WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

SHORT QUESTIONS
1. What is hard water? What are salts responsible of hardness?
Ans: The water which does not produce lather or produce very little lather with soap is called Hard water. The
salts that cause hardness to water areCa(HCO3)2 ,Mg(HCO3)2, CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4, FeSO4,
Al2(SO4)3 etc.,
2. Why do we express hardness of water in terms of CaCO 3 equivalent?
Ans: CaCO3 does not impart hardness to water and makes calculation (addition, subtraction etc.) easy because
it molecular weight is 100 and equivalent weight is 50.
3. What is the inter relation of units of Hardness?
Ans: 1ppm = 1mg/l = 0.10Fr = 0.0070Cl
4. Mention the common units used for expressing hardness of water.
Ans: Milligram per litre, parts per million, degree Clarke, Degree French.
5. Why do we add buffer solution during titration of hard water against EDTA solution?
Ans: The indicator used in the titration (EBT) shows a colour change at a pH value of about 10. So, alkaline
buffer (NH4Cl + NH4OH mixture) is used.
6. How Calgon treatment prevents scale formation in boilers.
Ans: It involves in addition of Sodium HexaMeta Phosphtate (also known as calgon) to boiler-water prevents
the scale formation by forming complex compound with scale and sludge formation salt, e.g., with CaSO 4
2CaSO4 + Na2[ Na4 (PO3)6] → Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4
7. How is exhausted ion-exchange resins regenerated?
Ans: Exhausted cation and anion exchangers are regenerated by passing dilute strong acid solution and dilute
strong base solution respectively.
8. What is reverse osmosis?
Ans: A process by which pure solvent is separated from it contaminates by using a semi-permeable membrane
and applying high pressure on concentrated side.
9. What is breakpoint chlorination? Explain.
Ans: It is the point at which all the impurities are removed and free chlorine begins to appear.
10. Write the specification of potable water.
1. It should be colorless, odorless and good in taste.
2. Turbidity should not exceed 10ppm.
3. TDS should not exceed 500ppm.
4. It should not be very alkaline (pH=8).
5. It should be reasonably soft, total hardness should be less than 500ppm.
6. It should be free from dissolved gasessuch as H2S & CO2.
7. It should be free from objectable minerals such as Pb, As, Cs, Mn.
8. It should be free from pathogenic micro-organisms
9. Chloride, Fluoride and Sulphate contents should be less than 250ppm, 1.5ppm and 250ppm
respectively.

GK Srinivas, Asst. Professor, KMIT

 ESSAY QUESTIONS
Q 1: Define hardness and differentiate between hard and soft water.
Solution: Hardness of water is defined as the soap consuming capacity of water which effects leathering. This
is due to presence of certain salts of Ca+2, Mg+2 and other Heavy metals dissolved in water.
S.No HARD WATER SOFT WATER
1. Water doesn’t produce lather with soap solution Water produces lather with soap solution readily.
readily.
2. Contains dissolved salts like Ca, Mg etc., Doesn’t contain Ca, Mg salts
3. The cleansing quality of soap is depressed. The cleansing quality of soap is not depressed.
Therefore, soap consumption increases during Hence soap consumption is normal during
washing and bathing. washing and bathing.
4. Due to the presence of salts of Ca, Mg the boiling Less fuel and time required for cooking in soft
point is elevated. Consequently fuel and time for water.
cooking increases.

Q2. A sample of water is found to contain 40.5 mg/l Ca(HCO 3)2, 46.5 mg/l Mg(HCO3)2, 27.6 mg/l MgSO4,
32.1 mg/l CaSO4 and 22.45 mg/l CaCl2. Calculate the total hardness.
Solution:Conversion into CaCO3 equivalent:
S.No Constituent Amount in mg/l Multiplication Factor CaCO3 equivalent in mg/l
1 Ca(HCO3)2 40.5 100/162 40.5 x 100/162 = 25
2 Mg(HCO3)2 46.5 100/146 46.5 x 100/146 = 31.85
3 MgSO4 27.6 100/120 27.6 x 100/120 = 23
4 CaSO4 32.1 100/136 32.1 x 100/136 = 23.6
5 CaCl2 22.45 100/111 22.45 x 100/111 = 20.26
Total hardness of water = [Ca(HCO 3)2 + Mg(HCO3)2 + MgSO4 + CaSO4 + CaCl2 as CaCO3equ.]
= 25 + 31.85 + 23 + 23.6 + 20.26 = 123.71 mg/l or ppm
Q3: What is the principle of EDTA titration? Briefly describe the estimation of hardness of water by
EDTA method. Or Write a note on complex-metric titration.
Solution:The analysis is done by complex metric titration using
standard EDTA as titrant and EBT as an indicator.EDTA is
Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid can form 4 to 6 dative bonds
with cations like Calcium, Magnesium. EDTA is insoluble in water, therefore its disodium salt is used as
complexing agent.
PRINCIPLE:The quick, complete and 1:1 interaction of metal ions with EDTA leading to the formation of
stable complex is the basis of complex metric titrations.
THEORY:The hard water is buffered to a pH value of 10 using NH 4OH-NH4Cl buffer and a few drops of
Erichrome Black-T (EBT) indicator solution is added. EBT forms a weak complex with metal ions (Ca 2+ and
Mg2+), which has wine red color.
(Ca2+ or Mg2+) + EBT pH 9-10
[Metal(Ca2+ and Mg2+) –EBT]complex
Hard waterBlue Wine-red
During titration of water sampleagainst EDTA, EDTA first combines with Ca 2+&Mg2+reacts to form
relatively stable and colorless Metal-EDTA complex (Ca 2+& Mg2+ EDTA). After all the free metal ions are
consumed, the next drop added EDTA solution displaces the indicator, EBT form Metal-EBT complex
(Ca2+& Mg2+ EBT).

GK Srinivas, Asst. Professor, KMIT

[Metal (Ca2+ and Mg2+)-EBT] + EDTA pH 9-10[Metal (Ca2+ and Mg2+) - EDTA]+ EBT
Wine-red More stable complex Free indicator BLUE

At the equivalence point, there is change in color from wine red (due to Metal (Ca 2+& Mg2+)-EBT) to Blue
(due to Free EBT).
Total hardness is thus determined while permanent hardness is determined by removing temporary
hardness by boiling. After the removal of ppt. by filtration, the permanent hardness in the filtrate is
determined by titration with EDTA as before. Temporary hardness is then determined by subtracting
permanent hardness from total hardness.
PROCEDURE:Various steps involved in this method are:
1.Standardization of EDTA solution: Pipette out 50 ml of standard hard water (prepared in such a way
that 1mlstd. hard water = 1mg of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness) in a 250ml conical flask. Add 10-15 ml of
buffer solution and 4 to 5 drops EBT indicator. Color changes to wine red and titrate with EDTA solution
from burette till wine-red color changes to clear blue. Let volume of EDTA consumed is V1 ml.

2.Determination of Total Hardnessof water: Pipette out 50 ml of unknown sample hard water in a conical
flask and repeat the above procedure. Let volume EDTA consumedis V2 ml.

3.Determination of Permanent hardness of water: Reduce 250 ml sample water to 50 ml by boiling,

bicarbonates decompose to insoluble ppt. which is filtered and filtrate is collected and above procedure is
repeated.Let the volume of EDTA consumed is V3 ml.

4.Determination of Temporary hardness of water:

Temporary Hardness = Total hardness ─ Permanent Hardness
CALCULATION:
1000 xV 2
Total hardness of water =w x ppm (w = weight of CaCO3 in mgs or gms)
V1

1000 X V 3
Permanent hardness =w x ppm
V1

1000 x (V 2−V 3)
Temporary hardness =w x ppm or = Total hardness – Permanent hardness
V1

ADVANTAGES OF EDTA METHOD:

1. Greater accuracy
2. Convenience and
3. More rapid procedure

Q4. 0.28 g of CaCO3 was dissolved in dil.HCl and the solution made upto one litre with distilled water. 100ml
of the above solution required 28 ml of EDTA solution for titration. 100 ml of water sample required35 ml of
sample EDTA solution for titration. After boiling 100ml of this water, cooling filtering and then titration
required 10 ml of EDTA solution. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of water.

GK Srinivas, Asst. Professor, KMIT

Solution:Step 1: Standardization of EDTA solution:
Given, 1L of standard hard water contains 0.28 gms CaCO 3.
Hence 1ml of standard hard water contains 0.28 mg CaCO 3.
28 ml of EDTA = 100 ml of Standard hard water.
= 100 x 0.28 = 28 mg CaCO3.
Therefore 1ml of EDTA = 28/28 = 1mg of CaCO3. (1)
Step 2: Determination of total hardness:
Given, 100 ml of unknown hard water sample = 35 ml of EDTA
= 35 x 1 = 35 mg CaCO3.
Therefore 100ml of unknown hard water sample
= 35 / 100 x 1000 = 350 mg CaCO3.
Hence total hardness = 350 mg/l or ppm. (2)
Step 3: Determination of permanent hardness
100 ml of boiled water = 10 ml of EDTA
= 10 x 1 = 10 mg of CaCO3. Eq hardness.
Therefore 1000 ml of boiled water
= 10 / 100 x 1000 = 1000 mg of CaCO3. Eq. hardness
Hence, permanent hardness of water =100 ppm
Step 4: Determination of Temporary Hardness
Temporary hardness = Total Hardness – Permanent Hardness
= 350 – 100 = 250 ppm
Temporary hardness = 250 ppm.

Q5: What are the different internal methods used for treating boiler feed water? Discuss in detail. Or
How scale formation is prevented by phosphate, calgon and carbonate conditioning.
Solution: It means treating the raw water inside the boiler. In this process an ion is prohibited to exhibit its
original character by complexing or converting it into other more soluble salt by adding appropriate reagent.
a. COLLODIAL CONDITIONING: The addition of organic substances such as Kerosene, Tannin,
Gelatin, Agar-agar etc., in low pressure boilers prevents the scale formation due to crystalline
precipitation. These substances gets adsorbed over the surfaces of scale forming precipitates and gives a
loose and non-sticky precipitates which can be removed by mechanically or blow-down operation.

b. PHOSPHATE CONDITIONING: Scale formation in high pressure boiler due to permanent Ca, Mg
hardness is prevented by complexation with addition of Sodium Phosphate. It reacts with the Ca, Mg
hardness and gives complex of Ca, Mg phosphates which are soft, non-adherent and easily removed by
blow-down operation.
3CaCl2 + 2Na3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl
3MgSO4 + 2Na3PO4 → Mg3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4
Three types of phosphate salt are used its choice depends on the alkalinity of boiler feed water i.e.,
Na3PO4 (alkaline), Na2HPO4 (weakly alkaline) and NaH2PO4 (acidic).

GK Srinivas, Asst. Professor, KMIT

 c. CALGON CONDITIONING: In this process Sodium Hexa Meta Phosphate Na2[Na4(PO3)6] (Calgon) is
added to the boiler feed water to prevent the scale &sludge formation by forming soluble complex
compound with CaSO4.
2CaSO4 + Na2[ Na4 (PO3)6] → Na2 [Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4
2MgSO4 + Na2[ Na4 (PO3)6] → Na2 [Mg2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4
Q6: What is demineralization? Describe in detail about Ion exchange process.
Solution: In this process, water containing hardness causing ions are eliminated by passing separately through
ion-exchange resins i.e., cation and anion exchange resins which are granular or bread like form.
In ion-exchange process:
Hard water is first allowed to pass through a chamber packed with cation exchange resins(RH+) which
exchanges H+ ions with Ca+2 and Mg+2ionsof hard water in equivalent amount.
2R'H++Ca+2→R2Ca + 2H+ + 2 Cl¯
2R'H++Mg+2→R2Mg + 2H+ + SO42¯ (RH+ = Cation exchange resin)
Above treated hard water is passed through anion exchange resin (R’OH) contain chamber where hydroxyl
ions (OH¯) of the resin exchanges with anions (Cl¯,SO42¯,HCO3¯)of water in equivalent amount.
R'OH¯ + Cl¯→R'Cl+ OH¯ (R’OH¯ =Anion exchange resin)
2R'OH¯ + SO42¯→ R'2SO4+ 2OH¯
2R'OH¯+ CO32¯→ R'2CO3 + 2OH¯
The exchanged H+ and OH¯ions from the resin combine with water
producing more wate rmolecules.At the same time all the cations
and anions present in the hard water are trapped by the cation and
anion resin respectively. Hence the water produced from ion
exchange process is completely free from cations or anions of salt.
The water softened by this process is known as Deionized or
Dematerialized water. Thus water obtained is of zero hardness.
H+ + OH-¯→H2O
REGENERATION:
On continuous passing of hard water through the cation and anion exchange resins, the resin lose their
exchanging capacities as the result R'H+ and R'OH¯ changes to R'2Ca, R'2Mg, R'2SO4,R'2CO3,R'2Cl etc.
means exchanger losses capacity of producing H+ ions and OH¯ ions, they are said to be exhausted.
The exhausted cation exchanger is regenerated by passing a dilute solution of H 2SO4/HCl.
R2Ca2+ + 2H+ →2R'H+ + Ca2+
The exhausted anion exchanger is regenerated by passing a dilute solution of NaOH/KOH.
R2SO42¯ + 2OH¯→2R'OH¯ + SO42¯
Merits of Ion-exchange process:
1. The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline water.
2. It produces water of very low hardness (2 ppm).
3. The softened water is completely free from any salts and fit for use as boiler feed water (in HP boilers).
Demerits of Ion-exchange process:
1. The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are needed.
2. Highly turbid water can’t be treated by this process (must be below 10 ppm).

Q7: What are requirements of water for municipal use? Disinfection of water for domestic use.

GK Srinivas, Asst. Professor, KMIT

Drinking or potable water is fit for human consumption. The common specification or standards prescribed and
recommended for drinking water are as follows:
1. It should be colorless and odorless.
2. It should be good in taste.
3. Turbidity should not exceed 10ppm.
4. TDS should not exceed 500ppm.
5. It should not be very alkaline (pH=8).
6. It should be reasonably soft, total hardness should be less than 500ppm.
7. It should be free from dissolved gases such as H2S & CO2.
8. It should be free from objectable minerals such as Pb, As, Cs, Mn.
9. It should be free from pathogenic micro-organisms (E.coli form bacteria are used as indicator
organisms, whose presence suggests water is contaminated).
10. Chloride, Fluoride and Sulphate contents should be less than 250ppm, 1.5ppm and 250ppm
respectively.
1. Sterilization/Disinfection: Water after passing through sedimentation, coagulation and filtration still
contains a small percentage of pathogenic micro-organisms such as bacteria. Its removal can be achieved
by sterilization. The chemicals used for killing bacteria are called disinfectants. Water can be sterilized by
the following methods:
1. Boiling 2. Bleaching powder 3. Chlorine 4.Chloroamine 5. Ozone

Q8: Define Disinfection? What is its significance? Explain the different methods used for disinfection.
Solution: Disinfection: The process of destroying/killing the disease producing Bacteria, microorganisms, etc.
from the water and making it safe for use, is called disinfection. The chemicals or substances which are
added to eater for killing the Bacteria are called disinfectant.
The disinfection of water can be carried out by following methods:
A) OZONISATION: Ozone is an excellent powerful disinfectant and is readily dissolved in water. It produces
nascent oxygen which is powerful oxidizing agent. This nascent Oxygen removes the colour and taste of
water and oxidizes the organic matter present in waterand also kills the bacteria. Disinfection of water by
ozone is carried out in ozone sterilizer.
O3 → O2 + [O]
Ozone (2-3ppm) is injected into the water and the two are allowed to come in
contact in a sterilizing tank for about 10-15 minutes. The disinfected water is
removed from the outlet at the top of sterilizer. The disinfected water is
colorless, odorless and tasteless. It is an expensive method therefore not used in
municipal water treatment.
B) CHLORINATION:The process of adding chlorine to water is called
chlorination. Chlorine is most commonly used disinfectant in water treatment throughout the world. It is
employed directly as a gas or in the form of concentrated solution in water. It produces hypochlorous acid,
which a powerful Germicide.
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl+ HCl

GK Srinivas, Asst. Professor, KMIT

 Chlorinator is an apparatus used for chlorination disinfection. It has a large
tower which contains number of baffle plates. From its top, raw water and
chlorine solution are introduced. These get thoroughly mixed during their
passage through the tower. For filtered water, about 0.3 - 0.5 ppm of Cl 2 is
sufficient. Disinfected water is taken out from the outlet at the bottom of
chlorinator. “The treated water should not contain more than 0.1 -0.2 ppm of
free chlorine.”
Advantages of using chlorine as disinfectant:
1. The use of chlorine is more effective and economical.
2. It can be used at high as well as low temperature.
3. It does not introduce any impurity in treated water.
4. It is stable, requires small space for storage and does not deteriorate on keeping
Disadvantages of using chlorine as disinfectant:
1. If excess of chlorine is added, it produces bad taste and disagreeable odour.
2. Excess chlorine produces irritation on mucus membrane.
3. It is not effective at higher pH values.
Q9: Explain Break point Chlorination.
Solution: Break-Point Chlorination or Free Residual chlorination:
It means the chlorination of water to such an extent that living
organism aswell as other organic impurities in water are destroyed. It
involves in addition of sufficient amount of chlorine to oxidise
organic matter, reducing substances and free ammonia in raw water,
leaving behind mainly free chlorine which possesses disinfecting
action against pathogenic bacteria’s. It is also known as free-residual
chlorination.
When chlorine is applied to water, the results obtained can be shown graphically. The graph shows the
relationship between the amount of chlorine added to water and the residual chlorine.
It is seen from the graph that initially the applied chorine is used to kill the bacteria’s and oxidises all
the reducing substances resent in the water and there is now free residual chlorine.
As the amount of applied chlorine increases, the amount of combined residual chlorine also increases.
This is due to formation of chloramine and other chloro-organic compounds without oxidizing them.
At one point, on further chlorination, the oxidation of chloroamines and other impurities starts ant there
is a fall in the combined chlorine content. Thus, the combined residual chlorine decreases to a minimum point at
which oxidation of chloramines and other impurities complete and free residual chlorine begins to appear this
minimum point is known as “break point chlorinationor free residual chlorination”.
Thus, the break point chlorination eliminates bacterias, reducing substances, organic substances
responsible for the bad taste and odour from the water.

Advantages of break-point chlorination

GK Srinivas, Asst. Professor, KMIT

 1.It ensures complete destruction of organic compounds which impart color, bad odour and unpleasant taste
to water.
2.It completely destroys all the disease producing bacteria’s and
3.It prevents the growth of any weeds in water.

Q 10: Write a short note on Reverse Osmosis and its significances.

Solution:The process of removing common salt(NaCl) from the water is known as desalination. The water
containing dissolved salts with a peculiar salty taste is called brackish water. Sea water contains on an average
about 3.5% of dissolved salts, making it totally unfit for drinking purpose. Commonly used methods for the
desalination of brackish water is:
1. Distillation or evaporation 2. Freezing 3. Electro dialysis 4. Reverse Osmosis
REVERSE OSMOSIS (Super-filtration):In Osmosis, a semi permeable
membrane separates two different concentration solutions, solvent (water) flows
from the lower concentration to the higher concentration to equalize the
concentration of the both. The driving force for osmosis is osmotic pressure.
But in reverse osmosis, a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is
applied on the concentrated side so that the path of the solvent reversed, i.e.,
from higher concentrated side to lower concentrated side across the membrane.
Semi-permeable membrane based on thin films of cellulose acetate, cellulose
butyrate, poly methyl acrylate and polyamide polymers are used. A pressure of
the order of 15-40 kg/cm2 is applied for separating the water from its contaminants.
Advantages:
a. Colloidal SiO2 can be removed by reverse osmosis which even cannot be removed demineralization.
b. It is simple and reliable process.
c. Capital and operating expenses are low.
d. The life time of the semi-permeable membrane is about two years and it can be easily replaced within a
few minutes, thereby nearly uninterrupted water supply can be provided.

GK Srinivas, Asst. Professor, KMIT