can be shown that if any radionuclide

(X1) decays with decay constant (u1), forming a daughter nucleus (X2), which

then decays with decay constant (u2), can be schematically presented as;

u1 u2
X1 X2 (14)
 27

The net rate of formation of the daughter atoms is the difference between rate of

generation and her rate of disintegration given by:

dN 1 −u t
=−u1 N 1 ; N 1=N 1 ( 0 ) e (1 5)
1

dt

dN 2
=u1 N 1−u2 N 2( 16)
dt

Or

dN 2 −u t
+u 2 N 2=u 1 N 1=u 1 N 1 ( 0 ) e (17)
1

dt

Where, N1 and N2 are the numbers of atoms present at time t.

Then using the expression;

dY
+ PY =G(1 8)
dX

Y =exp(−∫ Pdx)(1 9)

The equation above shows that the number of offspring or daughter nuclei

increases following the decay of the parent and reduces as a result of its own

decay (Loveland and Morrissey, 2006).

Therefore,

u1 N 1(0)
N 2=e−u t ,
1
e¿¿
u2 −u1

At t=0 , N 2 ( 0 )=0 ,

1u N (0)
1
Hence N 2 ( t )= u −u ¿)
2 1

Also,
 28

e−u t
1
e−u t
2
e−u t
3

N 3=N 1 ( 0 ) u1 u 2 { + + (22)
( u2 −u1 ) ( u2−u1 ) ( u3−u2 ) ( u1 −u2 ) ( u1 −u3 ) ( u2−u3 )

Where N 1 , N 2 , N 3 represent the number of atoms of RaA, RaB, and RaC

respectively, (Bmilo, 1999).

The decay constant of radium is smaller than that of radon, which is also very

much smaller than the decay constants of the subsequent immediate daughters.

The build up of radon and daughters activities follows the expression:

A ( t )=Fr A 0 ( 1−e−ut ) (23)

Where A(t) is the activity of radon contained in a confined unventilated space at

time t (at t=0 the activity is assumed to be zero), F r is the emanating power
226
which is the fraction of radon released into the space from Ra source of

activity A0, and u is the decay constant for radon ( 0.00756 h−1) (UNCEAR,

1986). The activity concentration in confined unventilated space increases

according to the eq. 2.12 divided by the volume, V of the space. If the space is

ventilated with ventilation rate v the increase of radon concentration follows the

expression (UNSCEAR, 1986).

Fr Ao
X a ( t )= ( 1−e−(u +v ) t ) ¿
u )
V (1+ )
v

Where Xa is the activity concentration of radon in air, and v is the ventilation

defined as the number of air changes per unit time (m 3.h-1) through the space, V

its volume (m3).

 29

Radon emanating into the air is practically free of decay products so that the

daughter activity in air build up with time (Wiseman, 2000).

Figure 2: Uranium Decay Series (Minireview & Yamada, 2003)

 30

Figure 3. Thorium Decay Series (Minireview and Yamada, 2003)

 31

2.13 Physical and Chemical Properties of Radon

Radon (222Rn) is naturally occurring radioactive gas. It decays by alpha emission

to polonium isotope (216Po), which further decays to isotopes of lead, bismuth

and ends with a stable isotope of lead (206Pb).

Radon is a chemically inert noble gas with slight ability to form compounds

under laboratory conditions. It occurs in almost all materials and for most part
226
(90%) is trapped in the solids carrying its precursors Ra (UNSCEAR, 1986).

At ordinary temperature radon is a colourless gas; when cooled below the

freezing point, radon exhibits a brilliant phosphorence which becomes yellow as

the temperature is lowered and orange-red at the temperature of liquid air.

(Robert, 1976).

2.14 Safety Standard in Buildings

Radon gas is a carcinogen which causes lung cancer. The US EPA has it that,

“Any radon exposure has some risk of causing lung cancer. The lower the radon

levels in your home, the lower your family’s risk of lung cancer.” The average

person receives a higher dose of radiation from the radon levels in their home  

than from their combined exposure to all other radiation sources, natural or

man-made. Depending on the geographic location, the radon levels of the air

you breathe outside of your home may be as high as 0.75 pCi/L

Radon Act 51 passed by Congress set the natural outdoor level of radon gas (0.4

pCi/L) as the target radon level for indoor radon levels. Unfortunately two-
 32

thirds of all homes exceed this level. The US EPA was tasked with setting

practical guidelines and recommendations for the limit of Radon exposure to

nations. To this end, the US EPA has set an action level of 4pCi/L. At or above

this level of radon, the EPA recommends that corrective measures to reduce

exposure to radon gas be taken. This does not imply that a level below 4.0pCi/L

is considered acceptable, as stated in the BEIR VI study. It is estimated that a

reduction of radon levels to below 2pCi/L nationwide would likely reduce the

yearly lung cancer deaths attributed to radon by 50%.

In related development, The World Health Organisation’s Handbook on Indoor

Radon titled; ‘A Public Health Perspective’’ indicates that radon exposure is a

major and growing public health threat in homes, and recommends that

countries adopt reference levels of the gas to 100 Bq/m 3 which is equivalent to

2.7 pCi/L. (WHO, 2009).

2.15 Radiation Detection

Radiation detector is a device for detecting the presence and sometimes the

amount of radiation. The particular capabilities of a radiation detector will

establish its potential applications in conducting a specific type of survey.

Radiation detectors can be divided into four general classes based on the

detector material or the application. These categories are: Gas-filled detectors,

Scintillation detectors, Solid-state detectors, and Passive integrating detectors.

33
 34

2.15.1 Gas-Filled Detectors:

Radiation interacts with the fill gas, producing ion-pairs that are collected by

charged electrodes. Commonly used gas-filled detectors are categorized as

ionization, proportional, or Geiger-Mueller (GM), referring to the region of gas

amplification in which they are operated. The fill gas varies, but the most

common are:( i) air, (ii) argon with a small amount of organic methane (usually

10% methane by mass, referred to as P-10 gas), and (iii) argon or helium with a

small amount of a halogen such as chlorine or bromine added as a quenching

agent (NPC, 2006).

2.15.2 Scintillation Detectors

Radiation interacts with a solid or liquid medium causing electronic transitions

to excited states in a luminescent material. The excited states decay rapidly,

emitting photons that in turn are captured by a photomultiplier tube. The

ensuing electrical signal is proportional to the scintillator light output, which,

under the right conditions, is proportional to the energy loss that produced the

scintillation. The most common scintillant materials are NaI(Tl), ZnS(Ag),

Cd(Te), and CsI(Tl) which are used in traditional radiation survey instruments

such as the NaI(Tl) detector used for gamma surveys and the ZnS(Ag) detector

for alpha surveys (Saleh et al, 2007).

2.15.3 Solid-State Detectors

Radiation interacting with a semiconductor material creates electron-hole pairs

that are collected by a charged electrode. The design and operating conditions
 35

of a specific solid-state detector determines the types of radiations (alpha, beta,

and/or gamma) that can be measured, the detection level of the measurements,

and the ability of the detector to resolve the energies of the interacting

radiations (John and Zordan, 2001). The semiconductor materials currently

being used are germanium and silicon which is available in both n and p types

in various configurations.

Spectrometric techniques using these detectors provide a marked increase in

sensitivity in many situations. When a particular radionuclide contributes only a

fraction of the total particle fluence or photon fluence, or both, from all sources

(natural or manmade background), gross measurements are inadequate and

nuclide-specific measurements are necessary (John and Zordan 2001).

Spectrometry provides the means to discriminate among various radionuclides

on the basis of characteristic energies. In-situ gamma spectrometry is

particularly effective in field measurements since the penetrating nature of the

radiation allows one to “see” beyond immediate surface contamination. The

availability of large, high efficiency germanium detectors permits measurement

238
of low abundance gamma emitters such as U as well as low energy emitters

such as 241Am and 239Pu.

2.15.4 Passive Integrating Detectors

There is an additional class of instruments that consists of passive, integrating

detector and associated reading/analyzing instruments. The integrated ionization

is read using a laboratory or hand-held reader. This class includes

 36

thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs) and electrets ion chambers (EICs).

Because these detectors are passive and can be exposed for relatively long

periods of time, they can provide better sensitivity for measuring low activity

levels such as free release limits or for continuing surveillance. The ability to

read and present data onsite is a useful feature and such systems are comparable

to direct reading instruments (Osiga-Aibangbee, 2014).

The scintillation materials are selected for their prompt fluorescence

characteristics. In another class of inorganic crystals, called TLDs, the crystal

material and impurities are chosen so that the free electrons and holes created

following the absorption of energy from the radiation are trapped by impurities

in the crystalline lattice thus locking the excitation energy in the crystal. Such

materials are used as passive, integrating detectors. After removal from the

exposure area, the TLDs are heated in a reader which measures the total amount

of light produced when the energy is released. The total amount of light is

proportional to the number of trapped, excited electrons, which in turn is

proportional to the amount of energy absorbed from the radiation. The intensity

of the light emitted from the thermoluminescent crystals is thus directly

proportional to the radiation dose. TLDs come in a large number of materials,

the most common of which are LiF, CaF 2 :Mn, CaF2 :Dy, CaSO4 :Mn, CaSO4

:Dy, Al2O3 :C. The electric ion chamber consists of a very stable electrets

mounted inside a small chamber made of electrically charged plastic. The ions

produced inside this air filled chamber are collected onto the electrets, causing a
 37

reduction of its surface charge. The reduction in charge is a function of the total

ionization during a specific monitoring period and the specific chamber volume.

This change in voltage is measured with a surface potential voltmeter (Osiga-

Aibangbee, 2014).

2.16 Health Effects of Radon Gas

The average individual in the United States receives more radiation dose from

exposure to indoor radon decay products than from any other source of natural

or manmade radiation (Salonen, 1994). Occupational exposure to radon in

uranium and other mines is a well documented cause of lung cancer. In

addition, there is now direct evidence that prolonged radon exposure in homes

represents a significant health risk (Jonathan and Richard, 1990).

On inhalation of radon, alpha particles are released through the short-lived

decay products of radon (Po-218 and Po-214) and these alpha particles interact

with lungs tissues and can cause the DNA damage. It is supposed that cancer

can occur even mutation in one cell which can acts as a pool of developing

cancer cells by damaging the DNA. Hence, a single alpha particle can cause the

DNA damage at any level of exposure (WHO, 2009). Radon is inhaled and

ingested when human being is exposed to it and due to the harmful effects of

radon on human; there is an increase in monitoring exposure to Radon

worldwide (Duggal et al., 2014). During the regular activities, such as flushing

toilets, washing clothes, radon is released, which increases the concentration of

indoor radon by mixing. The radon released from water also contributes to
 38

inhalation risk of radon with indoor air. Therefore, natural sources play the

significant role for increasing the radiation that human receives (Duggal et al.,

2014). Different studies have shown that effect of radon exposure on women is

different from men, that may be due to differences in lung dosimetry or other

factors correlated to gender. This study shows that women have exhibited lower

rate of lung cancer occurrence than males (Butkus et al., 2005). Similarly,

children are more vulnerable to radon exposure than adults as children have

different lung structure and breathing patterns (Butkus et al., 2005).

2.17 Factors that affect Radon Gas in Dwellings

Generally radon entry into dwellings has emerged; many of the details are

based on empirical observations in few houses. Continues multi-parameters data

have shown that the increase in variations of environmental conditions such as

changes in outdoor temperature, wind speed and direction, or building

operation, all influence indoor radon concentration in a complicated way

(William, 1999).

2.18 Remediation Action to Reduce Radon Concentration

Measurements of Radon gas indicates whether or not the concentrations exceed

the standard levels or limits established by the relevant national authorities. If

exceeded, the employer will undertake remedial action. This is to reduce radon

levels by making permanent mitigatory changes to the building or to the way in

which it is used. Mitigation, if ineffective or not reasonably practicable, the

 39

employer adopts an appropriate system of radiation protection for the workplace

in accordance with the requirements for practices (IAEA, 1996).

Mitigation takes different forms depending on the circumstances. By far the

most common cause of elevated radon levels in above ground workplaces is the

pressure driven entry of radon through cracks or other openings in the floor.

Other mechanisms are by diffusion from soil in contact with the building

foundations, by diffusion from construction materials or, rarely, as a result of

radon in the water supply. In all these cases remediation measures developed for

dwellings may be applicable (Bochicchio et al., 1995).

2.18.1 Sub-Floor Depressurization

For foundations and basements in contact with soil, the most effective

mitigatory measure is to reduce the pressure of the soil gas in the vicinity of the

foundation relative to the pressure in the structure. This reverses the normal

situation in which the indoor air of buildings is generally found to be at an

underpressure with respect to the subjacent soil gas. This pressure reversal may

be accomplished by installing a system of pipes leading from the soil or

aggregate under the foundation to a fan that maintains a negative pressure

gradient between the soil and the foundation. The approach effectively reduces

the amount of radon entering the structure by reducing the amount of soil gas

entering. The soil gas containing radon can then be vented harmlessly to the

atmosphere. Where possible, it is desirable to install a small and simple cavity

or sump within the foundations to which the system of pipes may be attached.
 40

For buildings with extensive and complex foundations a number of such

depressurization systems may be needed for effective radon control (Bochicchio

et al., 1995).

2.18.2 Sub-Floor Ventilation

An effective mitigatory measure is taken to ventilate the space beneath the floor

when the ground floor is not in contact with soil. This may be accomplished by

increasing natural ventilation or by installing a fan that removes the radon laden

air from under the floor and replaces it with outdoor air. The approach

effectively reduces the amount of radon entering the structure by reducing the

concentration of radon in the air beneath the floor (Miles, 1996).

2.18.3 Floor Sealing and Membranes

The cracks and other opening through which radon enters the structure may be

sealed. This method is considered less effective than sub-floor depressurization

because it is difficult to seal all entry routes adequately and because seals tend

to deteriorate over time. This method is likely to be ineffective unless all the

cracks are sealed. It can be used as a supplementary measure to increase the

effectiveness of sub-floor depressurization or sub-floor ventilation. At the

construction stage of a building, heavy duty plastic membranes incorporated

into the foundations may act as effective radon barriers provided that they are

properly sealed at joint and are not punctured during installation (EPA, 1992).
 41

2.18.4 Increased Ventilation

Radon in indoor air may be diluted by increased ventilation of the indoor spaces

with outdoor air. This method can be costly in terms of energy loss, particularly

in cooler climates. Energy loss can be reduced by using heat exchangers but

these have significant purchase, operating and maintenance costs. In some

structures, increased ventilation can actually result in an increase in indoor air

radon levels by causing an increase in the under pressure of the indoor air with

respect to the subjacent soil gas. For these reasons, ventilation as a method of

reducing indoor radon levels is to be used with caution (Sadagopan et al., 1998).

2.18.5 Removal of Subsoil

Elevated levels of radium in the soil underneath or surrounding a building can

be the cause of increased radon levels in the indoor air. Removal of the subsoil

and replacement with uncontaminated soil has been shown to be effective in

lowering radon levels indoors. Since this method represents a major

undertaking, it is only used in exceptional circumstances (Scivyer, and

Wolliscroft, 1998).

2.18.6 Water Treatment

If the water used in a workplace is a significant source of radon, treatment of the

water by aeration or other methods (such as filtration with activated charcoal) to

reduce the radon levels prior to use can be effective. In municipal water

treatment plants where groundwater with high concentrations of radon is

 42

processed, aeration of the water may give rise to very high air concentrations of

radon within the plant. In this case strong ventilation of the air spaces of the

water treatment plant, coupled with restrictions on working hours for staff, can

be effective (Sadagopan et al., 1998).

2.19 Units of Measurement for Radon Levels

Almost all measurements of radon levels in the home or outdoors are expressed

as the concentration of radon in units of picocuries per liter of air (pCi/liter), or

in SI units as Becquerel per cubic meter (Bq/m 3), or radon daughters are

expressed in working levels (WL). A working level month (WLM) is defined as

170 hrs (2l.25 working days/month x 8 hrs/day) in a work place at one WL.

Thus, a 12 hour a day exposure in the home at one WL, corresponds to

approximately 26 working level months per year (i.e. 372 working days/month

x 12 hrs/day) the occupational exposure, assuming equal radon levels at home

and in the work place. Exposure rate is typically given in working level months

per year (WLM/year).

The WL unit was developed for use in radon occupational exposure assessment

since often there was incomplete information on the degree of equilibrium with

daughter products. It is the dose delivered in one liter of air that results in the

emission of 1.3 x 105 MeV of potential alpha energy. The amount of time spent

in the mine or in the home determines the number of WLM associated with a

particular exposure level, but because most people spend more time at home

than at work, the WLM could be higher than from a comparable mine radon
 43

daughter concentration. Typical outdoor levels in the U.S.A. are given as

0.2pCi/liter (NCRP, 2001).

The correspondence between WLs and radon concentration in air in pCi/liter

depends on the extent to which radon daughters (which impart dose to the

Tracheobronchial Epithelium Dose, "TBE") are in equilibrium with the parent

radon. At complete equilibrium, one pCi/liter results in an exposure equal to

0.01 working levels. The assumption is generally made that inside buildings the

radon decay product/radon equilibrium is 50%. Thus, inside buildings, 1

pCi/liter = 0.005 WL, or 1 WL= 200 pCi/liter. (Note: Consideration must also

be given to radionuclide attachment and distribution).

2.20 The activity concentration of NORMs in soil and water samples

226 232 40
The activity concentration of Ra, Th and K were calculated using the

following equation (Darko et al, 2010)

Nsam∗exp(−λTd )
Asp = (25)
Pϵ . Tc x ε x Msam

Nsam – Net counts of radionuclides in the sample

Pϵ – Gamma ray emission probability (gamma yield)

ε – Total counting efficiency of the detector system

Td – delay time between sampling and counting

exp( λTd ¿ – correlation factor between sampling and counting

 44

Tc – sampling counting time

Msam – mass of sampling (ka) or volume (L)

2.20.1 Assessment of radiological hazards in soil

It is significant to evaluate the radiation hazards of soil to human beings within

226 232
a study area. The radiation hazards due to the natural nuclides Ra, Th and
40
K were assessed by various radiation hazards indices.

i. Radium equivalent activity (Raeq); which is the weighted addition

226 232
of activity concentration of Ra, Th and 40K. Radium equivalent

activity is widely used to give consistency of radiation exposure,

consequently, any radium equivalent activity concentration that passes

370Bq/Kg may raise radiation hazards, the radium equivalent activity

(Raeq) is given by the following formula (Nada, 2004).

Ra(eq)(Bq/Kg) = 0.077Ck + CRa + 1.43CTh (26)

Where Ck, CRa and Cth are the activity of Potassium, Radium and

Thorium.

ii. Internal hazards index (Hin): another factor signifying radiological

hazards from radionuclides is the internal hazards due to internal

exposure to radiation. In order to keep the radiation negligible, the

values of Raeq must be less than 370Bq/Kg while Hin must be less
 45

than unity (1). Internal radiation hazards index is given by the

equation (3) (Saher et al., 2013)

Hin = CRa/185 + CTh/259 + CK/4810 (27)

iii. Absorbed Dose (DR); the absorbed dose is the radiation energy

absorbed per unit mass of an organ. The calculated absorbed dose rate

at each sampling location was based on NORMs distribution densities

according to (Mohanty et, al, 2004; Saher et, al, 2013).

DR = [0.621CTh + 0.462CRa + 0.0417CK] nGyh-1

2.20.2 Estimation of annual effective dose (AED) NORMs in soil

It is the tissue weighted sum of the equivalent doses in all specified tissue

and organs of the human and represents the stochastic health risk to the

whole body. Effective dose is meant for use as a safeguard quantity. The

main uses of effective doses are the proposed dose assessment for planning

and optimization in radiological protection and demonstration of compliance

with units for regulatory objectives. (ICRP, 2007). To evaluate the year –

long effective dose rates, the conversion coefficient from absorbed dose in

the air to effective dose (0.75vGy-1) and outdoor occupancy factor (0.25vGy-
1
) and (0.85vGy-1) suggested by UNSCEAR (2008) was applied.

Indoor Effective Dose Rate (msvy-1 = Dose Rate (nGyh-1 x 8760) h x 0.8 x

0.7svGy-1 x 10-6 (28)

 46

Outdoor Effective Dose rate (msvy-1) = Dose rate (nGyh-1 x 8760h) x 0.2 x

0.7svGy-1 x 10-6 (29)

2.21 Radon in the soil

The activity concentration of radon gas in the soil samples were calculated

based on the radium (R-226) concentration using equation (7) (Darko et al.,

2010).

CRn = CRa – 226 x fx ρϵ x ε -1(1 - ε ) [m[KT-1]+1]-1 (30)

Where

CRn – is the concentration of radon-222 in (Bq/m3)

CRa – activity concentration of dry mass of 226Ra in soil (Bq/Kg)

f – soil emanation factor for Rn222 = 0.2

ρ s – density of soil (1600Kg/m3)

ε – is the soil porosity (0.25)

K T – is the radon partition coefficient between water and air phases and if the

soil samples are dried before measurement, then, m = 0, the last term in

equation (7) disappears.

m – is the porosity fraction, m = 0 for dry soil.

 47

2.22 Concentration and Estimation of AED due to ingestion of Ra-

226, Th-232 and K-40 in water

In order to control radiation exposure to the public, estimation of total annual

effective dose due to ingestion of Ra-226, Th-232 and K-40 in water samples

was done on the basis of the activity concentration and dose conversion

factors of selected radionuclide using the following expression in (6) –

(Dako et al., 2013)

AEDing(w) = ∑ Dcf ing (226Ra, 232Th, 40K) x Asp x Iw (31)

J =1

Where Dcfing – dose conversion factors by ingestion of selected

radionuclides in water samples by adult members of the public living in the

study area were taken to be 2.8 x 10 -7sv/Bq for 226Ra, 6.2 x 10-9sv/Bq for 40K

and 2.3 x 10-7sv/Bq for 232Th

Asp – is the activity concentration of each picked radionuclide in the water

samples Iw is daily water intake to be 2L/day corresponding to 730L/y.

 48

3.0 Materials and Method

3.1 Study Area.

Taraba State, located in the north-east geo-political zone of Nigeria, was created

in 1991 out of the former Gongola State with Jalingo as its capital. Jalingo the

state capital has an estimated population of 118,000 (Census, 2006). The major

settlers within the metropolis are civil servants, while others engaging in

farming, fishing and trading etc. It is located between Latitude 8° 53' 00" N and

longitude 11° 22' 00" E.

Fig. 4: Map of Nigeria showing the study location

 49

Water
Soil

Fig. 5: Map of Jalingo Showing the Sampling Areas.

 50

3.2 Materials

The detection and measurement of radionuclide in the samples were carried out

using the following materials:

i. Ten (10) samples each of water and soil.

ii. Gamma spectrometry system NaI (TI) detector with multiple channel

analyzer (MCA) (Model: 802).

iii. Sampling plastic constainer of about 1-2 litre

iv. Polyethylene bags

v. Masking tape, Mesh of 2mm

vi. Conductivity meter, Geographical Positioning System (GPS) for

measuring the geographical co-ordinates

vii. Thermometer

viii. Nitric acid.

3.3 Water Sample Collection and Preservation

Plastic bottles of about 1-2litre were used for the ten (10) water sample

collection. The bottles were rinsed with distilled water in order to minimizing

contamination from the original content of the bottles. The waters were

collected from the following areas Nukkai, Mile six, Mayogwoi, Sabon gari

NTA and river Nukkai and Mayogwoi within Jalingo metropolis. The

temperature and conductivity of the water were measured using thermometer

and conductivity meter respectively. The samples were then collected into the
 51

plastics bottles and acidified with 20ml of nitric acid per litre to reduce the pH

to 2, immediately after the conductivity measured. This is to minimize

precipitation of the radionuclide present in the sample water and also to prevent

the absorption of radionuclide by the walls of sample containers. The samples

content were tightly covered. Date, time and locations of samples were also

recorded.

3.4 Surface Soil Samples Collection and Preservation

The ten (10) soil samples were collected in a label polyethylene bag from the

following areas Nukkai, Mile six, Mayogwai, Sabon gari, NTA and along the

bank of river Nukkai and Mayogwoi at a depth of 30cm, Each sampling

locations were carefully chosen to represent areas where human population is

involve in various activities such as fishing, vegetable farming, extraction of

building materials (sharp sand, gravel etc) and others. The samples were sun

dried to constant weight and sieved using 2mm mesh to obtain a fine-powdered

texture that will give an equilibrium level with the detector. The samples were

then send to the laboratory at University of Ibadan for Radionuclides analysis.

3.5 Activity measurement

The activity concentrations of 40K, 226

Ra, and 232
Th in the prepared soil samples

were measured using the gamma spectrometric technique. The gamma

spectrometric system consists of a 7.62 × 7.62 cm Na (TI) scintillation detector

(Bicron Corp model 3M/3), encapsulated in a 5.5-cm-thick lead shield to reduce

 52

environ-mental background radiation. The detector was coupled to a

preamplifier (Bicron Corp Model PA-14), an amplifier (Canberra Model, 2022),

and an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) (Canberra Model 8075), which

supplied an output to a Canberra S100 multi-channel analyzer (MCA). The

activity concentration of 40K was measured from its gamma-ray energy of 1460
214
keV, and the transition lines of 1120.3 keV for Bi and 911 keV for 228Ac were

applied for 226Ra (238U series) and 228Ra (232Th series), respectively.

A standard soil sample supplied by the International Atomic Energy Agency

(IAEA), Vienna, Austria (Reference Material IAEA-375 for radionuclides and

trace elements in soil), was used for the calibrations of the detector. The

background radiation was consid-ered as an empty container having the same

geometry as the container of the standard sample and was counted for 25,200 s

(7 h). Each of the prepared soil samples was counted for 7 h to determine the

activity concentration of the radionuclides in them. The activity concentrations

of the radionuclides in the samples were obtained using the comparative method

accord-ing to Equation 1 (Aladeniyi & Aladenika, 2015):

As NS
= (32)
A SD N SD

Where As and ASD are the activity concentration (Bq/kg) of the sample and the

reference sample, respectively, and NS and NSD are the net count rates under the

region of interest for the sample and the reference (Standard) sample,
 53

respectively. The counting was performed in the Radiological Laboratory of

Centre for Energy, Research and Development (CERD) University of Ibadan.

3.5 Data Evaluation

3.5.1 The activity concentration of NORMs in soil and water samples

226 232 40
The activity concentration of Ra, Th and K were calculated using the

following equation (Darko et al, 2010)

Nsam∗exp(−λTd )
Asp = (25)
Pϵ . Tc x ε x Msam

Nsam – Net counts of radionuclides in the sample

Pϵ – Gamma ray emission probability (gamma yield)

ε – Total counting efficiency of the detector system

Td – delay time between sampling and counting

exp( λTd ¿ – correlation factor between sampling and counting

Tc – sampling counting time

Msam – mass of sampling (ka) or volume (L)

3.5.2 Assessment of radiological hazards in soil

226 232 40
The radiation hazards due to the natural nuclides Ra, Th and K were

assessed by various radiation hazards indices.

 54

iv. Radium equivalent activity (Raeq); In the present study, the radium

equivalent activity (Raeq) is given by the following formula (Nada,

2004).

Ra(eq)(Bq/Kg) = 0.077Ck + CRa + 1.43CTh (26)

Where Ck, CRa and Cth are the activity of Potassium, Radium and

Thorium.

v. Internal hazards index (Hin): Internal radiation hazards index is

given by the equation (3) (Saher et al., 2013)

Hin = CRa/185 + CTh/259 + CK/4810 (27)

vi. Absorbed Dose (DR); The calculated absorbed dose rate at each

sampling location was based on NORMs distribution densities

according to (Mohanty et, al, 2004; Saher et, al, 2013).

DR = [0.621CTh + 0.462CRa + 0.0417CK] nGyh-1

3.5.3 Estimation of annual effective dose (AED) NORMs in soil

To evaluate the year – long effective dose rates, the conversion coefficient

from absorbed dose in the air to effective dose (0.75vGy -1) and outdoor

occupancy factor (0.25vGy-1) and (0.85vGy-1) suggested by UNSCEAR

(2008) was applied.

Indoor Effective Dose Rate (msvy-1 = Dose Rate (nGyh-1 x 8760) h x 0.8 x

0.7svGy-1 x 10-6 (28)

 55

Outdoor Effective Dose rate (msvy-1) = Dose rate (nGyh-1 x 8760h) x 0.2 x

0.7svGy-1 x 10-6 (29)

3.6 Radon in the soil

The activity concentration of radon gas in the soil samples were calculated

based on the radium (R-226) concentration using equation (7) (Darko et al.,

2010).

CRn = CRa – 226 x fx ρϵ x ε -1(1 - ε ) [m[KT-1]+1]-1 (30)

Where

CRn – is the concentration of radon-222 in (Bq/m3)

CRa – activity concentration of dry mass of 226Ra in soil (Bq/Kg)

f – soil emanation factor for Rn222 = 0.2

ρ s – density of soil (1600Kg/m3)

ε – is the soil porosity (0.25)

K T – is the radon partition coefficient between water and air phases and if the

soil samples are dried before measurement, then, m = 0, the last term in

equation (7) disappears.

m – is the porosity fraction, m = 0 for dry soil.

 56

3.7 Concentration and Estimation of AED due to ingestion of Ra-

226, Th-232 and K-40 in water

In order to control radiation exposure to the public, estimation of total annual

effective dose due to ingestion of Ra-226, Th-232 and K-40 in water samples

was done on the basis of the activity concentration and dose conversion

factors of selected radionuclide using the following expression in (6) –

(Dako et al., 2013)

AEDing(w) = ∑ Dcf ing (226Ra, 232Th, 40K) x Asp x Iw (32)

J =1

Where Dcfing – dose conversion factors by ingestion of selected

radionuclides in water samples by adult members of the public living in the

study area were taken to be 2.8 x 10 -7sv/Bq for 226Ra, 6.2 x 10-9sv/Bq for 40K

and 2.3 x 10-7sv/Bq for 232Th

Asp – is the activity concentration of each picked radionuclide in the water

samples Iw is daily water intake to be 2L/day corresponding to 730L/y.

3.8 Radon in Water

222
The activity concentration of Rn in the water samples were calculated using

the equation;

) Td
ARn = ARa – 226 [1-e (−λ Rn 222
¿ (33)

Where ARn is the activity concentration Rn-222

 57

ARa is the activity concentration of Ra – 226

𝞴-222 is the decay constant of Rn – 222

Td is the time between sampling and counting.

3.9 Estimation of AED due to the ingestion of Rn – 222 in water

The estimated AED by ingestion was calculated because of habitual

consumption of water by dwellers. It was computed using the formula

(Asumadu-Sakyl et al., 2012)

AEDing = C Rn−222 × AW ing × DCF ing (34)

Where

AEDing Is the annual effective dose due to ingestion in µSv/y

CRn is concentration of 222Rn in the ingested drinking water in Bq/L

DCF ingis the ingested dose conversion factor for 222Rn of 3.5 x 10 -9 Svh-1(Bqm-

3 -1
) (UNSCEAR, 2008).

AW ing is the annual intake of drinking water which is 730 L/y for age 18 and

above.
58
 59

4.0 RESULTS

The activity concentration of radionulcides contents in Jalingo metropolis was

successfully carried using Gamma spectrometry system NaI (TI) detector with

multiple channel analyzer (MCA) (Model: 802). A total of twenty soil and

water samples were collected from the study area of Jalingo Metropolis.

Gamma spectrometry system NaI (TI) detector was calibrated with respect to

Energy and Efficiency in order to identify energy of the radionulcides and

quantify the radionuclides respectively. This was achieved by suing standard

radionulcides in a one litre marinelli beaker with solid water as the matrix. It

was very essential to carry our calibration in order to ascertain the quality and

the reliability of measurement.

The results are as tabulated in Table 2 to Table 8.

 60

Table 4: Concentration Of Natural Radionuclides In Soil Samples (Bq/Kg)

Sample Location Ra-226 Th-232 K

NUK-1 11.59±1.37 2.39±0.14 215

NUK-2 15.04±1.79 21.36±1.28 18
MLS-1 12.61±1.50 10.39±0.62 10
MLS-2 14.34±1.60 11.45±0.63 10
SBG-1 21.54±3.70 13.44±0.81 16
SBG-2 25.46±2.60 13.55±0.26 15
MYG-1 12.96±1.32 4.43±0.56 21
MYG-2 13.46±1.23 27.21±1.23 18
NTA-1 31.64±3.47 37.45±2.80 18
NTA-2 27.62±2.73 25.42±1.33 16
MIN 11.59±1.30 2.39±0.14 10
MAX 31.64±3.47 37.45±2.80 215
AVERAGE±STD 16.709±10.96
V 18.626±7.31 1672
 61

2500

2000
Activity Concentration (Bq/kg)

1500

1000

500

0
NUK-1 NUK-2 MLS-1 MLS-2 SBG-1 SBG-2 MYG-1 MYG-2 NTA-1 NTA-2

Study Location

Ra-226 Th-226 K-40

Fig. 6: Concentration of Radionuclide in soil sample

 62

Table 5: Radium Equivalent Index (Raeq), Internal Hazard Index (Hin) and Absorded Dose
Rate (DR) in Soil Samples

Hin(Bq/Kg) DR(ngy/h
Sample Location Raeq(Bq/Kg) )
NUK-1 180.764±10.036 0.519±0.031 98.132±37.155
NUK-2 184.507±10.334 0.539±0.033 95.144±31.820
MLS-1 107.224±6.498 0.324±0.216 55.470±18.353
MLS-2 109.322±6.523 0.334±0.022 56.307±18.157
SBG-1 169.308±11.441 0.515±0.041 87.915±30.000
SBG-2 161.69±8.613 0.505±0.032 83.460±27.817
MYG-1 181.113±8.994 0.524±0.028 96.372±30.380
MYG-2 197.841±9.175 0.571±0.028 101.896±27.600
NTA-1 227.525±22.403 0.700±0.070 114.634±31.573
NTA-2 194.064±10.162 0.599±0.036 98.999±27.325
MIN 107.224±6.498 0.324±0.216 55.470±31.820
MAX 227.525±22.403 0.700±0.070 114.634±31.573
AVERAGE±STDV 171.3358±37.693 0.513±0.112 88.833±19.216

Table 6: Annual Effective Dose Due to Ingestion of Norms (Ra-226, Th-232 and K-40) in
Soil Samples

Indoor Outdoors
Sample location s ∑AED-in, out (msvy-1)
 63

NUK-1
0.481±0.182 0.120±0.046 0.601±0.228
NUK-2
0.468±0.156 0.117±0.045 0.585±0.201
MLS-1
0.272±0.090 0.068±0.023 0.340±0.113
MLS-2
0.276±0.089 0.069±0.025 0.645±0.114
SBG-1
0.431±0.147 0.108±0.037 0.539±0.151
SBG-2
0.409±0.136 0.102±0.034 0.511±0.170
MYG-1
0.430±0.149 0.118±0.037 0.548±0.186
MYG-2
0.500±0.150 0.125±0.034 0.625±0.184
NTA-1
1.004±0.159 0.161±0.039 1.165±0.198
NTA-2
0.486±0.115 0.121±0.034 0.607±0.149
MIN 0.272±0.09 0.068±0.023 0.340±0.113
MAX 1.004±0.159 0.161±0.039 1.165±0.198
AVERAGE±STDV 0.476±0.203 0.111±0.027 0.591±0.211
 64

1.2

0.8
AED (mSv/y)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
NUK-1 NUK-2 MLS-1 MLS-2 SBG-1 SBG-2 MYG-1 MYG-2 NTA-1 NTA-2
Locations

Indoor Outdoors

Fig. 7: Distributions of Indoors and Outdoors Annual Effective Dose in soil.

 65

Table 7: Activity Concentration of Randon Gas (Rn-222) Calculated From The Soil Samples

Sample location Ra-226 Bq/Kg Rn222(KBq/m)

NUK-1
11.59±1.370 11.126±1.315
NUK-2
15.04±1.790 14.438±1.718
MLS-1
12.61±1.500 12.106±1.440
MLS-2
14.34±1.600 13.766±1.536
SBG-1
21.54±3.700 20.678±3.552
SBG-2
25.46±2.600 24.442±2.496
MYG-1
12.96±1.320 12.442±1.267
MYG-2
13.46±1.230 12.923±1.181
NTA-1
31.64±3.470 30.374±3.331
NTA-2
27.62±2.730 26.515±2.621
MIN 11.59±1.370 11.126±1.315
MAX 31.64±3.470 30.374±3.331
AVERAGE±STDV 18.626±7.311 17.881±7.019
 66

Rn-222
35
Randon Concentration (kBq/m3)

30

25

20

15

10

0
NUK-1 NUK-2 MLS-1 MLS-2 SBG-1 SBG-2 MYG-1 MYG-2 NTA-1 NTA-2
Locations

Rn-222

Fig 8.: concentration of radon gas in soil samples

 67

35

30
f(x) = 0.96 x + 0
R² = 1
25
Rn-222 (kBq/kg)

20

15

10

0
10 15 20 25 30 35

Ra-226 (Bq/kg)

Fig. 9: Correlation between Ra-226 and Rn-222 in Soil Sample.

 68

Table 8: Comparison of Soil Gas Radon-222 With Other Studies Around The World
Country Sample Measurement Concentration(R-22) Reference
Location techniques Bq/m3
Nigeria Jalingo NaI(TI) 11,126-30,374 This study

Ghana Mine HPGe 12,500-41,300 Faanu, (2011)

Ghana Fault Alpha Guard 9,910-42,010 Amponsah P, (2008)

Sudan Soil SSNTD 5,500-15,100 Elmonien, (2015)

India - RAD7 Radon meters 3,200-17,200 Mehra et al, (2015)

Russia - - 17,000-24,000 Iakovleva et al, (2003)

Italy Volc/mountain RAD7 meters 232-104,300 Giammanco et al, (2007)

Turkey Geotherm area SSNTD 98-8594 Tabar et al, (2013)

India Upper siwalik - 11500-78470 Singh et al, (2010)

 69

Table 9: Physiochemical Properties of Water Samples

Sample location Temperature 0C Conductivity (µs/cm)
NUK-1 27.7 114.4

NUK-2 28.5 827

MLS-1 28.6 518

MLS-2 28.8 1393

SBG-1 28.2 701

SBG-2 29.1 1558

MYG-1 28.5 827

MYG-2 29.3 365

NTA-1 28.8 769

NTA-2 29.2 788

 70

Table 10: Activity Concentration of Natural Radionuclides (Ra-226, Th-232 And K-40) and AED Due to their
Ingestion in Water.

Sample location Ra-226 (Bq/L) Th-232 (Bq/L) K-40 (Bq/L) AED (µsvy-1)

NUK-1 2.85±0.340 0.33±0.002 33.19±1.76 788.165±110.242

NUK-2 0.96±0.060 0.23±0.010 28.29±0.95 362.881±34.890
MLS-1 1.61±0.120 2.56±0.160 39.54±1.58 937.685±58.44
MLS-2 0.98±0.090 1.48±0.120 29.74±1.620 583.407±47.920
SBG-1 0.75±0.050 2.94±0.080 82.23±4.36 773.965±43.367
SBG-2 2.12±0.170 2.01±0.400 45.43±1.81 976.432±110.100
MYG-1 0.89±0.090 0.40±0.020 55.84±2.13 501.083±31.394
MYG-2 1.79±0.150 0.30±0.010 50.43±2.29 579.15±42.703
NTA-1 0.79±0.080 BDL 53.89±2.45 405.382±27.441
NTA-2 1.62±0.110 0.21±0.010 49.34±1.89 589.700±32.717
MIN 0.75±0.050 0.21±0.010 28.29±0.95 363.881±34.890
MAX 2.85±0.340 2.94±0.080 82.23±4.36 976.432±110.100
AVERAGE±SDV 1.43±0.690 1.16±1.100 44.793±11.65 649.785±211.164
 71

90

80

70
Concentration (Bq/L)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
NUK-1 NUK-2 MLS-1 MLS-2 SBG-1 SBG-2 MYG-1 MYG-2 NTA-1 NTA-2
Locations

Ra-226 Th-232 K-40

Fig.10: concentration of radionuclides in water samples

 72

AED (µSv/y)
1200

1000
AED (µSv/y)

800

600

400

200

0
NUK-1 NUK-2 MLS-1 MLS-2 SBG-1 SBG-2 MYG-1 MYG-2 NTA-1 NTA-2

locations

AED (mSv/y)

Fig. 11: AED Due to Ingestion of NORMs in Water

 73

Table 11: Concentration and Annual Effective dose due to Ingestion (Radon) in Water Samples
Sample Location Ra – 226 Bq/L R-222 Bq/L AEDing (µSvy-1)
NUK1 2.85 ± 0.340 0.542 ± 0.065 1.387 ± 0.166
NUK 2 0.96 ± 0.060 0.183 ± 0.011 0.468 ± 0.028
MLS 1 1.61 ± 0.09 0.300 ± 0.017 0.784 ± 0.043
MLS-2 0.98 ± 0.090 0.187 ± 0.017 0.448 ± 0.043
SBG-1 0.75 ± 0.050 0.143 ± 0.010 0.365 ± 0.026
SBG-2 2.12 ± 0.170 0.404 ± 0.032 1.032 ± 0.082
MYG1 0.89 ± 0.090 0.170 ± 0.017 0.434 ± 0.043
MYG2 1.79 ± 0.159 0.341 ± 0.030 0.871 ± 0.077
NTA1 0.79 ± 0.080 0.151 ± 0.015 0.386 ± 0.038
NTA2 1.62 ± 0.110 0.309 ± 0.021 0.789 ± 0.054
MIN 0.75 ± 0.050 0.143 ± 0.010 0.365 ± 0.026
MAX 2.85 ± 0.340 0.299 ± 0.065 1.387 ± 0.166
AV. ± STDV 1.43 ± 0.670 0.249 ± 0.131 0.6964 ± 0.338
 74

0.6

f(x) = 0.19 x + 0
0.5 R² = 1

0.4
Rn-222 (Bq\L)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ra-226 (Bq/L)

Fig. 12: Correlation Between Radium and Randon in Water

1.6

1.4

1.2
Concentration (uSv/y)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
NUK1 NUK 2 MLS 1 MLS-2 SBG-1 SBG-2 MYG1 MYG2 NTA1 NTA2
Locations

AEDing

Fig. 13: Concentration of AED ingestion of Radon in Water.

 75

5.0 DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Activity concentration NORMs in soil samples

226
As shown in Table 4, Ra activity concentration is ranges from 11.59±1.30 to
232
31.64±3.47Bq/Kg with an average value of 18.626±7.31Bq/Kg. Th

concentration ranges from 2.39±0.14 to 37.45±2.80Bq/Kg with an average

value of 16.709±10.96Bq/Kg. 40K concentration is ranges from 1020.89±52.24

to 2152.68±109.95Bq/Kg with an average value of 1672.935±389.33Bq/Kg. In

226 232
comparison, Ra and Th concentrations were found to be below the world

average value of 35 and 30Bq/Kg, the low concentration might be attributed to

low geochemical composition of uranium associated with sedimentary rock

forming soils in the study area . The concentration of 40K were found to be far

higher than the world average value of 400Bq/Kg. the higher concentration of
40
K is due to their relative abundance in the environment, it might also be
40
attributed to the application of fertilizer reach in K for farming within the

metropolis.

5.2 Radium equivalent activity, internal hazard index and absorbed dose

rate in soil samples

Table 5 shows the radium equivalent activity (Raeq) calculated and values

ranging from 107.224±6.498 to 227.525±22.403Bq/Kg with average value of

171.336±37.693Bq/Kg less than the global limit of 370Bq/Kg. The internal

hazard index (Hin) ranges from 0.34±0.216 to 0.700±0.070Bq/Kg with an

 76

average 0.513±0.112Bq/Kg which is lower than the agreed value of unity. The

calculated absorbed dose rate ranges from 55.470±31.820 to 114.634±19.216

(nGy/y), which is higher than the global value of 60.0 nGy/y (UNSCEAR,

2008, 2000).

5.3 AED due to ingestion of NORMs (Ra, Th, K) in soil samples

Table 6 shows the total annual effective dose due to external and internal

gamma dose ranging from 0.340±0.113 to 1.165±0.198mSy/y with an average

of 0.591±0.211mSv/y which is below the world value of 1 mSvy-1.

5.4.1 Radon gas in soil samples

Result of concentration of radon (Rn-222) is shown in table 7. The

concentration varies from 11.126±1.315KBq/Kg to 30.374±3.331KBq/Kg with

a mean value of 17.881±7.019KBq/Kg. In table 8 a comparison of radon

concentration in soil samples from different location around the world is

presented, from which it is clearly seen that the radon concentration in soil

samples in Jalingo metropolis is within the safety limit of those report.

5.5.2 Correlation between Radium and Randon in soil

There is a strong positive correlation between Ra-226 and Rn-222 in soil gas.

Fig 7 shows that Rn-222 is a linear function of Ra-226 with a linear coefficient

of R2 =1, the correlation 1 for plot of Ra-226 against Rn-222 implies that the

radon in the soil gas comes from Ra-226.

 77

5.5 Activity concentration NORMs and AED (µsvy-1) in water samples

Table 9 shows the locations and some physical parameters of the ground water
266
samples. Table 10 shows the activity concentration of Ra, 232Th and 40K in the

water sample. The annual effective dose due to ingestion of the radionuclides in

the water samples is also depicted in table 4.3. The activity concentration of
266
Ra ranges from 0.75±0.05 to 2.85±0.34Bq/L, with an average of
232
1.43±0.69Bq/L; Th ranges from 0.21±0.001 to 2.94±0.80 with an average of
40
1.16±1.10Bq/L. K ranges from 28.29±0.75 to 62.23±11.65Bq/L with an
226
average value of 44.739±11.65Bq/L. The total AED due to ingestion of Ra,
232 40
Th and K in the sampled water varies from 362.881±34.890 to

976.432±110.100 (µSv/y) with an average value of 649.785±211.164 (µSv/y)

lower than the recommended value of 1000 µSv/y according to WHO report of

2011.

5.6.1 Concentration of Radon in Water

The concentration of Radon and the Annual effective does due to their ingestion

is shown in Table 11. The activity concentration varies from a minimum of

0.143 ± 0.010 to a maximum of 0.543 ± 0.065 Bq/L with an average of 0.249 ±

0.131 against the threshold of 11.1 Bq/L according USEPA, 1999. The annual

effective dose varies from 0.365 ± 0.026 to 1.387 ± 0.166 (µSvy -1) with an

average value of 0.696 ± 0.338 µSvy-1, lower than the Global value of 100
 78

µSvy-1 (WHO, 2004). The low concentration of radon are attributed to lower

uranium minerals in granite and uranium minerals in pegmatite with which the

waters interact.

5.6 Correlation Between Radium Randon in Water.

There is a positive correlation between Ra-226 and Rn-222 in water. Fig 10

shows that Rn-222 is a linear function of Ra-226 with a linear coefficient of R 2

=0.9997. The correlation 0.9997 for plot of of Ra-226 against Rn-222 implies

that the radon in the water comes from Ra-226 in the water samples.
 79

6.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1 Conclusion

This study determines the activity concentration of natural occurring

radionuclides (226Ra, 232

Th, and 40K) and radiological hazards in 10 soil and

water samples within Jalingo metropolis. The result obtained indicates the
266 232
average activity concentration of Ra and Th to be less than and 40K to be

higher than the average world value of UNSCEAR (2000) both in soil and water

samples.

Most people in the study area use soil and water for constructing buildings and

for drinking, therefore, it was necessary to asses if there are any radiological

hazards associated with the soil. This was achieved by determining absorbed

dose rate (Dr), Radium equivalent activity (Raeq), internal hazard index (Hin)

and Annual effective dose rate, the result indicate that the indices are within

normal limit.The result obtained from radon concentration in soil are within the

safety limit of those reports by other investigations. The average annual

effective dose due to ingestion of radon in water is 0.696 ± 0.338 µSvy -1, lower

than the Global value of 100 µSvy-1 (WHO, 2004).

The findings shows that the people at Jalingo metropolis of Taraba state may

freely use the water and soil for drinking, constructions and other domestic

purposes as the dose due to their ingestion are much lower than the global
 80

recommended values. Water and soils in Jalingo are radiologically safe in

consumption and construction of buildings respectively.

6.2 Recommendation

Although the radionuclides content of water and soil samples of Jalingo

metropolis were determined and found to be within permissible limit, it is

therefore recommended that;

i. Intense research should be carried out within the study area collecting

more samples and at a greater depths to give a more accurate

description.

ii. The results from this research found potassium to be higher than the

world value, hence we recommend reduction in the use of fertilizer

reach in 40K.

iii. Waste from mining sites should be treated before disposal to avoid

introduction or increase of radionuclides.

 81

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