Axially Loaded Walls 59 60 Design of Structural Masonry

2.1.10 Laying of Structural Units (Clause 8) Solution:

Structural units are normally laid on their bed face and the strengths given in Tables 2(a) Consider a 1.0 metre length of wall
to 2(d) relate to this. Where units are laid on a different face, i.e. the stretcher or end face, (i) standard format bricks
their strength in this orientation should be determined by testing according to the Characteristic self-weight of all walls = (0.4 × 3.0 × 2.0)*
requirements of BS 187, BS 6073 : Part 1 and BS 3921 as appropriate. = 2.4 kN/m
To develop the full potential strength of units with frogs it is necessary to ensure that a Characteristic dead load due to the self-weight of the slab = 24 × (6.0 × 1.0 × 0.15)
full and correct bedding of mortar is made and the frogs are filled. In circumstances where = 21.6 kN/m length
a lower frog cannot be filled or is only partially filled, tests should be carried according to = 10.8 kN/m per wall
BS 187 and BS 3921 to determine the masonry strength. Characteristic imposed load on the roof slab = (6.0 × 1.0 × 1.5)
Note: When bed joints are raked out for pointing it is important to make allowance = 9.0 kN/m
for the resulting loss of strength as indicated in Clause 8 of the code. = 4.5 kN/m per wall
* Note: the critical section occurs at a distance of 0.4h down the wall, i.e. maximum
The design parameters discussed in section 2.1 are illustrated in Examples 2.1 to 2.15. eccentricity.
Clause 22(a) Partial Safety Factor for Loads (γf)
2.2 Example 2.1 Single-Leaf Masonry Wall 1 Dead loads γf = 1.4
A 150 mm thick reinforced concrete roof slab is supported on two single-leaf walls as Imposed loads γf = 1.6
shown in Figure 2.33. Using the design data provided determine a suitable structural unit / Design load/metre length of wall = [(1.4 (2.4 + 10.8) + (1.6 × 4.5)] = 25.68 kN
mortar combination for the walls using:
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance of Walls 25.68kN
i) standard format bricks, β t fk
ii) 100 mm hollow blocks with a height-to-width ratio of 0.6, Design vertical load resistance/unit length = this value must be ≥ 25.68kN
22.32 kN
γm
iii) 90 mm × 90 mm modular bricks.
The required unknown is the characteristic compressive strength of the masonry fk
22.32 × γ m 25.68kN
Design data: fk ≥
Characteristic self-weight of concrete 24 kN/m3 βt
Assume the characteristic self-weight of all walls 2.0 kN/m2 Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
Characteristic imposed load on roof slab 1.5 kN/m2 Category for manufacturing control is normal
Category of manufacturing control normal Category for construction control is normal
Category of construction control normal Table 4
Assume that the walls are part of a braced structure. Table 4. Partial safety factors for material
strength, γm
Category of
150 mm thick reinforced construction control
concrete roof slab Special Normal
Category of Special 2.5 3.1
3.0 m

manufacturing
control of structural Normal 2.8 3.5
units

Partial safety factor m = 3.5

The capacity reduction factor β is given in Table 7 and requires values for both the
slenderness ratio and the eccentricity of the load.
6.0 m
Clause 28 Consideration of slenderness of walls and columns
Figure 2.33
slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27
 Axially Loaded Walls 61 62 Design of Structural Masonry

Clause 28.2.2 Horizontal Lateral Support Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance
Since this structure has a concrete roof with a bearing length of at least one-half the
thickness of the wall, enhanced resistance to lateral movement can be assumed. 25.68 × γ m 25.68 × 3.5
Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height fk ≥ = = 1.87 N/mm2
t 0.47 × 102.5
hef = 0.75 × clear distance between lateral supports
= (0.75 × 3000) = 2250 mm
Clause 23.1.2 Narrow Brick Walls
When using standard format bricks to construct a wall one brick (i.e. 102.5 mm) wide the
Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness
values of fk obtained from Table 2(a) can be multiplied by 1.15.
For single-leaf walls the effective thickness is equal to the actual thickness as indicated in
Figure 3 of the code.
1.87
tef = 102.5 mm fk required = = 1.62 N/mm2
2250 1.15
SR = ≈ 22 < 27 It is evident from Table 2 of the code that any combination of brick strength and mortar
102.5
designation will satisfy this requirement for fk. Although this thickness of wall will satisfy
the ultimate limit state requirement, consideration should also be given to other limit states
Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the Wall
e.g. resistance to rain penetration, frost attack and/or fire, ability to accommodate
The load maybe assumed to act at an eccentricity equal
movement. Advice regarding these criteria can be found in BS 5628 : Part 3 : 1985.
W to one-third of the depth of the bearing area from the
loaded face of the wall.
(ii) 100 mm hollow blocks with a height-to-width ratio of 0.6
The applied load is the same as before:
eccentricity (ex) = (1/2t – 1/3t) = t/6
Design load/metre length of wall = [(1.4(2.4 + 10.8) + (1.6 × 4.5)] = 25.68 kN
ex = 0.167t

ex t/3 Note that the eccentricities in Table 7 of the Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
code are given in terms of the thickness t.
t m = 3.5

Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor The capacity reduction factor β is given in Table 7 and requires values for both the
Linear interpolation between slenderness and eccentricity values is permitted when using slenderness ratio and the eccentricity of the load.
Table 7.
Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns
Table 7. Capacity reduction factor, slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27
Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex
ness ratio Up to Clause 28.3. The horizontal lateral support and effective height are the same as before:
hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t hef = 2250 mm
(see note 1)
Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness
0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
For single-leaf walls the effective thickness is equal to the actual thickness as indicated in
Figure 3 of the code.
tef = 100 mm
18 0.77 0.70 0.57 0.44
20 0.70 0.64 0.51 0.37 2250
SR = = 22.5 < 27
22 0.62 0.56 0.43 0.30 100

24 0.53 0.47 0.34 Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the wall

The eccentricity is the same as before: ex = 0.167t
β = [0.56 – (0.13 × 0.067/0.1)] = 0.47
 Axially Loaded Walls 63 64 Design of Structural Masonry

Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
m = 3.5
Table 7. Capacity reduction factor,
Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns
ness ratio Up to slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27
hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t
(see note 1) Clause 28.3 The horizontal lateral support and effective height are the same as before:
0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44 hef = 2250 mm

20 0.70 0.64 0.51 0.37 Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness

22 0.62 0.56 0.43 0.3 For single-leaf walls the effective thickness is equal to the actual thickness as indicated in
Figure 3 of the code.
24 0.53 0.47 0.34 tef = 90 mm
26 0.45 0.38 2250
SR = = 25 < 27
27 0.4 0.33 90

Linear interpolation between eccentricities of 0.1t and 0.2t is permissible: Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the Wall
The eccentricity is the same as before: ex = 0.167t
SR = 22 β ex = 0.167 = [0.56 – (0.13 × 0.067/0.1)] = 0.47
SR = 24 β ex = 0.167 = [0.47 – (0.13 × 0.067/0.1)] = 0.38 Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor

SR ex = 0.167 Table 7. Capacity reduction factor,

22 0.47 Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex
24 0.38 ness ratio Up to
hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t
SR = 22.5 β = [0.47 – (0.09 × 0.5/2.0)] = 0.45 (see note 1)
0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
β t fk
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance = /unit length 20 0.70 0.64 0.51 0.37
γm
22 0.62 0.56 0.43 0.3
25.68 × 25.68 × 3.5
fk ≥ m
= = 2.0 N/mm2 24 0.53 0.47 0.34
t 0.45 × 100 26 0.45 0.38
27 0.4 0.33
Note: The narrow brick wall factor applies only to standard format bricks.
In Table 7 no values of β corresponding with slenderness ratios > 26 and eccentricities
Table 2(b) Characteristic Compressive Strength of Masonry > 0.1t have been given, i.e. in the bottom right-hand corner. In circumstances where high
Any combination of unit strength ≥ 5.0 N/mm2 and mortar designation (i) to (iv) will eccentricities and high slenderness ratios exist the capacity reduction factor can be
satisfy the masonry strength requirement. evaluated using the equations in Appendix B. If possible, it is advisable to avoid this
situation by using higher effective thicknesses and/or specifying details which will reduce
(iii) 90 mm 90 mm modular bricks the eccentricity.
The applied load is the same as before: In this instance the value of β has been calculated to illustrate the procedure when
using Appendix B.
Design load/metre length of wall = [(1.4(2.4 + 10.8) + (1.6 × 4.5)] = 25.68 kN
 Axially Loaded Walls 65 66 Design of Structural Masonry

Appendix B: Ultimate design load on the wall from above 100 kN

Equation 4 β = 1.1[1 – (2em /t)] Category of manufacturing control special
where em is the larger of ex and et and et = (0.6ex + ea) Category of construction control normal
Effective height of the wall 3.0 m
⎡ 1 2 Solid concrete blocks with a height to least horizontal dimension equal to 1.4 are to be
Equation 1 ea = t ⎢ ( h ef t ef ) − 0.015⎥ ⎤
used.
⎣ 2400 ⎦
ex = 0.167t; slenderness = hef / tef = 25 100 kN/m 100 kN/m
300 kN

⎡ 1
ea = t ⎢ (25)2 − 0.015⎤⎥ = 0.245t
⎣ 2400 ⎦ 30 kN/m
et = (0.6ex + ea) = [(0.6 × 0.167t) + 0.245t] = 0.345t
em ≥ ex
≥ et ∴ em = 0.345t 185 mm bearing length solid concrete block wall with
height to least horizontal
215 mm dimension equal to 1.4
Equation 4 β = 1.1[1 – (2 × 0.345t /t)] = 0.34
8.0 m
β t fk
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance = Figure 2.34
γm
Solution: Consider a 1.0 metre length of wall
25.68 × 25.68 × 3.5 Characteristic self-weight of wall = 1.4 × (0.4 × 4.25 × 5.2) = 12.4 kN/m
fk ≥ m
= = 2.94 N/mm2
t 0.34 × 90 Total design load on the beam = [300 + (8.0 × 30)] = 540 kN
End reaction on wall due to the beam = (0.5 × 540) = 270 kN/wall
Clause 23.1.3 Walls Constructed in Modular Bricks Load on wall from above (considered concentric) = 100 kN/m
When using 90 mm wide × 90 mm high modular bricks in single-leaf masonry 90 mm Total design load on the wall/m length = (270 + 100 + 12.4) = 382.4 kN
thick, fk from Table 2(a) can be multiplied by 1.25 (1.1 for any other thickness).
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance of Walls
2.94 β t fk
fk required = = 2.35 N/mm2 Design vertical load resistance/unit length =
1.25 γm
Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
Table 2(a) Characteristic Compressive Strength of Masonry Category for manufacturing control is special
Any combination of unit strength and mortar designation types (i), (ii) or (iii) will satisfy Category for construction control is normal
the masonry strength requirement. Table 4
Table 4. Partial safety factors for material
2.3 Example 2.2 Single-Leaf Masonry Wall 2
strength, γm
A steel beam is supported by two masonry walls and carries a mid-span concentrated load Category of
from a stanchion in addition to a uniformly distributed load as shown in Figure 2.34. construction control
Using the data given, select an appropriate concrete block strength assuming a 1:3, Special Normal
masonry cement:sand mortar is to be used. Category of
manufacturing Special 2.5 3.1
Design data: control of structural Normal 2.8 3.5
Assume the characteristic self-weight of walls 5.2 kN/m2 units
Ultimate design load on the column 300 kN
Partial safety factor m = 3.1
Ultimate design uniformly distributed load on the beam 30 kN
 Axially Loaded Walls 67 68 Design of Structural Masonry

Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns In Table 7 the eccentricity is expressed in terms of the thickness t,
slenderness ratio SR = hef /tef ≤ 27 33.4
ex = t = 0.16t
215
Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor
hef = 3000 mm Linear interpolation between slenderness and eccentricity values is permitted when using
Table 7.
Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness
For single-leaf walls the effective thickness is equal to the actual thickness as indicated in Table 7. Capacity reduction factor,
Figure 3 of the code. Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex
tef = 215 mm ness ratio Up to
hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t
3000 (see note 1)
SR = = 13.9 < 27
215 0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44

Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the Wall

The design loading on the wall comprises a concentric element from above and an 12 0.93 0.87 0.66 0.44
eccentric element from the beam reaction. These two loads must be considered together in 14 0.89 0.83 0.66 0.44
an equivalent system as shown in Figure 2.35, to determine the eccentricity due to both 16 0.83 0.77 0.64 0.44
acting simultaneously.
18 0.77 0.70 0.57 0.44

β (SR = 13.9; ex = 0.16t) = 0.73

100 kN/m
β t fk
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance =
W kN γm
392.4 × 382 .4 × 3.1
fk ≥ m
= = 7.55 N/mm2
t 0.73 × 215
270 kN
Table 1 Requirements for Mortar
(107.5 – 61.7) Required masonry cement : sand ratio is 1 : 3
= 45.8 mm (185/3) = 61.7 mm ex Mortar designation (ii) is suitable
215 215 Clause 23.1.6 Solid Concrete Block Walls
When using solid concrete blocks with 0.6 < H : L < 2.0 interpolate between the
actual load system equivalent load system values given in Tables 2(b) 2(d).
Figure 2.35 Table 2(d) Characteristic Compressive Strength of Masonry
Assuming a unit of strength equal 15.0 N/mm2 combined with mortar type (ii) will satisfy
The equivalent load system must have the same vertical load and the same bending the masonry strength requirement (i.e. fk = 8.3 N/mm2 > 7.55 N/mm2 ).
moment about the centre-line as the actual system.
Note: The design loads calculated above include the self-weight of a height of wall equal
Equating loads W = (100 + 270) = 370 kN to 0.4h since the critical section for maximum eccentricity occurs at this level as
Equating moments (W × ex) = (270 × 45.8) = 12366 kNmm indicated in Section 2.1.7. The self-weight of the full height of the wall is often used
∴ ex = (12366/370) = 33.4 mm instead of 0.4h, this slightly overestimates the design axial load and is conservative.
 Axially Loaded Walls 69 70 Design of Structural Masonry

2.4 Example 2.3 Single-Leaf Masonry Wall 3 The loads due to the self-weight of the wall and from the wall above are considered to be
An internal brick wall supports a two-span reinforced concrete floor slab as shown in concentric whilst those from the floor slab are considered to be eccentric as indicated in
Figure 2.36. Using the design data given, determine a suitable brick/mortar combination. Clause 31 of the code, i.e.
ex ex
Design data:
Self-weight of 102.5 mm thick standard format brickwork 1.8 kN/m 2
Self-weight of plaster 12 mm thick 0.3 kN/m2
Characteristic dead load on floor slab 5.0 kN/m2 Eccentricity = ex = t / 3
Characteristic imposed load on floor slab 1.5 kN/m2 t/6 t/6
Characteristic dead load from wall above 120.0 kN/metre length t
Characteristic imposed load from wall above 20.0 kN/metre length
Category of manufacturing control normal Each side of the floor may be taken as being supported individually on half the total
Category of construction control normal bearing area.
Load from
Concentric Loads:
wall above
Characteristic dead load due to the self-weight of the wall = (2.75 × 1.8)
= 4.95 kN/m length
wall A
Floor slab Characteristic dead load due to the self-weight of 12 mm plaster = (2 × 2.75 × 0.3)
= 1.65 kN/m length
slab 1 slab 2
2750 mm 102.5 mm thick Clause 22 Load Factor γf dead load = 1.4
span span wall with 12 mm Design load due to self-weight of wall and plaster both sides = 1.4 × (4.95 + 1.65)
A A plaster both sides = 9.24 kN/m length

Characteristic dead load from wall above = 120 kN/m length

Characteristic imposed load from wall above = 20 kN/m length
3.0 m 4.6 m Clause 22 Load Factors γf dead load = 0.9 or 1.4; γf imposed load = 1.6
Minimum design dead load from wall above = (0.9 × 120) = 108 kN/m length
Plan Cross-section A-A
Maximum design dead load from wall above = (1.4 × 120) = 168 kN/m length
Figure 2.36 Design imposed load from wall above = (1.6 × 20) = 32 kN/m length
Maximum total design load from wall above = (168 + 32) = 200 kN/m length
Solution: Consider a 1.0 metre length of wall
Eccentric Loads:
wall A Characteristic dead load due to floor slab1 = (1.5 × 5.0) = 7.5 kN/m length
Characteristic imposed load due to floor slab1 = (1.5 × 1.5) = 2.25 kN/m length
1. 0 m width
1.5 m 2.3 m
Clause 22 Load Factors γf dead load = 0.9 or 1.4; γf imposed load = 1.6
span 1 span 2 Minimum design dead load from slab 1 = (0.9 × 7.5) = 6.75 kN/m length
Maximum design dead load from slab1 = (1.4 × 7.5) = 10.5 kN/m length
3.0 m 4.6 m Design imposed load from slab 1 = (1.6 × 2.25) = 3.6 kN/m length
Maximum total design load from slab 1 = (10.5 + 3.6) = 14.1 kN/m length

The wall supports an area equal to (1.5 × 1.0) from span 1 and an area equal to (2.3 × 1.0) Characteristic dead load due to floor slab2 = (2.3 × 5.0) = 11.5 kN/m length
from span 2. Characteristic imposed load due to floor slab2 = (2.3 × 1.5) = 3.45 kN/m length
 Axially Loaded Walls 71 72 Design of Structural Masonry

Clause 22 Load Factors γf dead load = 1.4; γf imposed load = 1.6 Table 4
Maximum total design load from slab 2 = [(1.4× 11.5) + (1.6 × 3.45)] Table 4. Partial safety factors for material
= 21.62 kN/m length strength, γm
There are three load combinations which should be considered: Category of
construction control
Case 1: Maximum vertical loads Special Normal
W2
Category of Special 2.5 3.1
W1 = 9.24 kN/m length ex1 ex2 manufacturing
W2 = 200 kN/m length control of structural Normal 2.8 3.5
W3 = 14.1 kN/m length units
W4 = 21.62 kN/m length m = 3.5
Total = 244.96 kN/m length W3 W4
Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns
W1 slenderness ratio SR = hef /tef ≤ 27
Case 2: Maximum moment loads
Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height
W1 = 9.24 kN/m length W2 hef = (0.75 × 2750) = 2062.5 mm
W2 = 200 kN/m length
ex1 ex2
W3 = 6.75 kN/m length Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness
W4 = 21.62 kN/m length For single-leaf walls the effective thickness is equal to the actual thickness as indicated in
Total = 237.61 kN/m length Figure 3 of the code.
W3 W4 tef = 102.5 mm
2062.5
SR = = 18.78 < 27
W1 102.5
CASE 1:
Case 3: Maximum eccentricity loads Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the Wall
W2 The design loading on the wall comprises a concentric element from above and two
W1 = 9.24 kN/m length ex1 ex2 eccentric elements from the slab reactions.
W2 = 108 kN/m length
W3 = 6.75 kN/m length
200 kN
W4 = 21.62 kN/m length
Total = 145.61 kN/m length W3 W4 t /3
t /3 ex
W1 W kN

14.1 kN 21.62 kN
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance of Walls
β t fk
Design vertical load resistance/unit length = 9.24 kN equivalent load system
γm actual load system

Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm) The equivalent load system must have the same vertical load and the same bending
Category for manufacturing control is normal moment about the centre-line as the actual system.
Category for construction control is normal Equating vertical forces W = (200 + 14.1 + 21.62) = 235.7 kN
Equating moments (235.7 × ex) = [(21.62 × t /3) – (14.1 × t /3)] = 2.51t kNmm
 Axially Loaded Walls 73 74 Design of Structural Masonry

∴ ex = (2.51t /235.7) = 0.01t mm Equating vertical forces W = (200 + 6.75 + 21.62) = 228.37 kN
< 0.05t Equating moments (228.37 × ex) = [(21.62 × t /3) – (6.75 × t /3)] = 4.96t kNmm
Maximum vertical load = 244.96 kN ∴ ex = (4.96t /228.37) = 0.02t mm
< 0.05t
Note: The self-weight of the wall and plaster has not been included in the calculation for Maximum vertical load = 237.61 kN
the eccentricity. Since ex is also < 0.05t Case (1) is more severe.

Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor CASE 3:

Linear interpolation between slenderness and eccentricity values is permitted when using Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the wall
Table 7.
108 kN
Table 7. Capacity reduction factor,
Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex t /3 t /3 ex
ness ratio Up to W kN
hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t
(see note 1) 6.75 kN 21.62 kN
0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
actual load system 9.24 kN equivalent load system

18 0.77 0.70 0.57 0.44

20 0.70 0.64 0.51 0.37 Equating vertical forces W = (108 + 6.75 + 21.62) = 136.37 kN
22 0.62 0.56 0.43 0.30 Equating moments (136.37 × ex) = [(21.62 × t /3) – (6.75 × t /3)] = 4.96t kNmm
∴ ex = (4.96t /136.37) = 0.04t mm
SR = 20.12 β ex = 0.01 = [0.70 – (0.08 × 0.12/2.0)] = 0.7 < 0.05t
Maximum vertical load = 145.61 kN
β t fk Since ex is also < 0.05t Case (1) is more severe.
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance = ≥ 244.96 kN Minimum value of fk ≥ 11.9 N/mm2
γm
244.96 × m 244.96 × 3.5 Note: In most situations Case (1) will be the critical case, however, it is important for
fk ≥ = = 11.9 N/mm2
t 0.7 × 102 .5 designers to be aware of the other possibilities.
CASE 2:
Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the wall Clause 23.1.2 Narrow Brick Walls
The narrow brick wall factor applies in this case.
11.9
Required value of fk = 10.35 N/mm2
1.15
≥
200 kN

t /3 t /3 ex Clause 23.1 Normal Masonry

Table 2(a) Unit strength of 35 N/mm2 and mortar designation (i) or
W kN Unit strength = 50 N/mm2 and mortar strength (i), (ii) or (iii) are suitable.

6.75 kN 21.62 kN As an alternative to these options Figure 1(a) can be used to specify a
Class of brick. Linear interpolation for classes of loadbearing bricks not
shown on the graph may be used for average crushing strengths
actual load system 9.24 kN equivalent load system intermediate between those given on the graph.
 Axially Loaded Walls 75 76 Design of Structural Masonry

2.6 Example 2.4 Stiffened Single-Leaf Masonry Wall

24 Mortar designation (i)
An existing workshop is constructed from standard format bricks with a rendered single-

Characteristic strength of
20 Mortar designation (ii) skin and piers as shown in Figure 2.38. A series of steel beams supported as indicated are

masonry (N/mm 2 )
16 Mortar designation (iii)
required to support additional loads. Using the design data given determine the maximum
ultimate vertical loading/metre length which can be applied to the wall.
12 Mortar designation (iv)

8 Design data:
Category of manufacturing control normal
4
Category of construction control normal
Brick strength Class 7

Class 15
Class 3
Class 4
Class 5
Class 2

Class 10
Class 7
Mortar designation Type (ii)
Effective height of wall (hef ) 3200 mm
In this problem assume that the eccentricity of the applied load is < 0.05t
Figure 1(a) from the code Compressive strength of unit (N/mm 2 )

2.5 Stiffened Walls

The introduction of piers to stiffen walls reduces their slenderness and increases the
loadbearing capacity. The reduction in slenderness results from an effective thickness
which is greater than the unstiffened wall and is evaluated using a stiffness coefficient as
indicated in Figure 3, Table 5 and Clause 28.4.2 in the code, i.e.
steel beams
tef = t × K where K ≥ 1.0

The effective thickness is subsequently used to determine the slenderness ratio and hence
the capacity reduction factor β. Clearly since K is ≥ 1.0 the slenderness will be less, and
consequently the value of β will be greater, than that for the unstiffened wall. In addition
to this an equivalent wall thickness can be estimated since the pier will support some of
the applied load. This can be carried out in most cases as follows using a ‘rule of thumb’
3500 mm 3500 mm 3500 mm 3500 mm 3500 mm
as indicated in Figure 2.37.
Plan of workshop
Lp
102.5 mm

Area 1 Area 2
215 mm

tequivalent 440 mm
Dimensions of piers
Equivalent solid wall
Equivalent solid wall thickness = tequivalent =
(Area 1 + Area 2)
Figure 2.38
Lp Solution:
Figure 2.37 Clause 32.2.1
β t fk β t fk
The value of tequivalent can be used in the equation given in Clause 32.2.1, i.e. . Design vertical load resistance =
γm γm
 Axially Loaded Walls 77 78 Design of Structural Masonry

Figure 1(a) Characteristic Compressive Strength of Brick Masonry (fk) Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor (β )
Class 7 bricks / Mortar designation (ii) fk ≈ 11.8 N/mm2 Using linear interpolation in Table 7 β = 0.56
Table 4 The equivalent thickness to allow for the additional load carried by the piers can be
Manufacturing control – normal / Construction control – normal estimated:
Partial safety factor γm = 3.5 (Area 1 + Area 2)
Equivalent solid wall thickness = tequivalent =
Lp
102.5 mm
Area 1 = [(215 – 102.5) × 440] = 49,500 mm2
215 mm
Area 2 = (102.5 × 3500) = 358,750 mm2
440 mm 49500 + 358750 )
tequivalent = = 116.6 mm
(
3500
3500 mm
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance of Walls
Clause 28.4.2 and Figure 3 Effective Thickness β tequivalent f k 0.56 × 116 .6 × 11.8
Design vertical load resistance = =
tef = t × K γm 3.5
= 220.1 kN/m
Table 5 Stiffness Coefficient for Walls Stiffened by Piers
2.7 Cavity Walls
The fundamental requirements of external walls in buildings include the provision of
Table 5. Stiffness coefficient for walls
adequate strength, stability, thermal and sound insulation, fire resistance and resistance to
stiffened by piers
rain penetration. Whilst a single skin wall can often satisfy the strength and stability
requirements, in many cases the thickness of wall necessary to satisfy some of the other
Ratio of pier Ratio tp/t of pier thickness to
requirements (e.g. resistance to rain penetration c.f. BS 5628 : Part 3), can be uneconomic
spacing (centre to actual thickness of wall to which
and inefficient. In most cases of external wall design, cavity wall construction comprising
centre) to pier it is bonded
two leaves with a gap between them is used. Normally the outer leaf is a half-brick
width
(102.5 mm thick) common or facing brick and the inner leaf is either the same or light
1 2 3 weight, thermally efficient, concrete block. The minimum thickness of each leaf is
6 1.0 1.4 2.0 specified in Clause 29.1.2 of BS 5628 : Part 1 as 75 mm. The width of the cavity between
10 1.0 1.2 1.4 the leaves may vary between 50 mm and 150 mm but should not be greater than 75 mm
20 1.0 1.0 1.0 where either of the leaves is less than 90 mm in thickness as indicated in Clause 29.1.3 of
NOTE. Linear interpolation between the values given in table 5
is permissible, but not extrapolation outside the limits given.
the code. These criteria are illustrated in Figure 2.39.

t1 and t2 ≥ 75 mm
pier spacing 3500 pier thickness 215 t1
= ≈ 8.0; = = 2.1
pier width 440 actual thickness 102.5 x If t1 or t2 < 90 mm then:
t2
50 mm ≤ x ≤ 75 mm
Using linear interpolation in Table 5 K = 1.34
tef = (1.34 × 102.5) = 137.4 mm
t1 and t2 ≥ 75 mm
t1
Clause 28 Slenderness x If t1 and t2 > 90 mm then:
3200 t2
SR = = 23.3 < 27 50 mm ≤ x ≤ 150 mm
137.4

Figure 2.39
 Axially Loaded Walls 79 80 Design of Structural Masonry

The minimum width requirement is to reduce the possibilty of bridging across the cavity, The ties should be staggered and evenly distributed over a wall area. Additional ties
e.g. by mortar droppings, causing the transmission of moisture. The maximum width should be provided at a rate of one tie per 300 mm height or equivalent, located not more
requirement is to limit the length of the wall ties connecting the two leaves and hence than 225 mm from the vertical edges of openings and at vertical unreturned or unbonded
reduce their tendency to buckle if subjected to compressive forces. edges such as at movement joints or the sloping verge of gable walls. As indicated in
The effect of ties is to stiffen each of the leaves in a wall and consequently reduce the Clause 29.1.6, ties should be embedded at least 50 mm in each leaf.
slenderness ratio. Since the two leaves of a cavity wall may be of different materials with differing
Where the applied vertical load is supported by one leaf only, the influence of the physical properties and/or subject to different thermal effects differential movement is
unloaded leaf is considered when evaluating the effective thickness of the wall, as inevitable. To prevent potentially damaging loosening of the embedded ties the
indicated in Figure 3 of the code. The cross-sectional area used to determine the load uninterrupted height of the outer leaf of external cavity walls can be limited or suitable
resistance is that of the loaded leaf only. detailing of the construction incorporated to accommodate the movement.
Where the applied vertical load acts between the centroids of the two leaves it should
be replaced by a statically equivalent axial load in each leaf as indicated in Clause 32.2.3
of the code and illustrated in Figure 2.40. 2.7.1 Limitation on Uninterrupted Height (Clause 29.2.2)
P The code specifies that:
‘…. the outer leaf should be supported at intervals of not more than every third storey or
x1 x2
⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎛ x1 ⎞ every 9 m, whichever is less. …..for buildings not exceeding four storeys or 12 m in
P⎜⎜ P⎜⎜ height, whichever is less, the outer leaf may be uninterrupted for its full height.’
⎝ x1 + x2 ⎠ ⎝ x1 + x2 ⎠
⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
This is illustrated in Figure 2.42.

actual load system equivalent load system

Figure 2.40
≤ 4 storeys
Each leaf is designed seperately to resist the equivalent axial load using the stiffening
≤ 12.0 m
effect of the other leaf to determine the effective thickness and hence the slenderness ratio. ≤ 3 storeys
The provision of ties is governed by the requirements of Clause 29.1.5 and suitable ≤ 9.0 m
minimum values are given Table 6 of BS 5628 : Part 1 and also shown in Figure 2.41.

Selection of wall ties: types and lengths

Least leaf Nominal Permissible type of tie Tie
thickness cavity length Figure 2.42
(one or both) width
Shape name* in Type member** in 2.7.2 Accommodation of Differential Vertical Movement (Clause 29.2.3)
accordance accordance with
mm mm with BS 1243 DD 140 : Part 2 mm Where differential movement is accommodated by calculation this should include all
75 75 or less (a), (b) or (c) 1,2,3,4 175 factors such as elastic movement, moisture movement, thermal movement, creep etc., and
90 75 or less (a), (b) or (c) 1,2,3,4 200 the value should not exceed 30 mm. Detailing which includes separate lintols for both
90 76 to 90 (b) or (c) 1 or 2 225 leaves, appropriate ties which can accommodate movement and the fixing of window
90 91 to 100 (b) or (c) 1 or 2 225 frames cills etc. must be considered. In most cases engineers adopt the method of limiting
90 101 to 125 (c) 1 or 2 250 the uninterrupted height.
90 126 to 150 (c) 1 or 2 275
* (a) – butterfly (b) – double triangle (c) – vertical twist 2.7.3 Accommodation of Differential Horizontal Movement (Clause 29.2.4)
** type 1 is the stiffest and type 4 the least stiff
Advice is given in BS 5628 : Part 3 on the provision of vertical joints to accommodate
Figure 2.41 horizontal movements.
 Axially Loaded Walls 81 82 Design of Structural Masonry

2.8 Example 2.5 Cavity Wall 1 Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
Consider the structure shown in Figure 2.43 in which the external walls supporting the Category for manufacturing control is special
roof slab are cavity walls comprising: Category for construction control is special
Table 4 m = 2.5
i) both leaves of standard format bricks and a cavity width of 50 mm,
ii) a standard format brick outer leaf, a 100 mm hollow block (with a height-to- Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns
width ratio of 0.6), inner leaf and a cavity width of 75 mm, slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27
iii) a standard format brick outer leaf, a 90 mm × 90 mm modular brick inner leaf
and a cavity width of 50 mm. Clause 28.2.2 Horizontal Lateral Support
Since this structure has a concrete roof with a bearing length of at least one-half the
Using the design data given determine the maximum ultimate vertical load which can be thickness of the wall, enhanced resistance to lateral movement can be assumed.
supported by the inner leaf. Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height
hef = 0.75 × clear distance between lateral supports
Design data: = (0.75 × 2800) = 2100 mm
Category of manufacturing control special
Category of construction control special Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness
Mortar designation /Compressive strength of unit case (i) Type (i) / 20 N/mm2 For cavity walls the effective thickness is as indicated in Figure 3 of the code and equal to
case (ii) Type (ii) / 10 N/mm2 the greatest of:
case (iii) Type (iii) / 15 N/mm2 (a) 2/3(t1 + t2) = 2/3(102.5 + 102.5) = 136.7 mm or
Assume that the walls are part of a braced structure. (b) t1 = 102.5 mm or
(c) t2 = 102.5 mm

∴ tef = 136.7 mm
inner leaf
(i) standard format brick, 2100
Slenderness ratio = SR = = 15.4 < 27
(ii) 100 mm solid concrete block, H : L = 0.6, 136.7
2800 mm

(iii) 90 mm× 90 mm modular brick.

Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the wall
The load maybe assumed to act at an eccentricity equal to one-third of the depth of the
standard format brick outer leaf bearing area from the loaded face of the wall.

eccentricity (ex) = (1/2t – 1/3t) = t/6

ex = 0.167t
6.0 m
Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor
Linear interpolation between slenderness and
Figure 2.43 eccentricity values is permitted when using Table 7.
W
β = 0.68
Solution: Consider a 1.0 metre length of wall
Table 2(a)
(i) Standard format bricks
Compressive strength of unit = 20 N/mm2
Mortar designation = Type (i)
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance of Walls ex t/3 Compressive strength of masonry
β t fk fk = 7.4 N/mm2
Design vertical load resistance/unit length =
γm t
 Axially Loaded Walls 83 84 Design of Structural Masonry

Clause 23.1.2 Narrow Brick Walls eccentricity (ex) = (1/2t – 1/3t) = t/6
When using standard format bricks to construct a wall one brick (i.e. 102.5 mm) wide the ex = 0.167t
values of fk obtained from Table 2(a) can be multiplied by 1.15. This does not apply to the
loaded inner leaf of a cavity wall when both leaves are loaded (see the ‘Handbook to BS Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor
5628 : Structural Use of Masonry’, ref. 36). Linear interpolation between slenderness and
eccentricity values is permitted when using Table 7.
fk = (7.4 × 1.15) = 8.51 N/mm2 W β = 0.69

t fk 0.68 ×102 .5 × 8.51 Table 2(b)

Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance = = Compressive strength of unit = 10 N/mm2
γm 2.5
Mortar designation = Type (ii)
= 273.3 kN/m
ex t/3 Compressive strength of masonry
fk = 4.2 N/mm2
(ii) 100 mm hollow blocks with a height-to-width ratio of 0.6
Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm) t
t fk 0.69 × 100 × 4.2
Category for manufacturing control is special Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance = =
Category for construction control is special γm 2.5
Table 4 m = 2.5 = 119.3 kN/m
(Note: The narrow brick wall factor applies only to standard format bricks.)
Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns
slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27 (iii) 90 mm 90 mm modular bricks
Note: It is not unusual to include a course or two of bricks or cut block in an inner block-
Clause 28.2.2 Horizontal Lateral Support leaf wall to accommodate coursing with a standard brick outer-leaf.
Since this structure has a concrete roof with a bearing length of at least one-half the Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
thickness of the wall, enhanced resistance to lateral movement can be assumed. Category for manufacturing control is special
Category for construction control is special
Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height Table 4 m = 2.5
hef = 0.75 × clear distance between lateral supports
= (0.75 × 2800) = 2100 mm Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns
slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27
Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness
For cavity walls the effective thickness is as indicated in Figure 3 of the code and equal to Clause 28.2.2 Horizontal Lateral Support
the greatest of: Since this structure has a concrete roof with a bearing length of at least one-half the
(a) 2/3(t1 + t2) = 2/3(100 + 102.5) = 135 mm or thickness of the wall, enhanced resistance to lateral movement can be assumed.
(b) t1 = 100 mm or
(c) t2 = 102.5 mm Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height
hef = 0.75 × clear distance between lateral supports
∴ tef = 135 mm = (0.75 × 2800) = 2100 mm

2100 Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness

Slenderness ratio = SR = = 15.6 < 27 For cavity walls the effective thickness is as indicated in Figure 3 of the code and equal to
135
the greatest of:
Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the Wall (a) 2/3(t1 + t2) = 2/3(90 + 102.5) = 128.3 mm or
The load maybe assumed to act at an eccentricity equal to one-third of the depth of the (b) t1 = 90 mm or
bearing area from the loaded face of the wall. (c) t2 = 102.5 mm
∴ tef = 128.3 mm
 Axially Loaded Walls 85 86 Design of Structural Masonry

2100
Slenderness ratio = SR = = 16.4 < 27

0.5 m
128.3 gk = 4.5 kN/m2
qk = 1.5 kN/m2
Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the Wall
Roof level
The load maybe assumed to act at an eccentricity equal to one-third of the depth of the

2.75 m
bearing area from the loaded face of the wall. gk = 5.0 kN/m2
eccentricity (ex) = (1/2t – 1/3t) = t/6 qk = 2.5 kN/m2
ex = 0.167t
2nd floor level
Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor

9.2 m
2.75 m
2
gk = 5.0 kN/m
Linear interpolation between slenderness and qk = 2.5 kN/m2
eccentricity values is permitted when using Table 7.
W β = 0.67 1st floor level

3.2 m
Clause 23.1.3 and Table 2(a)
Compressive strength of unit = 15 N/mm2
Mortar designation = Type (iii)
ex t/3 Compressive strength of masonry:
fk = (1.25* × 5.0) = 6.25 N/mm2 6.0 m
t
Figure 2.44
* Note: A narrow brick wall factor is incorporated in the 1.25 value given when using
modular bricks as indicated in this Clause 23.1.3. Solution:
Consider a 1.0 metre length of wall and check the capacity of the wall at the underside of
t fk 0.67 × 100 × 6.25
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance = = the first floor level.
γm 2.5 Loading:
= 167.5 kN/m Characteristic dead load due to roof slab = (4.5 × 3.0) = 13.5 kN/m length
Characteristic imposed load due to roof slab = (1.5 × 3.0) = 4.5 kN/m length
2.9 Example 2.6 Cavity Wall 2 Characteristic dead load due to floor slabs = [2 × (5.0 × 3.0)]= 30.0 kN/m length
Consider the structure shown in Figure 2.44 in which the external walls supporting the Characteristic imposed load due to floor slabs = [2 × (2.5 × 3.0)]= 15.0 kN/m length
roof slab are cavity walls comprising leaves of standard format bricks and a cavity width
of 50 mm. Using the design data given check the suitability of the inner leaf of the wall to In BS 6399 : Part 1 : 1996 (Loading for Buildings), an allowance is made for the imposed
support the loads given. loading to be considered when designing multi-storey columns, walls, their supports and
foundations. In Table 2 of the code a reduction of 10% in the total distributed imposed
Design data: load on all floors carried by the member under consideration is permitted when that
Category of manufacturing control normal member supports two floors.
Category of construction control normal Note: The % reduction does not apply to roof loading.
Mortar designation / Compressive strength of unit Type (ii) / 15 N/mm2
Characteristic dead load on roof (including self-weight) 4.5 kN/m2 Ultimate design load due to roof slab = [(1.4 × 13.5) + (1.6 × 4.5)]
Characteristic imposed load on roof 1.5 kN/m2 = 26.1 kN/m length
Characteristic dead load on all floors (including self-weight) 5.0 kN/m2 Ultimate design load due to floor slabs = [(1.4 × 30) + (1.6 × 15.0)]
Characteristic imposed load on all floors 2.5 kN/m2 = 66.0 kN/m length
Characteristic self-weight of walls 2.0 kN/m2 10% reduction of imposed floor loads = – [0.1 × (1.6 × 15.0)]
= – 2.4 kN/m
Note: assume that the walls are part of a braced structure and that lateral forces due to Total design load due to roof and floor slabs = (26.1 + 66.0 – 2.4) = 89.7 kN/m
wind loading are not being considered in this example.
 Axially Loaded Walls 87 88 Design of Structural Masonry

Ultimate design load due to self-weight of wall = (1.4 × 2.0 × 9.2 × 1.0)] The critical section normally occurs at 0.4h below the level of the 1st. floor slab, see
= 25.76 kN/m Figure 2.28.

Design vertical load applied to inner leaf of wall = (89.7 + 25.76) = 115.5 kN/m W1 = [1.4 × 15.0 + 1.6 × 7.5)] = 33.0 kN/m
W2 Moment induced by the eccentric load is given by
(W1 × t/6.0) = (33.0 × t )/6.0 = 5.5t
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance of Walls
β t fk W2 is due to a height of brickwork equal to 6.0 m
Design vertical load resistance/unit length =
W3 is due to a height of brickwork equal to 0.4h m
γm W1
Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
Self-weight of wall considered to be concentric =
Category for manufacturing control is normal 1st floor
(W3 + W2) = [1.4 × 2.0 × (6.0 + 1.28)]
Category for construction control is normal
W3 = 20.38 kN/m
Table 4 m = 3.5
ex = (5.5 t /20.38) = 0.27t
t/6 t/3
Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns
slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27
t
Note: In buildings of more than two storeys with walls less than 90 mm thick the Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor
slenderness should not exceed 20. Linear interpolation between slenderness and eccentricity values is permitted when using
Table 7.
Clause 28.2.2 Horizontal Lateral Support
Since this structure has a concrete floor with a bearing length of at least one-half the
Table 7. Capacity reduction factor,
thickness of the wall, enhanced resistance to lateral movement can be assumed.
Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex
Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height ness ratio Up to
hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t
hef = 0.75 × clear distance between lateral supports
(see note 1)
= (0.75 × 3200) = 2400 mm
0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness
For cavity walls the effective thickness is as indicated in Figure 3 of the code and equal to
12 0.93 0.87 0.66 0.44
the greatest of:
14 0.89 0.83 0.66 0.44
(a) 2/3(t1 + t2) = 2/3(102.5 + 102.5) = 136.7 mm or
16 0.83 0.77 0.64 0.44
(b) t1 = 102.5 mm or
(c) t2 = 102.5 mm
18 0.77 0.70 0.57 0.44
∴ tef = 136.7 mm
2400 Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor
Slenderness ratio = SR = = 17.6 < 27
136.7 Linear interpolation between slenderness and eccentricity values is permitted when using
Table 7.
Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the Wall β (SR = 17.6; ex = 0.25t) = 0.48
The load from the first floor slab maybe assumed to act at an eccentricity equal to one-
third of the depth of the bearing area from the loaded face of the wall. The loading from Table 2(a)
the second floor and roof slabs can be considered to be concentric at this level. Compressive strength of unit = 15 N/mm2
The equivalent load system must have the same vertical load and the same bending Mortar designation = Type (ii)
moment about the centre-line as the actual system. Compressive strength of masonry fk = 5.3 N/mm2
 Axially Loaded Walls 89 90 Design of Structural Masonry

Clause 23.1.2 Narrow Brick Walls 0.2t (except in the case of laterally loaded panels) where t is the overall
When using standard format bricks to construct a wall one brick (i.e. 102.5 mm) wide, the thickness of the wall.
values of fk obtained from Table 2(a) can be multiplied by 1.15. (1) Flat metal wall ties of cross-sectional area 20 mm × 3 mm at centres not
exceeding 450 mm both vertically and horizontally, or an equivalent mesh
fk = (5.3 × 1.15) = 6.1 N/mm2 at the same vertical centres, are provided.
(2) The minimum embedment of the ties into each leaf is 50 mm.
t fk 0.48 ×102 .5 × 6.1 (3) The vertical collar joint between the two leaves is solidly filled with mortar
Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance = = as the work proceeds.’
γm 3.5
= 85.7 kN/m < 115.5 kN/m
A collar jointed wall may be designed as a cavity wall or where the conditions (1) to (7)
Since the vertical load resistance is less than the applied design load this wall is
are satisfied, as a single leaf wall.
inadequate. A higher strength unit/mortar combination is required.
2.11 Grouted Cavity Walls (Clause 29.7)
2.10 Collar Jointed Walls (Clause 29.6)
The vertical load capacity of a cavity wall can be increased by the addition of concrete
Where it is desirable to achieve fairfaced brickwork (i.e. brickwork built with particular
placed in the cavity. In this case the wall may be designed as a single leaf wall with an
care where the finished work is to be visible) on both sides of a 215 mm thick solid wall,
effective thickness equal to the overall thickness. The code requires that the width of the
for example for architectural reasons, it is necessary to build two leaves of brickwork
cavity should be between 50 mm and 100 mm and filled with concrete of a 28-day strength
back-to-back. Both leaves are built in stretcher bond and fairfaced on their front surfaces
not less than that of the mortar. In addition the requirements detailed in Clause 29.6 (b)(1),
with a vertical collar joint between them as shown in Figure 2.45.
(3), (4), (5) and (6), (see section 2.10), should be satisfied.
fairfaced surface
2.12 Example 2.7 Warehouse and Loading - Bay
t1 collar joint t1 and t2 ≥ 90 mm A small warehouse and loading bay is shown in cross-section in Figure 2.46. The roof of
x filled with the warehouse building is supported on the inner leaf of 228 mm cavity walls. The
t2 mortar x ≤ 25 mm concrete floor slab and loading bay are supported on a grouted cavity wall at the rear and a
327.5 mm thick solid wall at the front as indicated.
fairfaced surface Using the design data given determine a suitable brickwork/mortar combination which
Figure 2.45 can be used for:

Conditions are set out in Clause 29.6 of the code for the design of such walls, they are: (i) the cavity walls supporting the roof slab,
(ii) the grouted cavity wall supporting the floor slab and
‘Where a wall is constructed of two separate leaves with a vertical collar joint (i.e. (iii) the solid wall supporting the loading bay.
vertical joint parallel to the face of the wall), not exceeding 25 mm wide then it may be
designed as either: Design data:
Category of manufacturing control special
(a) a cavity wall, or Category of construction control special
(b) a single leaf wall, provided that the following conditions are satisfied. Characteristic dead load on roof (including self-weight) 4.5 kN/m2
Characteristic imposed load on roof 1.5 kN/m2
(1) Each leaf is at least 90 mm thick. Characteristic dead load on floor slab (including loading bay) 6.0 kN/m2
(2) For concrete brickwork the characteristic compressive strength obtained Characteristic imposed load on floor slab (including loading bay) 15.0 kN/m2
from Clause 23 is multiplied by 0.9. Characteristic unit-weight of plaster 21.0 kN/m3
(3) If the two leaves of the wall are constructed from different materials, it is Characteristic unit-weight of brickwork 18.0 kN/m3
designed on the assumption that the wall is constructed entirely in the Characteristic unit-weight of concrete 24.0 kN/m3
weaker unit. The possibility of differential movement should be taken into
account. Assume that the walls are part of a braced structure.
(4) The load is applied to the two leaves and the eccentricity does not exceed Note: Lateral forces due to wind loading are not being considered in this example.
 Axially Loaded Walls 91 92 Design of Structural Masonry

Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK.

0.5 m
2 Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by :
gk = 4.5 kN/m
Calc. Sheet No. : 2 of 10 Date :
qk = 1.5 kN/m2

precast concrete units 75 mm thick × 90 mm high

hollow block inner leaf, References Calculations Output
12 mm thick plaster

2.8 m
102.5 mm standard format
brick outer leaf,

0.5 m
gk = 6.0 kN/m2 gk = 4.5 kN/m2
(228 mm total thickness)
qk = 15.0 kN/m2 qk = 1.5 kN/m2

precast concrete 228 mm thick

units cavity wall

2.8 m
327.5 mm thick reinforced concrete floor slab gk = 6.0 kN/m2
1.0 m

solid wall qk = 15.0 kN/m2

255 mm thick

3.2 m
grouted cavity wall 327.5 mm thick

1.0 m
reinforced concrete
solid wall
floor slab

3.2 m
255 mm thick
grouted cavity wall

1.5 m 8.0 m
1.5 m 8.0 m
Consider a 1m length of wall
Figure 2.46 Self-weight of 75 mm thick hollow block ≈ (0.075 × 24)
= 1.8 kN/m2
Self-weight of 12 mm thick plaster layer = (0.012 × 21)
The solution for Example 2.7 is presented in a format typical of that used in design office = 0.25 kN/m 2
practice when preparing design calculations. Self-weight of 75 mm thick wall + plaster = 2.05 mm2
Self-weight of 255 mm thick grouted cavity wall ≈ (0.255 × 18)
≈ 4.6 kN/m2
2.12.1 Solution to Example 2.7
(i) Consider the wall supporting the roof slab:
Clause 22(a) Design load from roof slab = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)
Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK. = 4 × [(1.4 × 4.5) + (1.6 × 1.5)]
Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by : = 34.8 kN/m length of wall
Calc. Sheet No. : 1 of 10 Date :
The critical section is at a location 0.4h below underside of the
roof slab
Design load due to the parapet = (1.4 × 1.8 × 0.5)
References Calculations Output = 1.26 kN/m

Design load due to the 0.4h of blockwork

BS 5628 : Part 1 Structural use of unreinforced masonry = 1.4 × (0.4 × 2.8 × 2.05)
= 3.2 kN/m
Characteristic dead load on roof slab (incl. self wt) = 4.5 kN/m2
Characteristic imposed load on roof slab = 1.5 kN/m2 Design load applied to the inner leaf = (34.8 + 1.26 + 3.2)
Characteristic dead load on floor slab = 6.0 kN/m2 = 39.3 kN/m length
Characteristic imposed load on floor slab = 15.0 kN/m2
 Axially Loaded Walls 93 94 Design of Structural Masonry

Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK. Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK.
Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by : Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by :
Calc. Sheet No. : 3 of 10 Date : Calc. Sheet No. : 4 of 10 Date :

References Calculations Output References Calculations Output

Clause 32.2.1 Design Vertical Load Resistance of Walls

β t fk W2 (W1 +W2 ) × ex = (5.8 × t )
Design vertical load resistance/unit length = 36.1ex = 5.8t
γm
Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm) W1 The eccentricity required for the capacity
Category for manufacturing control is special
reduction factor β is:
Category for construction control is special W3
Table 4 γm = 2.5 ex = (5.8t / 36.1) = 0.16t
t/3 t/6
Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns
slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27 Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor
Linear interpolation between slenderness and eccentricity values
Clause 28.2.2 Horizontal Lateral Support is permitted when using Table 7.
Since the concrete roof has a bearing length of at least one-half
the thickness of the wall, enhanced resistance to lateral
Table 7. Capacity reduction factor, β
movement can be assumed.
Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex
ness ratio Up to
Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height
hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t
hef = 0.75 × clear distance between lateral supports
(see note 1)
= (0.75 × 2800) = 2100 mm
0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
Clause 28.4.1 Effective Thickness
For cavity walls the effective thickness is as indicated in Figure 3
of the code and equal to the greatest of: 14 0.89 0.83 0.66 0.44
(a) 2/3(t1 + t2) = 2/3(102.5 + 75) = 118.3 mm or 16 0.83 0.77 0.64 0.44
(b) t1 = 102.5 mm or
(c) t2 = 75 mm 18 0.77 0.70 0.57 0.44
∴ tef = 118.3 mm
2100 β (SR = 17.7; ex = 0.16t) 0.63
Slenderness ratio = SR = = 17.7 < 27
≈
118.3
t fk
Clause 32.2.1 Design vertical load resistance = (36.1 + 3.2)
Clause 31 Eccentricity Perpendicular to the Wall
≥
γm
The load from the roof slab maybe assumed to act at an = 39.3 kN/m length
eccentricity equal to one-third of the depth of the bearing area
39.3 × 2.5
from the loaded face of the wall. The loading from the parapet fk = = 2.08 N/mm2
can be considered to be concentric at this level. 0.63 × 75
The equivalent load system must have the same vertical load and height
Table 2 aspect ratio of concrete block =
the same bending moment about the centre-line as the actual least horizontal dimension
system. 90
= = 1.2
75
W1 = 34.8 kN
Moment induced by the eccentric load is Clause 23.1.5 For hollow blocks with an aspect ratio between 0.6 and 2.0 fk
given by: should be found by interpolation between the values given in
Tables 2(b) and (c).
(W1 × t/6.0) = (34.8 × t )/6.0 = 5.8t
 Axially Loaded Walls 95 96 Design of Structural Masonry

Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK. Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK.
Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by : Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by :
Calc. Sheet No. : 5 of 10 Date : Calc. Sheet No. : 6 of 10 Date :

References Calculations Output References Calculations Output

2
Tables 2(b) & (c) Assume the compressive strength of the unit is 3.5 N/mm then W1 is the load due to the inner leaf of the cavity wall above the
for any mortar designation (i) to (iv): floor slab. This load is applied at an eccentricity e1 to the centre-
0.6 ⎤ line of the grouted cavity wall given by:
fk = ⎢1.7 + (3.5 − 1.7 )× = 2.47 N/mm 2 > 2.08 N/mm2 e1 = (100.5 – 37.5) = 63 mm
⎡
1.4 ⎥⎦ Adopt concrete
blocks with unit
⎣
Adopt concrete blocks with unit compressive strength greater strength 3.5 N/mm2 Design load from the roof slab = 34.8 kN
than or equal to 3.5 N/mm2 and mortar type (i), (ii), (iii) or (iv). Design load from the parapet = 1.26 kN
Design load from the inner leaf = (1.4 × 2.8 × 2.05)
(b) Grouted cavity wall supporting the floor slab: = 8.04 kN
Clause 29.7 50 mm ≤ gap between the leaves ≤ 100 mm Total design load from the inner leaf = (34.8 + 1.26 + 8.04)
actual gap = 50 mm and is adequate. = 44.1 kN/m length
Note:
28-day strength of concrete infill should not be less than that of W2 is the load due to the outer leaf of the cavity wall above the
the mortar. floor slab. This load is applied at an eccentricity e2 to the centre-
Clause 29.6(b) (1) each leaf ≥ 90 mm line of the grouted cavity wall given by:
(3) material in each leaf same e2 = [127.5 – (0.5 × 102.5)] = 76.3 mm
(4) eccentricity ≤ 0.2t To be checked Design load from the outer leaf = (1.4 × 3.2 × 1.85)
(5) flat metal wall ties of cross-sectional area 20 mm × 3 mm at (102.5 thick brickwork) = 8.3 kN/m length
centres not exceeding 450 mm should be provided in both the Ties to satisfy the
vertical and horizontal dimensions requirements of W3 is the load due to 0.4h of the grouted cavity wall below the
(6) the minimum embedment of the ties into each leaf should be Clause 29.6(b)(6) floor slab. This load is applied concentric to the centre-line of the
at least 50 mm grouted cavity wall and e3 = zero
Provided that these conditions are satisfied the grouted wall can Design load from the grouted cavity wall:
be designed as a single wall using an effective thickness equal to = [1.4 × (0.4 × 3.2 × 4.6)] = 8.2 kN/m length
the actual overall thickness.
228 mm W4 is the load due to the floor slab resting on the grouted cavity
100.5 mm 127.5 mm Clause 31 wall. This load is assumed to act at one-third of the bearing
length from the load-bearing face of the wall at an eccentricity
e4 to the centre-line of the grouted cavity wall given
W1 W2 by:
Assume a 20 mm e4 = [127.5 – (0.333 × 235)] = 49.2 mm
W4 brick slip is to be
used here Design distributed load on the floor slab is given by:
8 × [ (1.4 × 6.0) + (1.6 × 15.0)] = 259.2 kN (total)
W3
Design point load on the floor slab due to cavity wall is given by:
(W1 + W2) = (44.1 + 8.3) = 52.4 kN

52.4 kN 259.2 kN total

127.5 mm 107.5 mm RA 1.5 m 8.0 m RB

9.5 m
235 mm
 Axially Loaded Walls 97 98 Design of Structural Masonry

Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK. Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK.
Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by : Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by :
Calc. Sheet No. : 7 of 10 Date : Calc. Sheet No. : 8 of 10 Date :

References Calculations Output References Calculations Output

RB = [(1.5 × 52.4) + (259.2 × 4.75)]/9.5 = 137.9 kN 2400

Slenderness ratio = SR = = 9.41 < 27
255
This reaction is applied at the eccentricity e4 from the centre-line
of the wall. Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor
Linear interpolation between slenderness and eccentricity values
Total vertical load = (W1 + W2 + W3 + W4) is permitted when using Table 7.
= (44.1 + 8.3 + 8.2 + 137.9) = 198.5 kN
Table 7. Capacity reduction factor, β
Resultant moment of the applied loads about the centre-line is
Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex
given by: (W1e1 + W4e4 – W2e2) (Note: e3 is zero)
ness ratio Up to
hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t
= [(44.1 × 63) + (137.9 × 49.2) – (8.3 × 76.3)]
(see note 1)
≈ 8930 kNmm
0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
(excluding 0.4h of wall ‘W3’ vertical load = 190.3 kN)

Resultant Moment 8930

Resultant eccentricity = =
Vertical Load 190.3 8 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
47 10 0.97 0.88 0.66 0.44
ex ≈ 47 mm = t = 0.18 t
255
12 0.93 0.87 0.66 0.44
(where t is the effective thickness of the wall)
β (SR = 9.41; ex = 0.18t) 0.7 Adopt bricks with unit
Clause 29.6(b)(4) ex ≤ 0.2t ∴ O.K. strength 10 N/mm2
≈

t fk and mortar type (i), (ii)

Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm) Clause 32.2.1 Design vertical load resistance = ≥ 198.5 kN/m length (iii) or (iv).
Table 4 γm = 2.5 as before γm
198.5 × 2.5 Note:
fk = = 2.8 N/mm2
Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns 0.7 × 255 28-day strength of the
slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27 concrete infill must be
Table 2(a) Use bricks with a compressive strength of 10 N/mm and mortar consistent with the
2

Clause 28.2.2 Horizontal Lateral Support designation either (i), (ii), (iii) or (iv). mortar type adopted.
Since the concrete roof has a bearing length of at least one-half
the thickness of the wall, enhanced resistance to lateral
movement can be assumed. (b) Solid wall supporting the front of the loading bay:

Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height Design load due to the floor slab = RA
hef = 0.75 × clear distance between lateral supports = [(259.2 + 52.4) – RB]
= (0.75 × 3200) = 2400 mm = (311.6 – 137.9)
= 173.7 kN/ metre length
Clause 29.7 Effective Thickness
For grouted cavity walls the effective thickness can be taken as Design load due to self-weight of 04h of wall
the actual thickness if the conditions specified are satisfied. [1.4 × (0.4 × 1.0 × 0.3275 × 18)] = 3.3 kN/m length

∴ tef = 255 mm Total design load = (173.7 + 3.3) = 176.6 kN/metre length
 Axially Loaded Walls 99 100 Design of Structural Masonry

Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK. Contract : Warehouse Job Ref. No. : Example 2.7 Calcs. by : W.McK.
Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by : Part of Structure : Masonry Walls Checked by :
Calc. Sheet No. : 9 of 10 Date : Calc. Sheet No. : 10 of 10 Date :

References Calculations Output References Calculations Output

Table 7 Capacity Reduction Factor

Linear interpolation between slenderness and eccentricity values
is permitted when using Table 7.
173.7 kN
Table 7. Capacity reduction factor, β
Floor Slab Slender- Eccentricity at top of wall, ex
ness ratio Up to
3.3 kN hef /tef 0.05t 0.1t 0.2t 0.3t
(see note 1)
t/6 t/3 0 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
375 mm
6 1.00 0.66 0.88 0.44
Clause 31 Resultant moment of the applied loads about the centre-line is 8 1.00 0.88 0.66 0.44
= [(173.7) × t /6] = 28.95t 10 0.97 0.88 0.66 0.44

Resultant Moment 28.95t β (SR = 2.3; ex = 0.17t) ≈ 0.73

Resultant eccentricity = =
Vertical Load 173.7 t fk
Clause 32.2.1 Design vertical load resistance = ≥ 177 kN/m length Adopt bricks with unit
ex ≈ 0.17t
γm strength 5 N/mm2
Note: this is very similar to the worst case of assuming (t/6).
177 × 2.5 and mortar type (i),
fk = = 1.9 N/mm2 (ii) (iii) or (iv).
Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm) 0.73× 327.5

Table 4 γm = 2.5 as before

Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns

slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27 2.13 Example 2.8 Support For Fuel Tank
Clause 28.2.2 Horizontal Lateral Support A small fuel tank is to be supported on two single-skin masonry walls each of which is
Since the concrete roof has a bearing length of at least one-half constructed from solid concrete blocks. The load from the tank is distributed through
the thickness of the wall, enhanced resistance to lateral timber beams as shown in Figure 2.47 and can be considered to be concentric on each
movement can be assumed.
wall.
Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height Using the design data given determine a suitable blockwork/mortar combination which
hef = 0.75 × clear distance between lateral supports can be used for the support walls.
= (0.75 × 1000) = 750 mm
Design data:
Figure 3 Effective Thickness
For solid walls the effective thickness can be taken as
Category of manufacturing control normal
the actual thickness. Category of construction control normal
∴ tef = 327.5 mm Solid concrete block dimensions: (440 mm long × 215 mm height × 190 mm thick)
Clause 28 Slenderness ratio = SR =
750
= 2.3 < 27 Ultimate design load (i.e. including load factors) 200 kN
327.5
 Axially Loaded Walls 101 102 Design of Structural Masonry

Contract : Tank Support Job Ref. No. : Example 2.8 Calcs. by : W.McK.
Part of Structure : Solid Concrete Block Walls Checked by :
200 kN Calc. Sheet No. : 2 of 2 Date :

190 mm thick

1200 mm
solid concrete References Calculations Output
wall
Table 7 Since the load is concentric use ex ≤ 0.05t ∴ β = 0.92

Length of wall Clause 23.1.1 Walls or columns with small plan area (i.e. area < 0.2 m2)
equal to 890 mm
Cross-sectional area of wall = (0.89 × 0.19) = 0.169 m2
Since the cross-sectional area of the wall is less than 0.2 m2 the
Figure 2.47 characteristic compressive strength fk should be multiplied by:

(0.7 + 1.5A) = [0.7 + (1.5 × 0.169)] = 0.95

2.13.1 Solution to Example 2.8
t (0.95 f k )
Clause 32.2.1 Design vertical load resistance = ≥ 224.7 kN/m
Contract : Tank Support Job Ref. No. : Example 2.8 Calcs. by : W.McK. γm
Part of Structure : Solid Concrete Block Walls Checked by :
Calc. Sheet No. : 1 of 2 Date : (224.7 × 3.5)
fk ≥ = 4.7 N/mm2
(0.92 × 0.95 ×190)
References Calculations Output height
Table 2 aspect ratio of concrete block =
least horizontal dimension
215
BS 5628 : Part 1 Structural use of unreinforced masonry = = 1.13
190
Length of wall = 890 mm
Clause 23.1.6 For solid concrete blocks with an aspect ratio between 0.6 and
Design load = (200 / 0.890) = 224.7 kN/metre length
2.0 fk should be found by interpolation between the values given
in Tables 2(b) and (d).
Clause 27.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
Table 4 γm = 3.5 Tables 2(b) & (d) Assume blocks with a unit strength of 10 N/mm 2 and mortar
Clause 28 Consideration of Slenderness of Walls and Columns designation is (ii) and interpolate between the two values given
slenderness ratio (SR) = hef /tef ≤ 27 in Tables 2(b) and (d).
Clause 28.3.1 Effective Height
0.53 ⎤
In this case there is no resistance to lateral movement at the top fk = ⎢ 4.2 + (8.4 − 4.2)× ≈ 5.8 N/mm2 > 4.7 N/mm2
⎡
1.4 ⎥⎦ Adopt concrete
of the wall. Despite the applied load being concentric it would be ⎣
blocks with unit
conservative to assume a more onerous effective length of 2.0h Adopt concrete blocks with unit compressive strength greater strength 10 N/mm 2
hef = 2.0 × clear height of the wall than or equal to 10 N/mm2 and mortar type (ii). with mortar type (ii)
= (2.0 × 1200) = 2400 mm

Figure 3 Effective Thickness

For solid walls the effective thickness can be taken as
the actual thickness.
∴ tef = 190 mm
2400
Clause 28 Slenderness ratio = SR = = 12.6 < 27
190