Fundamental of Electronics

Chapter Outline
This chapter explains a Fundamental of Electronics.
• Description
• Semiconductors
• Diodes
• Transistors
• Thermistor
• Other Elements
• IC (Integrated Circuit)
• Microcomputer

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Fundamental of Electronics.
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Description Description
Electrons are extremely small, negatively charged parti-
cles that circle around a nucleus. The protons in the
nucleus are positively charged.
Electronics is the science or technology that deals with
the functions of electrons, as well as the development
and application of parts, circuits, and devices involving
Electron
this technology. (Transistors, diodes, ICs (Integrated Cir-
cuits), and microprocessors are some examples of appli-
cations.)
ICs and microprocessors are comprised of electronic
parts such as transistors and diodes. Nucleus
Proton Nucleus
These electronic devices have replaced many of the
mechanical devices of the past.
Electronic devices can be designed with more functions
and more compactness than mechanical devices.
ECU (1/1)

Semiconductors Description
A semiconductor is a material with an electrical resistance
higher than that of good conductors such as copper or
iron, but lower than that of insulators such as rubber or
10-6 Silver, copper, glass.
iron, nickel
Good conductors The two most commonly used semiconductor materials
10-4 are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si). However, in their
Carbon
10-2 pure state, these are not suitable for practical use as
semiconductors. For this reason, they must be doped;
100 that is, slight amounts of impurities must be added to
Germanium enhance their practical use.
102
Semiconductors Characteristics of a semiconductor:
104 • As its temperature increases, its electrical resistance
Copper oxide,
silicon decreases.
106 • Its electrical conductivity increases when mixed with
108 certain other substances.
• Its electrical resistance changes when exposed to
Bakelite
1010 light, magnetism, or mechanical stress.
• It emits light when voltage is applied to it. etc.
1012 Diamond
Insulators Semiconductors can be divided into two types: N- type
1014 and P-type.
Glass,
1016 rubber

Resistance

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 • N-type semiconductors:
N-type semiconductor
Free electron
An n-type semiconductor consists of a silicon (Si) or
germanium (Ge) base or substrate, which has been
doped with a slight amount of arsenic (As) or phos-
Si or Ge phorus (P) in order to provide it with many free elec-
trons, which can easily move through the silicon or
germanium to provide electrical current.
As or P The "n" of an n-type semiconductor stands for "nega-
tive".

P-type semiconductor

Si or Ge

Hole
Ga or In

• P-type semiconductors:
A p-type semiconductor, on the other hand, consists of
a silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge) substrate that has
10-6 Silver, copper, been doped with gallium (Ga) or indium (In) to provide
iron, nickel
Good conductors "holes", which can be thought of as "missing" elec-
10-4 trons, and hence as positive charges flowing in a
Carbon direction opposite that of free electrons.
10-2
The "p" of a p-type semiconductor stands for "posi-
100 tive".
Germanium (1/1)
102
Semiconductors
104
Copper oxide,
silicon
106
108
Bakelite
1010
1012 Diamond
Insulators
1014
Glass,
1016 rubber

Resistance

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Diodes Description
Semiconductor diodes are joined with a n-type and p-type
semiconductors.
There are several types of diodes:
• Ordinary rectifying diode
• Zener diode
• LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
• Photodiode
The diagrams show how an electrical current flows
(1) through a diode.
(1) When the positive pole (+) of the battery is connected
to the p-side and the negative pole (-) to the n-side,
the positive holes of a p-type semiconductor and the
positive pole of the battery repel each other. And the
free electrons of an n-type semiconductor and the
negative pole of the battery repel each other, thus
pushing them towards the p-n joining area. As a
(2)
result, the free electrons and the positive holes attract
each other, thus allowing the current to flow across the
p-n joining area.
(2) When the connections at the battery are reversed, the
positive holes of the p-type semiconductor and the
negative pole of the battery attract each other, and the
free electrons of the n-type semiconductor and the
positive pole of the battery attract each other, thus
pulling away from the p-n joining area. As a result, a
layer that contains neither free electrons nor positive
holes is created at the p-n joining area, thus prevent-
ing the current from flowing.
(1/1)

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 Ordinary Diode

P N
1. Description
An ordinary diode allows a current to
flow only in one direction: from the p-
side to the n-side.
+A 2. Characteristics
A B
A minimum voltage is required for a
100V
current to flow from the p-side to the
-V 1V +V n-side.
Here are examples of voltage
N P
requirements:
-A Silicon diode (A): About 0.3V
Germanium diode (B): About 0.7V
The current will not flow if a voltage is
applied in the opposite direction
(from the n-side to the p-side).
Although an extremely small current
practically flows, called the reverse
leakage current, it is treated as non-
flowing because it does not affect the
operation of the actual circuit.
However, if this reverse leakage volt-
age is sufficiently increased, the
amperage of the current allowed
through by the diode will suddenly
increase.
This phenomenon is called diode
breakdown, and the voltage that is
applied is called the breakdown volt-
age.
(1/3)

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 3. Rectification function
(1) Conducting
(1) Half-wave rectification
Input A Output
Voltage from an AC generator is
Blocking
(b) (b) applied to a diode.
0
(a) (c)
0
(a) (c)
Since the voltage shown between (a)
and (b) is applied to the diode toward
B to the forward direction, the current
passes through the diode.
(2) Input Output
However, because the voltage
A shown between (b) and (c) is applied
to the diode toward to the reverse
0 0 direction, the current is not allowed to
B
pass through the diode.
R
Since only one half of the current
which is generated by the generator
Input Output
is allowed to pass through the diode.
(2) Full-wave rectification
A
When terminal A of the generator is
0 0 positive, terminal B is negative, and
the current flows as shown in the
B R upper diagram of illustration (2).
When the polarity of the terminals is
reversed, the current flows as shown
in the lower diagram of illustration
(2).
This means that output current
always flows in only one direction
through resistor R.
(2/3)

4. Application example
Ordinary rectifying diodes are used
as rectifiers for alternators.
(3/3)

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 Zener Diode
1. Description
While a Zener diode allows current to
flow in the forward direction in the
Symbol for Zener diode
same way as an ordinary diode, it
also allows current to flow in the
Forward current
reverse direction under certain condi-
tions.
2. Characteristics
In the forward direction, current flows
+A from the p-side to the n-side through
Zener voltage a Zener diode in the same way as an
Reverse current ordinary diode.
(Battery voltage < Zener voltage)
In the reverse direction, a current
—V 1V +V
exceeding a predetermined voltage
flows through a Zener diode.
-A This is called a Zener voltage, which
remains practically constant regard-
less of the amperage of the current.
A Zener diode can be assigned with
Reverse current
(Battery voltage > Zener voltage)
different Zener voltages depending
on its application or purpose.
(1/2)

3. Application example
Zener diodes are used for various
purposes, one of the most important
of these being the voltage regulator
for an alternator.
The output voltage is controlled con-
stantly, by incorporating the Zener
diode into an electrical circuit.
(2/2)

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 LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
Symbol for LED
1. Description
The LED is a p-n joining diode, which
is the same as an ordinary diode. It
emits light when a current passes
through it in the forward direction.
LEDs can emit light in various colors,
such as red, yellow, and green.
2. Characteristics
LEDs have the following characteris-
tics:
• Smaller heat generation and longer
life than ordinary light bulbs.
• Emit bright light with low power
consumption.
• React with low voltage (quick reac-
tion speed).
(1/2)

3. Application example
LEDs are used in high-mount stop
lights and indicator lights, etc.
(2/2)

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 Photodiode
1. Description
The photodiode is a p-n joining diode
that consists of a semiconductor and
a lens.
If a reverse direction voltage is
applied to a photodiode that is
exposed to light, a reverse current
will flow.
The amperage of this current will
vary in proportion to the amount of
light that falls on the photodiode.
In other words, the photodiode can
determine the amount of the light by
detecting the amperage of the
reverse current when the reverse
voltage is applied.
(1/2)

2. Application example
Photodiodes are used in the solar
sensors for air conditioners, etc.
(2/2)

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Transistors Ordinary Transistors
1. Description
NPN PNP A transistor contains three layers consisting of a p-
type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type
C E
semiconductors, or an n-type semiconductor sand-
wiched between two p-type semiconductors. An elec-
N P trode is attached to each substrate layer: B (base), E
B P B N (emitter), and C (collector).
N P Ordinary transistors come in two varieties, npn and
E C pnp, depending on how the semiconductors are
arranged.
C E
A transistor performs the following functions:
B B • Amplification
• Switching
E C 2. Basic operation
In an npn transistor, when current IB flows from B to E,
current IC flows from C to E.
C In a pnp transistor, when current IB flows from E (emit-
B
ter) to B (base), current IC flows from E to C.
E IB The current IB is called the base current, and current
E
IC is called the collector current.
B
IB IC C IC Therefore the current IC will not flow unless the current
IB flows.
(1/4)

3. Characteristics
In an ordinary transistor, the collector current (IC) and
A B
the base current (IB) have the relationship shown in
IC the diagram.
(A) Ordinary transistors have two basic functions or uses:
As shown in the graph on the left, portion "A" can be
used as a signal amplifier and portion "B" can be used
as a switch.
4. Signal amplification
In range "A" of the graph, the collector current is 10 to
1,000 times the base current. Thus, the signal that the
IB (mA)
input signal is enlarged is output from the output termi-
nal when the electrical signal “B” (base) of the transis-
tor is applied as the input.
(2/4)
C
B

IB

IC

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 5. Switching function
In a transistor, the collector current (IC) will not flow
unless the base current (IB) flows. Therefore, the col-
lector current can be turned ON and OFF by turning
the base current (IB) ON and OFF.
C
B This characteristic of a transistor can be utilized as a
E
relay switch.
(3/4)
IC

IB

6. Application example
NPN transsistor application example PNP transsistor application example
Transistors are used in numerous cir-
cuits.
There is no functional difference
between npn and pnp transistors.
Injector ECU 5V (4/4)

ECU

Vehicle
speed
sensor

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 Phototransistor
1. Characteristics
When the phototransistor receives
light while power (+) is applied to its
collector and ground (-) is applied to
its emitter, a current flows through
the circuit.
The amperage of the current that
flows through the circuit varies by the
amount of light that shines on the
phototransistor.
Therefore, the light that shines on the
phototransistor has the same func-
tion as that of the base current of an
ordinary transistor.
(1/2)

2. Application example
In automobiles, phototransistors are
used in deceleration sensors, etc.
(2/2)

+B

LED

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 Thermistor
1. Description
A thermistor is a type of semiconduc-
tor whose electrical resistance
changes with changes in tempera-
ture.
In other words, a thermistor can
determine the temperature by detect-
ing resistance.
In the most common type of ther-
mistor, a negative temperature coeffi-
cient thermistor, the resistance
decreases as the temperature
increases. There is also a positive
temperature coefficient thermistor, in
which the resistance increases as
the temperature increases.
(1/2)

2. Application example
In automobiles, thermistors are used
in the water temperature sensor and
intake air temperature sensor, etc.
(2/2)

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Other Elements Other Elements
1. Piezoelectric element
1
The electrical resistance of a piezo-
electric element varies when it is
subjected to pressure or tension.
Also, there are some piezoelectric
elements that produce a voltage.
2. Magnetic resistance element
The electric resistance of a magnetic
resistance element varies when a
magnetic field is applied to it.
2 HINT:
Because the changes in the resis-
tance in these elements are small,
ICs (Integrated Circuits) are ampli-
fied. The resistance is then con-
verted into pulse or analog signals in
order to use them as sensor signals.
(1/1)

: line of magnetic force

IC (Integrated Circuit) Description

An IC is a combination of several to several thousand
electrical circuits containing transistors, diodes, capaci-
tors, resistors, etc. These are built into or onto a several-
millimeter-square silicon chip, and placed in a ceramic or
Lines connecting chip with electrodes
plastic package.
A single IC can have several special abilities and func-
This chip
contains tions, including the ability to logically compare two signals
from or numerical values, the ability to amplify an input voltage,
several
Electrodes to
several
etc.
thousand ICs have several advantages over non-integrated circuits:
circuits.
• Since many elements can be built into or onto a single
silicon chip, contact junctions can be reduced consid-
IC chip
erably, resulting in reduced failures.
• They are much smaller and lighter.
• Production costs are much lower.

REFERENCE:
An IC containing a large number of elements, i.e.
1,000 to 100,000, is called an LSI (Large Scale Inte-
gration). An IC containing more than 100,000 ele-
ments is called a VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration).
(1/1)

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 Analog and Digital Signals
Electrical signals can be divided into two
types: analog and digital.
1. Analog signal
Analog signals change continuously
and smoothly over time.
Thus, the general characteristic of an

Outout
analog signal is that its output
changes in proportion to its input.
(1/2)

0
Inputs

Analog signal Analog circuit characteristic

2. Digital signal
Digital circuit characteristic
Digital signals change (ON and OFF) intermittently
over time. The general characteristic of a digital circuit
is that its output changes suddenly when its input
increases to a certain level.
Outout

Digital signal
For example, while the input increases from 0 V to 5 V,
the output remains at 0 V until the input reaches 5 V.
However the output jumps suddenly to 5 V at the
0 instant the input reaches 5 V.
Inputs ON and OFF indicate whether a signal is being sent or
not. Normally, ON is represented as 1 and OFF as 0.
ON
1 1 1 When a voltage is used as an input signal it is neces-
sary to make a certain voltage as standard.
Then, all voltages above the standard voltage are 1
0 0 0
OFF signals, and those below it are 0 signals.
For example, if the standard voltage of 5 V is set, the
9V
computer will determine that 9 V, 7 V, and 6 V signals
Actual voltage 7V 6V are 1, and that each of these represents an input sig-
0V 0V
2V 5V nal.
Signals of 2 V and 0 V, on the other hand, will be con-
Standard voltage
sidered “0” and no input signal will be considered to
Digital output
1 1 1 exist.
(2/2)
0 0 0

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 Logic Circuits
1. Description
Digital ICs contain several different elements.
The circuits in a digital IC are called logic circuits or
digital circuits, and are made up of combinations of
different types of socalled gates, such as NOT, OR,
NOR, AND, and NAND gates.
Because these gates have the special ability to logi-
cally process two or more signals, they are also called
logic gates.
A certain logical relationship is established between
digital signal inputs and outputs.
A truth table represents the relationship between digi-
tal signal inputs and outputs in a table format.
Logic circuit In a truth table, 1 represents the presence of a volt-
(made up of AND gates, OR gates, NOT gates,
NAND gates, NOR gates, etc.) age, and 0, its absence.
(1/7)

2. NOT gate
A NOT gate outputs a signal that is
the opposite of the input signal.
When a voltage is applied to input
terminal A, no voltage is output at
output terminal Y.
Transpose this function on a electri-
cal circuit that has the same function
as a NOT gate. When switch A
closes (ON), it opens (OFF) the con-
tact points in the relay, which causes
the lamp to turn off.
(2/7)

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 3. OR gate
In an OR gate, the output will be 1 as
long as either of the input signals is
1.
When a voltage is applied to either or
both input terminals A and B, there
will be a voltage at output terminal Y.
Transpose this function on a electri-
cal circuit that has the same function
as an OR gate. When either or both
switches A or B are closed (ON), the
lamp turns on.
(3/7)

4. NOR gate
A NOR gate is a combination of an
OR gate and a NOT gate.
A
The signal at output terminal Y will be
Y
B 1 only when both input terminals A
and B are 0.
The signal at output terminal Y will be
0 if either or both input terminals A
and B are 1.
A (4/7)
Y
B

Input Output

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

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 5. AND gate
In an AND gate, the output will be 1
when all input signals are 1.
There will be a voltage at output ter-
minal Y when a voltage is applied to
both input terminals A and B.
Transpose this function on a electri-
cal circuit that has the same function
as an AND gate. The lamp will not
turn on unless both switches A and B
are closed (ON).
(5/7)

6. NAND gate
A NAND gate is a combination of an
AND gate and a NOT gate.
A
The signal at output terminal Y will be
Y
B 1 when either or both input terminals
A and B are 0.
The signal at output terminal Y will be
0 if both input terminals A and B
are 1.
A (6/7)
Y
B

Input Output

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

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 7. Comparator
A comparator compares the voltage
of a positive (+) input with a negative
(-) input.
If the voltage of the positive input ter-
minal A is higher than the voltage of
the negative input terminal B, the
output terminal Y will be 1.
If the voltage of the positive input ter-
minal A is lower than the voltage of
the negative input terminal B, the
output terminal Y will be 0.
(7/7)

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Microcomputer Description and Construction
1. Description
A microcomputer receives signals from input devices,
processes those signals, and controls output devices.
At Toyota, a microcomputer is called an ECU (Elec-
Microcomputer tronic Control Unit).
In common on-vehicle systems, input devices are sen-
sors, and output devices are actuators.
Memory
2. Construction
A microcomputer consists of a CPU (Central Process-
ing Unit), various memory devices, and an I/O (input/
Central
output) interface.
Processing • Memory
Unit
(CPU) Memory is comprised electric circuits that store pro-
grams to be operated or data to be exchanged.
There are two types of memory: ROM (Read-Only
Memory), and RAM (Random Access Memory).
The ROM cannot be changed or deleted. Thus, the
Input I/O interface Output
device(s) device(s)
stored data will not disappear even if the power is
turned off. For this reason, the ROM is used for stor-
ing programs that do not need to be changed or
deleted.
The RAM is a type of memory in which data can be
changed or deleted. Any data that is stored disap-
pears when the power is turned off. Therefore, the
RAM is used for storing data that can be changed or
deleted through calculations performed by a CPU.
• CPU
The CPU is the functional center of a computer that
consists of a control device and a computing device.
It executes the commands that are ordered by a pro-
gram accoding to the signals from the input devices,
and controls the output devices.
• I/O interface
An I/O interface converts the data from input devices
into signals that can be identified by the CPU and
memory.
In addition, it reconverts the CPU-processed data
into signals that can be identified by the output
devices.
Because the data transfer speeds of the I/O devices,
CPU, and memory devices are different, one of the
functions of an I/O interface is to adjust those
speeds.
(1/1)

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Exercise

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Question- 1
The following statements pertain to the types of diode.
From the following word group, select the words that correspond to each statement.

A. Photo diode B. Zener diode

C. Light - emitting diode (LED) D. Ordinary rectifying diode

1. This diode allows current to flow in the forward direc- 2. This diode consists of a semiconductor and a lens. It
tion. When a voltage applied in the reverse direction allows current to flow in the reverse direction by
exceeds the predetermined value, it also allows cur- being exposed to light under a reverse voltage is
rent to flow in the reverse direction. applied to this diode.

3. This diode emits light when a current flows in the for-

4. This diode is used for rectification.
ward direction.

a) Photo diode b) Zener diode c) Light-emitting diode (LED) d) Ordinary rectifying diode

Answer: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Question- 2
From the following word group, select the electronic parts that is used in each parts in the illustration.

1. Voltage regulator of alternator 2. High-mounted stop light

3. Solar sensor of air conditioner 4. Water temperature sensor

Answer: 1. 2. 3. 4.

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Question- 3
Using the following circuit diagram, mark each of the following statements True or False.

1 2
A B

IC C
(A) B
C
B
E
A
E
IB IB

IB (mA) IC

No. Question True or False Correct Answers

The bulb is turned on in the circuit 1 because the base current flows
1 True False
when the switch A is turned ON.

The bulb is turned on in the circuit 1 because the collector current

2 True False
flows even when the switch A is not turned ON.

In the graph 2, the range "A" is used as amplification function of the

3 True False
transistor.

4 In the graph 2, the range "A" is used as switching function. True False

Question- 4
From the following word group, select the word that corresponds to each of the following symbol.

1. 2.
1 2

A A
Y Y
B B

3. 4.
3 4

A
A Y Y
B

a) AND gate b) NOT gate c) OR gate d) NOR gate

Answer: 1. 2. 3. 4.

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