PROPAGATION OF WAVE

Electromagnetic Waves are generated by the radiated power

from the current carrying conductor. In conductors, a part
of the generated power escapes and propagates into free
space in the form of Electromagnetic wave, which has a time-
varying electrical field, magnetic field, and direction of
propagation orthogonal to each other.

Radiated from an isotropic transmitter, these wave travels

through different paths to reach the receiver. The path taken
by the wave to travel from the transmitter and reach the
receiver is known as WAVE PROPAGATION.

A wave can be transverse or longitudinal depending on the

direction of its oscillation. Transverse waves occur when a
disturbance causes oscillations perpendicular (at right angles)
to the propagation (the direction of energy transfer).
Longitudinal waves occur when the oscillations are parallel to
the direction of propagation. While mechanical waves can be
both transverse and longitudinal, all electromagnetic waves are
transverse. Sound, for example, is a longitudinal wave.

The description of waves is closely related to their physical

origin for each specific instance of a wave process. For
example, acoustics is distinguished from optics in that sound
waves are related to a mechanical rather than an
electromagnetic (light) wave transfer caused by vibration.
Therefore, concepts such as mass, momentum, inertia or
elasticity become crucial in describing acoustic (as distinct from
optic) wave processes. This difference in origin introduces
certain wave characteristics particular to the properties of the
medium involved. In this chapter we will closely examine the
difference between longitudinal and transverse waves along
with some of the properties they possess. We will also learn
how waves are fundamental in describing motion of many
applicable physical systems.

FIG: ELCTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 FIG: TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Key Points

 A wave can be thought of as a disturbance or oscillation

that travels through space-time, accompanied by a
transfer of energy.

 The direction a wave propagates is perpendicular to the

direction it oscillates for transverse waves.

 A wave does not move mass in the direction of

propagation; it transfers energy.

Key Terms

 medium: The material or empty space through which

signals, waves or forces pass.

 direction of propagation: The axis along which the wave

travels.

 wave: A moving disturbance in the energy level of a field.

Vibrations and waves are extremely important phenomena in
physics. In nature, oscillations are found everywhere. From the
jiggling of atoms to the large oscillations of sea waves, we find
examples of vibrations in almost every physical system. In
physics a wave can be thought of as a disturbance or
oscillation that travels through space-time, accompanied by a
transfer of energy. Wave motion transfers energy from one
point to another, often with no permanent displacement of the
particles of the medium —that is, with little or no associated
mass transport. They consist, instead, of oscillations or
vibrations around almost fixed locations.

The emphasis of the last point highlights an important

misconception of waves. Waves transfer energy not mass. An
easy way to see this is to imagine a floating ball a few yards out
to sea. As the waves propagate (i.e., travel) towards the shore,
the ball will not come towards the shore. It may come to shore
eventually due to the tides, current or wind, but the waves
themselves will not carry the ball with them. A wave only moves
mass perpendicular to the direction of propagation—in this
case up and down, as illustrated in the figure below:

A wave can be transverse or longitudinal depending on the

direction of its oscillation. Transverse waves occur when a
disturbance causes oscillations perpendicular (at right angles)
to the propagation (the direction of energy transfer).
Longitudinal waves occur when the oscillations are parallel to
the direction of propagation. While mechanical waves can be
both transverse and longitudinal, all electromagnetic waves are
transverse. Sound, for example, is a longitudinal wave.

The description of waves is closely related to their physical

origin for each specific instance of a wave process. For
example, acoustics is distinguished from optics in that sound
waves are related to a mechanical rather than an
electromagnetic (light) wave transfer caused by vibration.
Therefore, concepts such as mass, momentum, inertia or
elasticity become crucial in describing acoustic (as distinct from
optic) wave processes. This difference in origin introduces
certain wave characteristics particular to the properties of the
medium involved. In this chapter we will closely examine the
difference between longitudinal and transverse waves along
with some of the properties they possess. We will also learn
how waves are fundamental in describing motion of many
applicable physical systems.

Key Points
 The wavelength is the spatial period of the wave.
 The frequency of a wave refers to the number of cycles
per unit time and is not to be confused with angular
frequency.
 The phase velocity can be expressed as the product of
wavelength and frequency.
Key Terms
  wave speed: The absolute value of the velocity at which
the phase of any one frequency component of the wave
travels.
 wavelength: The length of a single cycle of a wave, as
measured by the distance between one peak or trough of
a wave and the next; it is often designated in physics as λ,
and corresponds to the velocity of the wave divided by its
frequency.
 frequency: The quotient of the number of times n a
periodic phenomenon occurs over the time t in which it
occurs: f = n / t.
Characteristics of Waves
Waves have certain characteristic properties which are
observable at first notice. The first property to note is the
amplitude. The amplitude is half of the distance measured from
crest to trough. We also observe the wavelength, which is the
spatial period of the wave (e.g. from crest to crest or trough to
trough). We denote the wavelength by the Greek letter.
The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles per unit time
— one can think of it as the number of crests which pass a
fixed point per unit time. Mathematically, we make the
observation that.

Frequencies of different sine waves.: The red wave has a low

frequency sine there is very little repetition of cycles. Conversely
we say that the purple wave has a high frequency. Note that time
increases along the horizontal.
 Fig: FREQUENCY OF DIFFERENT SINE WAVES

Fig: group velocity and phase velocity in positive phase and

negative group velocity.
f=1Tf=1T

where T is the period of oscillation. Frequency and wavelength can also

be related-* with respects to a “speed” of a wave. In fact,

v=fλv=fλ

where v is called the wave speed, or more commonly, the phase

velocity, the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space.
This is the velocity at which the phase of any one frequency component
of the wave travels. For such a component, any given phase of the wave
(for example, the crest) will appear to travel at the phase velocity.

Finally, the group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the overall
shape of the waves’ amplitudes — known as the modulation or envelope
of the wave — propagates through space. In, one may see that the
overall shape (or “envelope”) propagates to the right, while the phase
velocity is negative.

Fig: group velocity and phase velocity.

Longitudinal wave, wave consisting of a periodic disturbance
or vibration that takes place in the same direction as the advance of
the wave. A coiled spring that is compressed at one end and then
released experiences a wave of compression that travels its length,
followed by a stretching; a point on any coil of the spring will move
with the wave and return along the same path, passing through the
neutral position and then reversing its motion again. Sound moving
through air also compresses and rarefies the gas in the direction of
travel of the sound wave as they vibrate back and forth. The primary
seismic waves are also longitudinal. In a longitudinal wave, each
particle of matter vibrates about its normal rest position and along
the axis of propagation, and all particles participating in the wave
motion behave in the same manner, except that there is a
progressive change in phase (q.v.) of vibration—i.e., each particle
completes its cycle of reaction at a later time. The combined
motions result in the advance of alternating regions of compression
and rare fraction in the direction of propagation.

A mechanical model is helpful in explaining longitudinal waves. At

the top of the figure, small masses A, B, C, etc. are joined together
by coiled springs to represent a transmitting medium that has
properties of both inertia and elasticity. Because mass B has inertia,
motion of A toward the left (arrow 2) extends the spring it is
attached to and motion to the right (arrow 1) compresses it. A
corresponding motion will be communicated to B through the
spring, except that there will be a slight lag in phase. Mass B will
impart its motion to its partner C, and so on, the impulse travelling
from A to K and the lag progressively increasing. At the instant
shown, A leads J in phase by 360°; A is starting its second vibration,
whereas J is just beginning its first.

A transverse representation of a longitudinal wave is shown at the

bottom of the figure. Here vertical lines are drawn through the rest
positions (indicated by a,b,c, etc.), with lengths proportional to the
distances that the masses have moved from equilibrium (their
amplitudes). Lines are drawn upward from the axis when
displacement is to the left and downward when to the right. A
smooth curve drawn through the ends of the vertical lines gives a
transverse curve. This transverse curve shows that there is one
compression and one rarefaction per cycle, being one wavelength.
Frequency would be represented by the number of complete cycles
executed by any of the masses per second.

Longitudinal waves have the same direction of vibration as their direction

of travel. This means that the movement of the medium is in the same
direction as the motion of the wave. Some longitudinal waves are also
called compressional waves or compression waves. An easy experiment
for observing longitudinal waves involves taking a Slinky and holding
both ends. After compressing and releasing one end of the Slinky (while
still holding onto the end), a pulse of more concentrated coils will travel
to the end of the Slinky.

Like transverse waves, longitudinal waves do not displace mass. The

difference is that each particle which makes up the medium through
which a longitudinal wave propagates oscillates along the axis of
propagation. In the example of the Slinky, each coil will oscillate at a
point but will not travel the length of the Slinky. It is important to
remember that energy, in this case in the form of a pulse, is being
transmitted and not the displaced mass.

Longitudinal waves can sometimes also be conceptualized as pressure

waves. The most common pressure wave is the sound wave. Sound
waves are created by the compression of a medium, usually air.
Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations
from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and
rarefaction. Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound
wave, and thus oscillates. When people make a sound, whether it is
through speaking or hitting something, they are compressing the air
particles to some significant amount. By doing so, they create transverse
waves. When people hear sounds, their ears are sensitive to the
pressure differences and interpret the waves as different tones.

Key Points

 While longitudinal waves oscillate in the direction of

propagation, they do not displace mass since the
oscillations are small and involve an equilibrium position.
  The longitudinal ‘waves’ can be conceptualized as pulses
that transfer energy along the axis of propagation.
 Longitudinal waves can be conceptualized as pressure
waves characterized by compression and rarefaction.

Key Terms

 rarefaction: a reduction in the density of a material,

especially that of a fluid
 Longitudinal: Running in the direction of the long axis of a
body.
 compression: to increase in density; the act of
compressing, or the state of being compressed;
compaction
 Transverse wave, motion in which all points on a wave oscillate
along paths at right angles to the direction of the wave’s advance.
Surface ripples on water, seismic S (secondary) waves, and
electromagnetic (e.g., radio and light) waves are examples of
transverse waves.

A simple transverse wave can be represented by a sine or cosine

curve, so called because the amplitude of any point on the curve—
i.e., its distance from the axis—is proportional to the sine (or cosine)
of an angle. In the figure, sine curves of various amplitudes are
shown. These curves represent how a standing transverse wave
might look at consecutive (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) intervals of time. The
time required for a point on the wave to make a complete oscillation
through the axis is called the period of the wave motion, and the
number of oscillations executed per second is called
the frequency. Wavelength is considered to be the distance between
corresponding points on the wave—i.e., the distance between
two adjacent peaks or troughs of the wave. Transverse waves may
also be complex, in which the curves representing them are
composed of two or more sine or cosine curves.

Transverse waves are waves that are oscillating perpendicularly to the

direction of propagation. If you anchor one end of a ribbon or string and
hold the other end in your hand, you can create transverse waves by
moving your hand up and down. Notice though, that you can also launch
waves by moving your hand side-to-side. This is an important point.
There are two independent directions in which wave motion can occur.
In this case, these are the y and z directions mentioned above. depicts
the motion of a transverse wave. Here we observe that the wave is
moving in t and oscillating in the x-y plane. A wave can be thought as
comprising many particles (as seen in the figure) which oscillate up and
down. In the figure we observe this motion to be in x-y plane (denoted by
the red line in the figure). As time passes the oscillations are separated
by units of time. The result of this separation is the sine curve we expect
when we plot position versus time.
When a wave travels through a medium–i.e., air, water, etc., or the
standard reference medium (vacuum)–it does so at a given speed: this
is called the speed of propagation. The speed at which the wave
propagates is denoted and can be found using the following formula:

v=fλv=fλ

where v is the speed of the wave, f is the frequency, and is the

wavelength. The wavelength spans crest to crest while the amplitude is
1/2 the total distance from crest to trough. Transverse waves have their
applications in many areas of physics. Examples of transverse waves
include seismic S (secondary) waves, and the motion of the electric (E)
and magnetic (M) fields in an electromagnetic plane wave, which both
oscillate perpendicularly to each other as well as to the direction of
energy transfer. Therefore, an electromagnetic wave consists of two
transverse waves, visible light being an example of an electromagnetic
wave.

Key Points

 Transverse waves oscillate in the z-y plane but travel along

the x axis.
 A transverse wave has a speed of propagation given by
the equation v = fλ.
 The direction of energy transfer is perpendicular to the
motion of the wave.

Key Terms

 wavelength: The length of a single cycle of a wave, as

measured by the distance between one peak or trough of a
wave and the next; it is often designated in physics as λ,
and corresponds to the velocity of the wave divided by its
frequency.
 trough: A long, narrow depression between waves or
ridges.
 speed of propagation: The speed at which a wave moves
through a medium.
 crest: The ridge or top of a wave.
 transverse wave: Any wave in which the direction of
disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of travel.
 direction of propagation: The axis along which the wave
travels.
The important difference between longitudinal and transverse wave

Parameter Longitudinal wave Transverse wave

 The medium, in
The medium, in the case case of a
of a longitudinal wave, transverse wave,
Movement
moves in the same way moves
to wave direction perpendicular to
wave direction

The Polarization
The Polarization or
Polarization or alignment of
alignment of this wave
or alignment this wave is
does not happen
certainly possible

This wave acts in one This wave acts in

Dimension
dimension two dimensions

An example of a
An example of a
transverse wave
Example longitudinal wave is the
is the earthquake
earthquake P wave
S wave

The production of this The production of

Production wave can take place in this wave can take
medium any medium- solid, gas, place in liquid and
or liquid. gas medium only

This wave is made up of This wave is made

Constitution compressions and up of crests and
rarefactions troughs
THERE ARE DIFFERENT MODES IN PROPAGATION OF WAVE
1) GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION
2) SKY WAVE PROPAGATION
3) SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION
1) GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION:
Ground wave propagation is a type of radio propagation which
is also known as a surface wave. These waves propagate over
the earth’s surface in low and medium frequencies. These are
mainly used for transmission between the surface of the earth
and the ionosphere. These are made up of the number of
constituent waves.
The reason why it is known as a ground wave is that it is the
sum of the waves that are reflected by the earth’s surface or
any hills. The waves follow the curvature of the earth, enabling
them to cover beyond the horizon. Beyond the horizon, the
waves get blocked by the curvature of the earth and the signals
are produced by the diffracted surface wave.
Ground wave propagation is particularly important on the LF and MF
portion of the radio spectrum. Ground wave radio propagation is used
to provide relatively local radio communications coverage, especially
by radio broadcast stations that require to cover a particular locality.

Ground wave radio signal propagation is ideal for relatively short

distance propagation on these frequencies during the daytime. Sky-
wave ionospheric propagation is not possible during the day because
of the attenuation of the signals on these frequencies caused by the
D region in the ionosphere. In view of this, radio communications
stations need to rely on the ground-wave propagation to achieve their
coverage.

A ground wave radio signal is made up from a number of constituents.

If the antennas are in the line of sight then there will be a direct wave
as well as a reflected signal. As the names suggest the direct signal is
one that travels directly between the two antenna and is not affected
by the locality. There will also be a reflected signal as the transmission
will be reflected by a number of objects including the earth's surface
and any hills, or large buildings. That may be present.

Beyond the horizon the direct and reflected waves are blocked by the
curvature of the Earth, and the signal is purely made up from the
diffracted surface wave. It is for this reason that surface wave is
commonly called ground wave propagation.

Ground Wave propagation uses the area between the surface of the
earth and the ionosphere for transmission, it is a method of radio
wave propagation. Ground wave propagation is also called surface
wave propagation. The ground wave follows the contour of earth and
hence it can propagate considerable distances. Such a wave is called
a direct wave. It exists below the 2 MHz frequency range. Ground wave
propagation over the earth's surface can be propagated to a
considerable distance by the ground wave, in the low frequency and
medium frequency portion of the radio spectrum. Ground waves are
mainly used for transmission between the surface of the earth and
the ionosphere. These are made up of the number of constituent
waves. Low frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum were used.
The collection of these radiations along the surface of the earth is
known as ground wave propagation. The intensity of these radiations
drops with distance due to its absorption by ground.

It is known as a ground wave because it is the sum of the waves that

are reflected by the earth’s surface or any hills. The curvature of the
earth is being followed by the waves, enabling them to cover beyond
the horizon. The waves get blocked beyond the horizon, by the
curvature of the earth and the signals are produced by the diffracted
surface wave. As we can see that the induced wave is opposite in phase
with the actually transmitted electromagnetic wave. So, this causes
neutralization of charges that resultantly cause a reduction in the
magnitude of the field with distance.
Now the question arises, do all the opposite charges neutralize each
other? So, the answer is No. The charges of opposite polarity that are
placed closer to each other neutralize each other while the charges
separated at a large distance do not get neutralized thus propagates
along the surface. In this way, an attenuated signal is collected by the
receiving antenna.
In other words, the same principle can be said in a way that the number
of charges varies according to the intensity and location of the field and
the flow of charges generates a current. When current flows through the
surface of the earth it behaves as a leaky capacitor. And so while
propagating, some amount of energy gets absorbed that causes the
weakening of the transmitted wave. The energy absorbed by the surface of
the earth leads to cause loss of power which is due to the resistance
offered by the surface to the flow of charges.
And as a part of the signal is getting attenuated while transmission, thus
higher the distance greater will be the attenuation. Therefore, ground
wave propagation is suitable for only a short range of propagation
distance.

 Another considerable point to be kept in mind in the case

of ground wave propagation is that it is suitable for the low-
frequency range of operation, usually from a few kHz to 2 MHz.
Now the question arises that why we are using ground wave propagation
for only low frequencies and not for the higher ones. So the reason for
this is to have the least attenuation because the high-frequency signal
attenuates faster. Let us understand this:

We know that electromagnetic wave propagates with the speed of light

in free space. Also,

As we can see that frequency and wavelength are in an inverse

relationship with each other. Thus higher the frequency lesser will be the
wavelength and vice-versa.

As low-frequency waves will possess a higher bending angle thus lower

attenuation. But the attenuation will be higher when the frequency is
high because in this case, the wavelength is small. So, we can say that
waves of greater wavelength bend more efficiently hence ground wave
propagation is suitable for low-frequency operation.
Depending on the Type of Ground, the Frequency of Ground Waves:

Type of Ground f = 1 MHz f = 10 MHz f = 100 MHz

Dry ground like a desert 10⁻⁴ 10⁻⁴ 10⁻⁴

Very moist ground like fields 10⁻² 10⁻² 2 x 10⁻²

Freshwater at 20 C o
3 x 10⁻³ 3 x 10⁻³ 5 x 10⁻³

Seawater at 20 C
o
5 5 5

Applications Ground Wave Propagation

 1. To provide the local radio communications coverage, we
generally use ground wave propagation, especially by radio
broadcast stations that are required to cover a particular locality.

2. Ground wave propagation can be used for one-way

communication from the military to submerged submarines as
they penetrate to a significant depth into seawater.

3. AM, FM, and television broadcasting can be done with the help
of ground waves.

4. Ground wave propagation of radio signals is ideal for relatively

short distance propagation on these frequencies during the
daytime.
Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation
1. As it uses lower frequencies, interference occurs due to atmospheric
noise only. That's why the absorption of EM waves at lower
frequencies is less. Hence it can cover longer distances. However, the
path loss increases as the distance from the transmitter increases.

2. These waves are more efficient and also these are not affected by the
change in atmospheric conditions, due to the bending around the
corners or obstructions during propagation.

3. They are vertically polarized in order to prevent short circuits of the

electric field (E) component.

Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation

1. High-frequency waves cannot be transmitted as the energy losses are
more because of the absorption of energy in the earth’s atmosphere.

2. These are used to cover short ranges and also involve attenuation of
waves as they interact with the eddy currents produced by the
surface of the earth.

3. If the polarization of the ground wave is affected, E field components

are short-circuited with the ground.
 FIG: GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION
2) SKY WAVE PROPAGATION:

Skywave propagation also known as the skip is a type of radio wave

propagation. It is either the reflected or refracted back waves to the
earth from the ionosphere which is an electrically charged layer of the
upper atmosphere.
Medium and shortwave frequencies can be refracted back to earth
which is beyond the horizon which makes them useful in the
transcontinental transmission of the waves. Following is the table
explaining the distribution of frequencies MUF (maximum usable
frequency) and OWF (optimum working frequency) depending upon the
layers of the earth:

Layers D E F1

MUF (MHz) 16 28 16

OWF (MHz) 13.6 23.8 13.6

A type of radio wave communication in which the
electromagnetic wave propagates due to the reflection
mechanism of the ionospheric layer of the atmosphere is known
as sky wave propagation. Due to propagation through the
ionosphere, it is also known as ionospheric wave propagation.
The permissible frequency range in the case of sky wave
propagation lies between 3 MHz to 30 MHz.

Why do we need Sky Wave Propagation?

In the previous article, we have discussed ground wave

propagation in which the electromagnetic wave propagates
through the surface of the earth. We know that ground wave
propagation is usually suitable for the transmission of low-
frequency electromagnetic signals (usually up to 2 or 3 MHz).
Also, another major disadvantage associated with ground wave
propagation is that it is suitable only for short-range operation.
This is so because the induced wave in ground wave
propagation causes attenuation of the propagated signal.
Therefore, in order to transmit the signal with the least
attenuation, it is preferred that the signal is transmitted only to
short ranges, in the case of ground wave propagation.
So, these two factors: low-frequency signal
transmission and short distance propagation are the two major
disadvantages associated with ground wave propagation. And in
order to overcome these two disadvantages, sky wave
propagation is used.
It allows the propagation of electromagnetic waves of higher
frequency from one end to another at a larger distance than
ground wave propagation. And it does so by reflections of the
wave from the ionosphere. Thus sometimes referred to as
ionospheric wave propagation.

Structure of Ionosphere

We know that the ionosphere is present in the upper

atmospheric region and is composed of ionized layers.
Generally, the ionosphere consists of 4 different layers namely
D, E, F1, and F2. These layers are present at different heights
from the surface of the earth. Basically the ionosphere is said to
be extended from 60 to 400 Km from the surface of the earth.

Each layer has a different concentration of atoms in a way that

the ionized layer which is present nearer to the surface of the
earth has the highest number of neutral atoms. While the
middle layer has moderate concentration and the outermost
layer consists of a very less number of neutral atoms.

It is clearly shown in the above figure that the D layer is present

at around 50 to 90 km above the surface of the earth. While E,
F1, and F2 are present at 90 to 140 km, 150 to 250 km, and 250
to 400 km respectively above the surface of the earth.
What is Sky Wave Propagation?
Till now we have discussed that electromagnetic waves
propagate through the ionospheric region in order to get
transmitted over larger distances. Let us now understand, how
sky wave propagation takes place.

We have recently discussed that the ionosphere is composed of

4 different layers and each layer consists of a different number
of atoms. The outmost layer has the lowest number of atoms
while the innermost layer of the ionosphere is highly dense. The
reason behind this is that the atmosphere of earth is denser
towards its surface and becomes rarer on proceeding upwards.

We are already aware of the fact that the sun emits

powerful cosmic rays. So, due to less number of neutral atoms
in the outermost layer, most of the cosmic rays penetrate the
inner surface of the atmosphere without even interacting with
the atoms present there. However, as the inner layer is slightly
denser than the outer one so here interaction between cosmic
rays and atoms takes place.
Moreover, this interaction between cosmic rays and the atoms
increases tremendously in the E layer of the ionosphere, as this
layer has a greater number of atoms. But on penetrating to such
a level inside the earth’s atmosphere, the intensity of the cosmic
rays reduces to a large extent. Hence very few cosmic rays
interact with the innermost layer of the ionosphere although
this layer is denser than other layers. This is clearly shown in the
figure given below:

These are three principal layers during day time and are called E,
F1, F2 layers.

Below E layers there is D layer nearest to earths surface and

exists at average height of 70 km. this layer disappears at night.

Characteristics of different ionospheric layers

D LAYER:
The d layer is located about 50 to 90 km above the surface of
earth and it is nearest layer to the earths surface.
Its thickness is about 10 km.
This layer is ionized by photoionization of oxygen molecule.
This layer reflects very low frequency and low frequency
waves.
E LAYER:
The e layer is located about 90 to 140 km above the surface
of earth.
Its thickness is about 25 km.
In e layer the ionization of all gases by x ray radiation takes
place.
During night time its ionization is weak.
Its useful for high frequency waves during day time.
F LAYER:
The f layer is located at the height of 140 to 400km and it is
mainly combination of f1 layer (140 to 220 km) and f2 layer
(250 to 400km).
During night f1 layer combines with f2 layer and at height of
140 to 3oo km we get f layer.
This is the only layer which is ionized during day time as well
as night time.
The critical frequency of f layer is about 5 to 12 MHz.
The f1 layer reflects the high frequency waves.
The f2 layer is the most important for the reflection of the
high frequency radio waves.

So, when cosmic rays interact with the atoms present in the
ionospheric layers then electrons are emitted from the valence
shell of the atom. Thus ionization takes place. And as interaction
is higher in the case of middle layers of the atmosphere,
therefore, ionization will be higher in that layer itself.
Thus it holds the maximum number of charged particles.


We know that electromagnetic waves are composed of electric
and magnetic fields. Also, the charged particles present in the
layers of the ionosphere have their own electric field. So, when
EMW is allowed to be propagated through the earth’s
atmosphere then the field of the EMW and the charged
particles interact with each other. And this leads to cause
reflection of the electromagnetic wave by the atmosphere.

More simply we can say this as TIR taking place in the

atmosphere.

 We know that when light propagates from a denser to a

rarer medium with an angle equal to or greater than a
critical angle then it gets reflected back towards the
same medium. This is referred as Total Internal
Reflection.
In a similar way when the transmitting antenna transmits the
electromagnetic wave with a certain angle (equal or greater than
critical angle) then due to ionization on the earth’s atmosphere
it gets reflected back towards the surface of the earth. This
causes the reception of the reflected signals by the receiving
antenna.
It is to be noted here that the field in the atmospheric layer
must be sufficiently large so that it can allow reflection of the
electromagnetic waves through it. This is so because it may be
possible that a high-frequency wave may not be reflected by
the lower region of the ionosphere.

However, with upward movement, even the high-frequency

wave will get reflect.

 So, we can say this as a low-frequency wave is reflected

by the lower layer and the high-frequency wave is
reflected by the upper layer. But beyond a certain
 permissible frequency (generally 30 MHz) the wave
despite getting reflected penetrates the atmospheric
region and is lost.
Hence sky wave propagation is suitable for the frequency range
from 3MHz to 30 MHz. But for signal frequency greater than
30 MHz, space wave propagation is used. The critical frequency
in the case of sky wave propagation is given as:

We know that frequency and wavelength are inversely

proportional to each other and the higher the frequency lower
will be the wavelength. Also, we are aware of the fact that a
signal of a lower wavelength propagates a higher distance. Thus
in sky wave propagation signal can be transmitted to a larger
distance. In this way, sky wave propagation eliminates the
disadvantages associated with ground wave propagation.

 An important factor of ionospheric wave propagation is

– skip distance. And skip distance is defined as the
minimum distance on the surface of the earth from
where the signal is transmitted and the reflected signal
from the ionosphere has been received.
It is given by:

where,

 h denotes the height where reflection occurred,

 fMUF represents the maximum usable frequency,
 fc denotes the critical frequency,
 Dskip is the skip distance.

Advantages of sky wave propagation

1. It supports large distance propagation.

2. The frequency range of operation is considerably high.
 3. Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions is less.

Disadvantages of sky wave propagation

1. Long-distance propagation requires large-sized antennas.

2. Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far
during night and day respectively there exist variation in
signal transmission in day and night.

Above diagram represent the overall pictorial representation about

sky wave propagation. In the d layer, e layer, f1 layer, f2 layer and
skip distance.
3) Space wave propagation:
Space wave propagation is defined as a category of radio wave
propagation for the radio waves that occur within the 20kmfrom the
earth’s surface, i.e., the troposphere. It comprises of direct or reflected
waves. It is also known by two other names:

 Tropospheric propagation as the waves here can propagate

directly from the earth's surface to its troposphere surface.
 Line-of-sight propagation as the waves travel in a straight line
and cover a minimum distance of sight. It means the waves
propagate to a distance up to which one can see with the naked
eye.
 These waves are also known as tropospheric propagation as they
can travel directly from the earth’s surface to the troposphere
surface of the earth. It is also known as a line of sight propagation
as the signals are sent in a straight line from the transmitter to the
receiver.
 In order to prevent attenuation and loss of signal strength, the
height of the antennas and distance between them can be given
as:
 Dm = (2RHt)-½ + (2RHr)-½

 Where,
 Dm: distance between the two antennas
 R: radius of the earth
 Ht: height of transmission antenna
 Hr: height of receiver antenna
Need for space wave propagation?

Basically, space wave propagation has been adopted to

overcome the disadvantages associated with ground wave
propagation and sky wave propagation.
We have already discussed that ground wave propagation leads
to cause attenuation of signal due to neutralization. Thus the
frequency of the signal to be transmitted is kept low. Also, not
to have much signal attenuation, the propagation distance is
kept small. However, sky wave propagation permits the
transmission of signals with comparatively greater frequency
than ground wave propagation with less attenuation. But even
sky wave propagation fails when there exists a need for
transmitting extremely high-frequency signals. This is so
because we know in sky wave propagation the signals get
transmitted by being reflected from the ionosphere.

But beyond that particular range of frequency, despite

undergoing reflection, the signal penetrates the atmosphere.
Thus is lost without getting received at the destination. So,
space wave propagation is used for propagating high-frequency
signals by permitting direct communication between the
transmitting and receiving antenna. In the case of space wave
propagation, the signal without being reflected from the
ionosphere simply gets propagated from an end to another in
the line of sight range.

As we know that line of sight (LOS) communication is achieved

between 2 points that are free from obstruction. Now the
question arises why such a high-frequency signal transmission
requires LOS communication?
So, we know the basic relationship between f and λ is given as:
As frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional
to each other. Thus higher the frequency, the smaller will
be the wavelength. And an electromagnetic wave of a
small wavelength cannot easily penetrate the obstacle
present in the path. Thus due to the range of frequency
involved in space wave propagation, LOS communication
is necessary.

It is to be noted here that the range of signal propagation

from the troposphere is limited by the curvature of the
earth.

In space wave propagation, the electromagnetic waves

are propagated when a direct path of communication is
present between the sender and receiver. Sometimes the
waves are transmitted by getting reflected from the
ground.

The radio waves with extremely high frequencies are

known as space waves. The troposphere allows the
propagation of such waves. Generally, the troposphere is
extended up to 10 to 20 km above the surface of the
earth. Thus space wave propagation occurs at about 20
km region in the atmospheric zone. Sometimes called
the line of sight communication. This is so because such
high-frequency waves require a direct path for
propagation.
As we can see in the figure shown above that the
transmitting and receiving antennas are placed in a range
where the two are present at a visible distance with
respect to each other. So, in this case, the signal emitted
by the transmitting antenna gets directly received by the
receiving antenna in the absence of any obstacle in the
region between in two antenna.

This is so because, for extremely small wavelengths, the

signal will suffer attenuation in the presence of an
obstruction in the path of propagation.

Now another major point of concern in the case of space wave

propagation is, how the range of signal transmission is specified
and how can we detect the range up to which the two must be
separated while installation on the surface of the earth. So, the
range of signal transmission is related to the height of the
antennas concerned.

To have a proper line of sight propagation above the surface of

the earth, the orientation of the antennas must be such that the
propagated wave must not interact with the curvature of the
earth. However, for extremely low height antennas, the waves
get reflected by the ground under certain conditions. And the
reflected wave is received by the antenna at the other end. So,
to have direct LOS communication between the two antennas,
the antenna units must be placed with proper orientation on the
ground.
Range Detection in Space Wave Propagation

Let us first consider a single transmitting antenna having height ht,

propagating the signal up to a certain range on the ground.

Suppose x specifies the range between the transmitting antennas and the
center of the earth at the curvature where the signal is getting received
and R is the radius of curvature of the earth.

Now, we will apply Pythagoras theorem in the above triangle, so

On simplifying further,

As the height of the antenna is less in comparison to the radius of the

earth. So ‘ht2’ can be neglected from the above equation.

So, on further simplification, we can have,

So, we can say that the range of signal transmission shows dependency
on the height of the antenna which is transmitting the signal.
Thus it can be concluded that if the range of propagation is known then
one can determine the respective height of the transmitting antenna, by
using the relationship:

Suppose the transmitted signal must be received by another antenna on

the ground. So, the question arises what must be the height of the
receiving antenna in order to have LOS communication.

So, consider the figure below:

Here two antennas are placed on the surface of the earth. Let the height
of transmitting and receiving antennas be ht and hr respectively. Also, the
range from a common point on the curvature to transmitting and
receiving antenna is xt and xr. Then individually we will have:

So, on combining the above two equations we will have the permissible
range between two antennas for LOS communication. Therefore,
Hence, this expression provides the range that allows LOS
communication for the two respective heights of the antennas.

We know that the general formula for the area is given as πr 2. Since here
the range is 2hR. Hence the region in terms of area which is covered by
transmitting antenna is given as:

Neglecting π we get,

As we can see that the area and height of the antenna are directly
proportional to each other. Thus higher the height of the antenna, the
greater will be the area covered by it.

Applications

As, this type of propagation, permits large frequency operation, thus

finds applications in satellite and radar communication, etc. along with
microwave linking applications.
advantages
These waves have an ability to propagate from transmitter antenna to the
receiver antenna through the space.
- These waves are capable for travelling from earth surface to the
troposphere surface of earth after reflecting from earth.
disadvantages
- These waves are limited to the curvature of the earth.
- These waves have line of sight propagation, means they propagate along
the line of sigh distance.

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