COMMUNITY-BASED DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Overview of Disaster Management

Introduction

All communities are vulnerable to disasters, both natural and man-made. It is an experience of many that
the aftermath left behind by disaster whether cause by unexpected events. Natural or man-made
calamities not only destroys livelihoods, properties, and lives, but also brings about heightened
insecurities, instability, and uncertainty. When communities have low adaptive capacities, this makes
them more vulnerable to other hazards that exploit post-disaster chaotic environments.

The recent spate of events has shown that the frequent 0ccurrence of disasters in the country has
prevented the Philippine Government to reduce the incidence of poverty and reduce the number of people
and assets vulnerable to natural disasters based on the Assessment of DRRM at the Local Level,
Commission on Audit 2014. That is why, disaster is considered the greatest challenge to development.
Egeland (2006) pointed out that it is a big challenge to the poorer countries, disaster could wipe out years
of their development and it will take years to bring it back.

Therefore, it is pertinent to treat disaster management as a part of the developmental process and not as
an isolated event that takes place only when a disaster strikes. All disaster management phases and
methods must be mainstreamed into the larger development process. First and foremost, it is important
to understand the concepts:

The first question that crosses our minds is what exactly a disaster is.

1. Disaster - A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to
hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability, and capacity, leading to
one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses, and impacts.
(the effect)

The effect of the disaster can be immediate and localized but is often widespread and could last for a long
period of time. The effect may test or exceed the capacity of a community or society to cope using its own
resources, and therefore may require assistance from external sources, which could include neighboring
jurisdictions, or those at the national or international levels.

2. Hazard- A process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury or other
health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation.
Hazards may be natural, anthropogenic or socio natural in origin. (the cause)

• Natural hazards - are predominantly associated with natural processes and phenomena.
• Anthropogenic hazards - human-induced hazards, are induced entirely or predominantly by
human activities and choices. This term does not include the occurrence or risk of armed conflicts
and other situations of social instability or tension which are subject to international
humanitarian law and national legislation.
• Several hazards are socionatural, in that they are associated with a combination of natural
and anthropogenic factors, including environmental degradation and climate change.

3. Vulnerability - The conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental

factors or processes which increase the susceptibility of an individual, a community, assets, or
systems to the impacts of hazards

4. Risk - Is the probability that loss will occur as the result of an adverse event, given the hazard and
the vulnerability”.

Risk (R) can be determined as a product of hazard (H) and vulnerability (V). i.e. R = H x V

5. Disaster Management - The organization, planning and application of measures preparing for,
responding to, and recovering from disasters.
 Disaster management may not completely avert or eliminate the threats; it focuses on creating
and implementing preparedness and other plans to decrease the impact of disasters and “build back
better”. Failure to create and apply a plan could lead to damage to life, assets, and lost revenue.

Contributing Factors to Vulnerability

Types of Vulnerability Characteristics

People – lives, health, security, living conditions
Property – services, physical property loss, loss of
Tangible/Material use
(easy to see; value easily Economy – loss of products and production,
determined) income
Environment – water, soil, air, vegetation,
wildlife
Social structures – family and community
Intangible/Abstract relationships
(difficult to see; value difficult to Cultural practices – religious and agricultural
determine) Cohesion – disruption of normal life
Motivation – will recover; government response
People who are already in a depressed state are
less able to recover. Some people are even more
Poverty
vulnerable – pregnant women, children and the
disabled.
Population has grown dramatically over the past
Population growth
decade
Rapid urbanisation Growing concentration around the capital.
Increase in sub-standard housing in more heavily
populated urban areas. Changes in traditional
Transition in cultural practices coping mechanisms – declines in self-reliance,
food conservation and preservation, warning
systems etc.
As resources are consumed, vegetation cover
Environmental degradation
removed, water polluted and air fouled, a country
is more vulnerable to a disaster.
When people and government officials are
Lack of awareness and
unaware or lack information about disaster
information
management, they fail to take appropriate
actions.
Resources are consumed, people are in a stressed
Civil Strife and unrest
situation, and transportation is restricted.
Island countries are disadvantaged by their
Geographical isolation
relative remoteness, particular their limited
access to schools, health, and cash.
Changing government policies, changing
personnel in the national focal point, economic
Political uncertainties/instability
weakness all can contribute to an effective
national disaster management programme.

Distinguishing between an emergency and a disaster situation

An emergency and a disaster are two different situations:

a. An emergency is a situation in which the community is capable of coping. It is a situation

generated by the real or imminent occurrence of an event that requires immediate attention and
that requires immediate attention of emergency resources.
b. A disaster is a situation in which the community is incapable of coping. It is a natural or
human-caused event which causes intense negative impacts on people, goods, services and/or the
environment, exceeding the affected community’s capability to respond; therefore, the
community seeks the assistance of government and international agencies.
 Types of natural and non-natural disasters

Disasters are often classified according to their:

causes – natural vs. human
speed of onset – sudden vs. slow

A. CAUSES

Natural Disasters

These types of disaster naturally occur in proximity to, and pose a threat to, people, structures, or
economic assets. They are caused by biological, geological, seismic, hydrologic, or meteorological
conditions or processes in the natural environment (e.g., cyclones, earthquakes, tsunami, floods,
landslides, and volcanic eruptions).

Cyclones, Hurricanes or Typhoons

Cyclones develop when a warm ocean gives rise to hot air, which in turn creates convectional air
currents. Cyclones occur when these conventional air currents are being displaced. The term
hurricane/typhoon is a regionally specific name for a “tropical cyclone”. In Asia they are called
‘typhoons’; in the Indian and Pacific Oceans they are called ‘cyclones’; and over the North Atlantic and
Caribbean Basin, they are called ‘hurricanes.

Tropical warning procedures:

• Small crafts and fishing boats: approx. 25-35mph winds.
• Wind advisory for the public: approx. 25-35mph winds.

1. Gale watch - when a mature tropical cyclone has a significant probability to threaten a part of the
country within 48 hours.
2. Gale force warning - issued when wind speeds are expected to reach gale force intensity of (34-
47knots) within the next 24 hours.
3. Storm watch - if a post tropical cyclone disturbance is a notable to threat to an area or the entire country
within a 24-to-48-hour timeframe, a storm watch statement would be included with the gale warning.
4. Storm warning - issued every three (3) hours when the average wind speeds are expected to reach
storm force intensity of 48-63 knots within the next 12 to 24 hours.
5. Cyclone watch - issued when tropical cyclone winds is expected to reach cyclone force winds of above
63 knots (or 70 mph) in 24 to 48 hours.
6. Cyclone warning: issued every three (3) hours, when wind speeds are expected to exceed 63 knots
within the next 12 to 24 hours.

Earthquakes

An earthquake is a trembling or shaking movement of the earth’s surface, resulting from plate
movements along a fault-plane or because of volcanic activity. Earthquakes can strike suddenly, violently,
and without warning at any time of the day or night. The following terminologies are associated with
earthquakes: epicentre, fault, magnitude, and seismic waves.

For practical purposes, earthquakes are usually defined by their magnitude (or quantitative energy
released) which is measured using a logarithm scale of 1 – 10. This logarithm scale is referred to as
the Richter scale. The magnitude is determined by analysing seismic data obtained from
seismometers.

The intensity of an earthquake is measured using the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale,
which is determined qualitatively by physical observations of the earthquake’s impact.

Tsunami

A tsunami is an ocean wave generated by a submarine earthquake, volcano or landslide. It is also known
as a seismic sea wave, and incorrectly as a tidal wave.
 Storm Surge (Also known as “Daluyong ng Bagyo”)

It is the abnormal rise in sea level that occurs during tropical cyclones or “bagyo”. It is caused by
strong winds and low atmospheric pressures produced by tropical cyclones. As the tropical cyclone
approaches the coast, strong winds push the ocean water over the low-lying coastal areas, which can lead
to flooding. This makes storm surges very dangerous.

Floods

This phenomenon occurs when water covers previously dry areas, i.e., when large amounts of water flow
from a source such as a river or a broken pipe onto a previously dry area, or when water overflows banks
or barriers.

Floods can be environmentally important to local ecosystems. For example, some river floods bring
nutrients to soil such as in Egypt where the annual flooding of the Nile River carries nutrients to otherwise
dry land. Floods can also have an economic and emotional impact on people, particularly if their property
is directly affected. Having a better understanding of what causes flooding can help people to be better
prepared and to perhaps minimize or prevent flood damage.

Landslides

The term landslide refers to the downward movement of masses of rock and soil. Landslides are
caused by one or a combination of the following factors:
1. change in slope gradient,
2. increasing the load the land must bear, shocks and vibrations,
3. change in water content,
4. ground water movement,
5. frost action,
6. weathering of shocks,
7. removal or changing the type of vegetation covering slopes.

Landslide hazard areas occur where the land has certain characteristics which contribute to the risk of
the downhill movement of material. These characteristics include:

✓ A slope greater than 15 percent.

✓ Landslide activity or movement occurred during the last 10,000 years.
✓ Stream or wave activity which has caused erosion, undercut a bank, or cut into a bank to cause
the surrounding land to be unstable.

• The presence or potential for snow avalanches.

• The presence of an alluvial fan which indicates vulnerability to the flow of debris or sediments.
• The presence of impermeable soils, such as silt or clay, which are mixed with granular soils such as sand
and gravel.

Landslides can also be triggered by other natural hazards such as rains, floods, earthquakes, as well as
human-made causes, such as grading, terrain cutting and filling, excessive development, etc. Because the
factors affecting landslides can be geophysical or human-made, they can occur in developed areas,
undeveloped areas, or any area where the terrain has been altered for roads, houses, utilities, buildings,
etc.

Human-Made Disasters

These are disasters or emergency situations of which the principal, direct causes are identifiable
human actions, deliberate or otherwise. Apart from “technological disasters” this mainly involves
situations in which civilian populations suffer casualties, losses of property, basic services and means of
livelihood because of war, civil strife or other conflicts, or policy implementation. In many cases,
people are forced to leave their homes, giving rise to congregations of refugees or externally and/or
internally displaced persons because of civil strife, an airplane crash, a major fire, oil spill, epidemic,
terrorism, etc.
B. SPEED OF ONSET

Sudden onset: little or no warning, minimal time to prepare. For example, an earthquake,
tsunami, cyclone, volcano, etc.
Slow onset: adverse event slow to develop; first the situation develops; the second level is an
emergency; the third level is a disaster. For example, drought, civil strife, epidemic, etc.

Topic 2: Introduction to Disaster Management

Introduction
Disaster management is an enormous task. They are not confined to any location, neither do they
disappear as quickly as they appear. Therefore, it is imperative that there is proper management to
optimize efficiency of planning and response. Due to limited resources, collaborative efforts at the
governmental, private and community levels are necessary. This level of collaboration requires a
coordinated and organized effort to mitigate against, prepare for, respond to, and recover from
emergencies and their effects in the shortest possible time.

1.1 DRRM Profile of the Philippines (Please watch the video)

1.2. Global Global and National Frameworks and Declarations on Disaster Risk
Reduction

In 1987, the General Assembly of United Nations declared the 1990s to be the ‘International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR), with the objective of reducing deaths, property
damage, and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes,
windstorms, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, wildfires, grasshopper and locust
infestations, drought and desertification, and other hazards of natural origin, especially in developing
countries.

Because of the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction held in Yokohama, Japan, in
1994 Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World was developed and adopted in the
conference. The conference’s focus was to review the outcomes of the activities and planning activities for
the remaining decade. The strategy is based on 10 principles, which highlight the significance of risk
assessment and disaster prevention and preparedness as vital to national planning. It emphasizes the
role of early warning, need of the participation of communities at risk including each community’s most
vulnerable people, especially in developing countries. Thus, Yokohama conference induced a shift from
not just limiting to a science-oriented approach for effective disaster prevention but also to include
socioeconomic aspects as they are the main drivers to determining societal vulnerability.

When the IDNDR ended in 1999, the UN General Assembly established the secretariat of the
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) to facilitate the implementation
of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) to mainstream the focus on
vulnerability to hazards and disaster risk into the major policy frameworks.

In 2005, the UN General Assembly convened a second World Conference on Disaster Risk
Reduction (WCDRR) in Kobe, Japan, to observe the progress obtained in implementing the 1994
Yokohama Strategy and to share good practices and lessons learnt. The review of the Yokohama Strategy
acknowledged that there is increase, if not universal, in the understanding and recognition among
countries that disaster risk reduction is essential for sustainable development. It also emphasized the
importance of multisectoral and multi-stakeholder approaches for building resilience, reducing
vulnerabilities and hazard impacts through enhancing national and local capacities (UN, 2005).

One of the important outcomes of the WCDRR in Kobe was the adoption of Hyogo Framework
for Action (HFA) 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities; a ten-year strategy
for stronger commitment to the Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). The framework was adopted by 168
countries shifting the paradigm for disaster risk management from post disaster response to a more
comprehensive approach that would also include prevention and preparedness measures. With the
adoption of HFA, the United Nations General Assembly tasked UNISDR with supporting its
implementation and monitoring its progress, which is entirely dedicated to DRR. The HFA strived to
 achieve an expected outcome of substantial reduction of disaster losses, in lives and in the social,
economic, and environmental assets of communities and countries by 2015 (UNISDR, 2005).

All these activities are working towards developing preparedness, response, recovery, prevention,
and preparedness and mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of disasters.

Hyogo Framework of Action

Strategic Goals:

1. Effective integration of disaster risk reduction into sustainable development policies, planning and
programming at all levels
2. Development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms, and capacities at all levels, at the
community level
3. Systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of
emergency preparedness, response, and recovery programs.

Priorities for action:

1. Ensuring disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for
implementation
2. Identifying, assessing, and monitoring disaster risks and enhancing early warning
3. Using knowledge, innovation, and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels
4. Reducing the underlying risk factors
5. Strengthening disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.

The implementation of HFA has resulted in cooperation agreements and joint plans of action in
all regions of the world, including one legally binding regional instrument, and in the creation of
important tools such as the Global Platform and the Global Assessment Report (UNESCAP,
2011). The period after adoption of HFA at UN WCDRR has been significant in terms of realization of
vulnerabilities of communities. The HFA implemented by different partnerships and collaboration
informed more on the concepts of resilience, vulnerability, exposure as components of disaster
risks. It has also led to understanding of comprehensive approaches like hazard assessment, vulnerability
analysis, and capacity development directly addressing these components (Surjan et al., 2011). The HFA
also underscores the relationship between reducing disaster risk and achieving broader development
challenges such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (UNISDR & UNESCAP, 2012).

To accelerate the HFA and other DRR efforts by UN, World Bank established Global Facility
for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) in 2006 to help the developing countries to
understand and reduce their vulnerabilities to natural hazards by enhancing their capacity for disaster
prevention, emergency preparedness, response, and recovery. GFDRR is supported by 34 countries and
nine international organizations and provides grant financing, technical assistance, training and
knowledge sharing activities to mainstream disaster and risk management in policies and strategies
(UNISDR, 2008).

The third UN WCDRR in 2015 in Sendai, Japan led to the adoption of The Sendai Framework
for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) (2015-2030), which is the successor to the Hyogo
Framework for action (HFA) (2005-2015). The SFDRR is a 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement
which seeks to bring about ‘the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and
health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses,
communities and countries’ (UNISDR, 2015). The SFDRR set out a more ambitious agenda than HFA,
builds on the achievements of HFA and was adopted by 187 member states. It calls for a historic shift
from an emphasis on disaster management to addressing disaster risk management. It
focuses on the underlying drivers of disaster risk, such as poorly planned urban growth in areas subject
to flooding, landslides, earthquakes, cyclones, and the effects of climate change. The SFDRR advocates
an approach that is people-centered and preventive and promotes the proactive management of disaster
risk over the reactive management of disasters (UN, 2015).

The SFDRR outlined seven global targets and four priority actions to evaluate the global progress
towards the framework. The focus of priority actions listed out in the SFDRR includes enhancing the
 understanding of disaster risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure, hazard
characteristics, environment; public, private investment in structural and non-structural measures; to
strengthen disaster preparedness for more effective response (Wahlström, 2015). 7

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has also placed disaster risk
reduction at the center of climate change debate in its publication for policy makers on managing risks of
extreme events and disasters. The report provides insights into how disaster risk management and
adaptation may assist vulnerable communities to better cope with climate change, and experience of wide
range of options to reduce exposure and vulnerability and improve resilience to climate extremes.
Options include early-warning systems, innovations in insurance coverage, improvements in
infrastructure and the expansion of social safety nets (IPCC, 2012).

Similarly, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have also embedded disaster risk
resilience in nine out of its 17 goals for sustainable development. However, several states have called for
the need for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) to be mainstreamed across poverty reduction, gender
equality, education, health, food security, governance, cities, peace and security, agriculture, water and
sanitation, energy, ecosystems, and technology transfer.

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030

Targets of the Framework:

1. Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030

2. Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030
3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product by 2030
4. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among
them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030
5. Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies
by 2020
6. Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate and
sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of the framework by 2030
7. Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and disaster
risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.

Priority actions:

1. Understanding disaster risk

2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery,
rehabilitation and rehabilitation.

(United Nations, 2015)

DID YOU KNOW?

If an earthquake strikes a desert that is uninhabited by human beings, it would not cause
direct and immediate damage to the society and thus, would not be termed as a disaster.

1.3 Overview of Sustainable Development (Please watch the video)

1.4 Relevance of DRRM to Sustainable Development

As per the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987, ‘development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs is sustainable’.
 It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of ‘needs’, in particular the needs of the poor; and the
idea of ‘limitations’ imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s
ability to meet these needs. The main objective of sustainable development is to prevent the acts of
nature from becoming disasters. Development that is sustainable will not disturb its environs
beyond reasonable levels. It is based on socio-cultural development, political stability, economic growth,
and ecosystem protection, which all relate to disaster risk reduction.

1.5 Managing Disasters: What is Disaster Management

Concepts to Remember:

1. Disaster risk management: The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations,
and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies, and improved coping capacities to
lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster. (UNISDR, 2009)
2. Capacity: The combination of all the strengths, attributes, and resources available within a community,
society or organization that can be used to achieve agreed goals. (UNISDR, 2009)
3. Community Based Disaster Risk Management: Community-based Disaster Risk Management
(CBDRM) is a process in which communities engage with the identification, analysis, mitigation,
monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities
(ADPC, 2003)
4. Disaster management: The organization and management of resources and responsibilities for
dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery
in order to lessen the impact of disasters.
5. Disaster risk: The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services,
which could occur to a particular community or a society over some specified future time period.
(UNISDR, 2009)
6. Resilience: The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb,
accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including
through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions. (UNISDR, 2009)

Disaster management as an activity involves measures to:

✓ Reduce the risks associated with disasters through timely measures, short-term and long-term policies
✓ Provide required assistance to communities during and after the disasters; and
✓ Ensure rapid and sustained recovery and rehabilitation after the occurrence of disasters
✓ The new vision adopted for disaster management focuses on:
✓ Preparedness rather than post-crisis management
✓ Coordinated participatory approach
✓ Technology upgradation and deployment
✓ Information as a tool of disaster management
✓ Recognition of linkages between disasters and development
✓ Connecting specific programs for management of natural disasters
✓ Forecasting and warning using latest technology; and
✓ Disaster management as a continuous and integrated part of development process

1.5 Introduction to Disaster Management Cycle

Disaster Management Cycle

It is a cyclical process; the end of one phase is the beginning of another (see diagram below), although
one phase of the cycle does not necessarily have to be completed for the next to take place. Often several
phases are taking place concurrently. Timely decision making during each phase results in greater
preparedness, better warnings, reduced vulnerability and/or the prevention of future disasters. The
complete disaster management cycle includes the shaping of public policies and plans that either
addresses the causes of disasters or mitigates their effects on people, property, and infrastructure.

The mitigation and preparedness phases occur as improvements are made in anticipation of an event. By
embracing development, a community’s ability to mitigate against and prepare for a disaster is improved.
As the event unfolds, disaster managers become involved in the immediate response and long-term
recovery phases.
 The diagram below shows the Disaster Management Cycle.

FIGURE 3: DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

1. Mitigation: Measures put in place to minimize the results from a disaster.

Examples: building codes and zoning; vulnerability analyses; public education.

Mitigation means any action taken to minimize the extent of a disaster or potential
disaster. Mitigation can take place before, during or after a disaster, but the term is most often used pro-
actively to refer to actions against potential disasters. Mitigation measures are structural and non-
structural. Structural measures are measures that can be easily seen or perceived such as strengthening
of buildings, disaster-resistant construction, and erection of infrastructure. The non-structural measures
are intangible in nature. These cannot be easily quantified, but are very important such as generation of
awareness, education and training, insurance and adherence to the rules and by-laws.

2. Preparedness: Planning how to respond.

Examples: preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training; warning systems.

Preparedness entails activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to
the impact of hazards, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings, preparation of
emergency plans, maintenance of inventories, at-risk planning and temporary evacuation of people and
property from threatened locations. It involves measures that enable governments, community, and
individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations and effectively cope with them.

3. Response: Initial actions taken as the event takes place. It involves efforts to minimize the
hazards created by a disaster.
Examples: evacuation; search and rescue; emergency relief.

Response can be of an immediate, short-term, or protracted duration. For example, search and
rescue of the affected people and provision of food, temporary shelter and medical care to the persons
affected by the disaster are some common areas of intervention after a disaster. Response involves
strategies and ways that can help to reduce the level of suffering and mitigate the distress, to bring the
affected people out from the shock and trauma of suddenly losing their loved ones and their means of
livelihood. Further, the main objective of relief is to assist the affected persons to start their normal
activities again.

4. Recovery: Returning the community to normal. Ideally, the affected area should be put in a condition
equal to or better than it was before the disaster took place.
Examples: temporary housing; grants; medical care.

1.7 Disaster Management Cycle: Phase 1 - Mitigation

Disaster Mitigation
Mitigation refers to all actions taken before a disaster to reduce its impacts, including
preparedness and long-term risk reduction measures. Mitigation activities fall broadly into two
categories:
a. Structural mitigation – construction projects which reduce economic and social impacts.
b. Non-structural activities – policies and practices which raise awareness of hazards or encourage
developments to reduce the impact of disasters.

Mitigation includes reviewing building codes; vulnerability analysis updates; zoning and land-use
management and planning; reviewing of building use regulations and safety codes; and implementing
preventative health measures. (World Development Report, 1998) Mitigation can also involve educating
businesses and the public on simple measures they can take to reduce loss or injury, for instance fastening
bookshelves, water heaters, and filing cabinets to walls to keep them from falling during earthquakes.
Ideally, these preventative measures and public education programmes will occur before the disaster.

The primary focus of disaster management is to prevent disasters wherever possible or to mitigate
those which are inevitable. Four sets of tools that could be used to prevent or mitigate disasters include:

a. Hazard management and vulnerability reduction

b. Economic diversification
c. Political intervention and commitment
d. Public awareness

The first two apply exclusively to disasters caused by natural phenomena while the latter are used
to mitigate any other hazards.

Mitigation strategies

Two aspects of mitigation include:

a. Hazard identification and vulnerability analysis and
b. Various mitigation strategies or measures.

Hazard identification and vulnerability analysis

A hazard can cause the full range of natural disasters, major man-made incidents, and resource crises
that become the concern of the entire community, not just emergency management personnel. The ideal
is for communities to be always prepared for all types of hazards. In practical terms however, this is not
possible. Preparedness for one hazard or disaster may increase your risk to another. For example,
structures designed to withstand hurricane force winds may incur or cause greater damage if there is an
earthquake. The more logical solution would be to adapt best practices as much as possible for the most
likely scenario.

But what about the hazards associated with our 21st-century lifestyle such as chemical spills, ecological
disasters, explosions, major transportation accidents? Mitigation involves addressing both natural and
man-made hazards, different as they are in many respects. A crucial first step in mitigation is deciding
which hazards have the greatest potential to affect your jurisdiction.

The most critical part of implementing a mitigation strategy is a full understanding of the nature of the
threat as the hazards faced vary between locations and from hazard to hazard. Most countries are prone
to at least some combination of hazards, and all face the possibility of technological disasters as industrial
development progresses. The effects these hazards are likely to have, and their potential damage is
dependent on the risks, the people, their livelihoods, and the existing infrastructure. For any location,
therefore, it is critical to know which hazards are the most likely. Furthermore, targeting mitigation
efforts relies heavily on correctly assessing vulnerability.

Vulnerability assessment can also be extended to social groups or economic sectors: People who rent
houses rely on a landlord to repair any damage and are more likely to be rendered homeless in the event
of a disaster. Correctly identifying the groups of tenants and establishing rights of tenure and landlords’
obligations to repair may reduce the number of people rendered homeless in the event of a disaster.
Similarly, food growers sending their produce to market through a single mountain pass will be unable
to sell their produce if the pass is blocked. Developing an alternative route to market will reduce
disruption of the agricultural sector. Thus, building or constructing several routes is very important
because in a time of disaster it will be easier for the affected group or community to employ alternatives.
 Mitigation strategies or measures

• Adjusting normal development programs to reduce losses. For instance, varieties of crops
that are more wind, flood, or drought resistant can often be introduced in areas prone to floods, drought,
and cyclones.
• Economic diversification. In areas where the principal or sole source of the income may be
threatened, attempts should be made to diversify the economy and introduce the economic activities that
are less vulnerable. Diversification is extremely important where economies are dependent on a single
cash crop.
• Developing disaster resistant economic activities. Some economic activities are relatively
unaffected by disasters. For instance, situating warehouses in flood plains may be more appropriate than
manufacturing plants in the same location. Coconut palms could be more suitable than other fruit trees
in cyclone-prone coastal areas. Efforts should be made to identify and encourage the development of
enterprises that are less vulnerable to the hazards.

Considerations

Operations

To maintain operations during a disaster, ensure that a backup generator is available in case of power
failure and that a battery-operated radio is at hand as well as a back-up supply of critical goods/needs –
a continuous supply if possible.

Critical Information and Communication

Ensure that there is a backup copy of all critical information – namely employee data, customer list,
production formulas, a list of software and hardware and logon and passwords – in an accessible yet safe
place; regularly update the backup copy of all files.

Insurance

Ensure that all critical assets, including business interruption are insured and be aware of the content of
the insurance policy.

Infrastructure planning

Mitigation Activities at Home

Homes can be destroyed by high winds. Flying debris can break windows and doors, allowing high winds
and rain into your house. High winds can also cause weaker places in your home to crumble.
Strengthening vulnerable areas such as roofs, exterior doors, windows, and garage doors; clearing debris
from possibly affected areas; and building a safe room in your home can all contribute to personal
mitigation strategies. It is also very important to encourage people to learn more about other protective
measures that fall within the purview of their local building code.

Additionally, in areas that are prone to strong winds, there is a need for a number of other measures to
be considered such as engineering structures to withstand wind forces; including wind load requirements
in building codes; planting windbreaks; planning forestry areas upwind of towns; and the provision of
wind-safety buildings, for example providing strong village halls for community shelter in vulnerable
settlements.

Disasters and developments are closely related. Disaster can both destroy development initiatives and
create development opportunities. Development schemes can both increase and decrease vulnerability.
Thus, links between disaster and development must be considered for sustainable socio-economic
development.

At the same time, disasters often provide opportunities for development. They can improve the
atmosphere in favour of change and create a rationale to establish development programmes such as job
training, housing construction and land reform. However, poor management of the relief and
 rehabilitation responses may have severe negative implications for development for years to come and
may even increase vulnerability to future hazards.

Topic 3: Disaster Management Cycle: Phase 2 Disaster Preparedness

The goal of emergency preparedness programmes is to achieve a satisfactory level of readiness to respond
to any emergency through programmes that strengthen the technical and managerial capacity of
governments, organizations, and communities. These measures can be described as logistical readiness
to deal with disasters and can be enhanced by having response mechanisms and procedures, rehearsals,
developing long-term and short-term strategies, public education and building early warning systems.
Preparedness can also take the form of ensuring that strategic reserves of food, equipment, water,
medicines, and other essentials are maintained in cases of national or local catastrophes.

During the preparedness phase, governments, organizations, and individuals develop plans to save lives,
minimize disaster damage, and enhance disaster response operations. Preparedness measures include:

• Preparedness plans
• Emergency exercises/training
• Warning systems
• Emergency communications systems
• Evacuations plans and training
• Resource inventories
• Emergency personnel/contact lists
• Mutual aid agreements
• Public information/education

As with mitigation efforts, preparedness actions depend on the incorporation of appropriate measures in
national and regional development plans.

Concepts

Disaster preparedness is defined as a continuous and integrated process involving a wide

range of activities and resources from multi-sectoral sources.

Basically, disaster mitigation and preparedness go hand in hand. Disaster preparedness for example
includes implementation of mitigation measures to ensure that existing infrastructure can withstand the
forces of disasters or that people can respond in their communities and at the same time protect
themselves. The collective capabilities of the country, people, and the government to deal with extreme
hazards or adversities when they occur are measures of their cumulative preparedness. In local
circumstances and because of historical proneness to disasters, mitigation is important, but preparedness
is doubly important.

Disaster preparedness involves the preparation of people and essential service providers in their
communities for the actions that they will take in case of disasters.

• Disaster Risk Reduction

The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to minimise vulnerabilities
and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and
preparedness) adverse impact of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development
(ISDR 2007)

• Preparedness:

The capacities and knowledge developed by governments, professional response organisations,

communities, and individuals to anticipate and respond effectively to the impact of likely, imminent
or current hazard events or conditions.
Comment: Preparedness action is carried out within the context of disaster risk management and
should be based on a sound analysis of disaster risks and be well linked to early warning systems. It
includes contingency planning, stockpiling of equipment and supplies, emergency services and
stand-by arrangements, communications, information management and coordination
arrangements, personnel training, community drills and exercises, and public education. It must be
supported by formal institutional, legal and budgetary capacities (ISDR 2008)

• Contingency planning: Contingency planning is a management tool used to analyse the

impact of potential crises so that adequate and appropriate arrangements are made in advance
to respond in a timely, effective and appropriate way to the needs of affected populations.
Contingency planning is a tool to anticipate and solve problems that typically arise during a
humanitarian response (IASC 2007)

• Early warning refers to the systematic collection and analysis of information for the purpose
of anticipating and identifying emerging, deteriorating, or reoccurring humanitarian crises.
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCRCS, 2005) states that
disaster preparedness requires global, national, community and individual inputs. Disaster preparedness
incorporates all activities that will enhance the efficiency, effectiveness and impact of disaster emergency
response mechanisms in the local community and throughout the country. The following are of particular
importance:

1. Develop and test warning systems regularly and plan measures to be taken during a disaster alert period
to minimize potential loss of life and physical damage.
2. Educate and train officials and the population at risk to respond to the disaster.
3. Train first aid and emergency response teams.
4. Establish emergency response policies, standards, organizational arrangements, and operational plans
to be followed by emergency workers and other response entities after a disaster.

Others feel that disaster preparedness should be one that is particularly “community-based” through
national or international efforts that will provide for strengthening community-based disaster
preparedness through educating, preparing and supporting local populations and communities in their
everyday efforts to reduce risks and prepare their own local response mechanisms to address disaster
emergency situations.

Mainstreaming Child Protection and Gender in Emergency Planning

It is high time that women take an active role when designing mitigating plans and activities so that
appropriate gender issues are mainstreamed. Women are not always well-represented in decision-
making. Experts agree that involving women broadens the range of ideas proposed for and incorporated
into disaster planning initiatives and results in plans that are more disaster resilient.

Gender mainstreaming in disaster preparedness, relief and construction include mapping of existing
forms and sources of gender discrimination in each context while making disaster preparedness plans. It
is also necessary to involve community-based women’s organizations of marginalized groups in
preparedness, relief and reconstruction planning and pressing for accountability in implementation.

Besides, by offering children the opportunity to participate more fully in disaster situations, we cease to
be interpreters of their needs and thoughts, and instead begin to accompany them in the design of actions
and adequate strategies that strengthen their capacity to reflect, contribute, and

Lead their own development processes. This in turn increases the possibilities of sustainable educational
processes on disasters and their prevention. It also contributes to the democratization process through
the formation of young leaders with a vision and knowledge of development.

Key Components in Preparedness Planning

Preparedness planning aims to establish a standing capacity to respond to a range of different situations
that may affect a country or region by putting in place a broad set of preparedness measures. Examples:
1. early warning systems
2. ongoing risk and vulnerability assessment
3. capacity building
4. the creation and maintenance of stand-by capacities and the
5. stockpiling of humanitarian supplies.

For a plan to be effective, it is essential that all participating actors are meaningfully involved in its
development. A process which is built around participation will lead to increased ownership by all those
involved and will contribute to the smooth implementation of plans during times of disaster. This
includes participation at the local, national, and international levels. Coordinated participation will help
to work out problems of who is responsible for what when a disaster occurs. It also allows for effective
scaling up during disasters; thereby ensuring the required goods and services get to the most affected and
vulnerable populations

Key Components in Preparedness Planning

1. Contingency planning (please review the definition)

Expected Outcome: A contingency plan that includes an in-depth analysis of hazard risk, vulnerability,
and capacities is developed and regularly updated.

A. Preparation
The organisation tasked with disaster management is best placed to lead or coordinate a national
contingency planning process although all key stakeholders should be included. Before developing a
contingency plan, an analysis of existing emergency plans and procedures, resource and equipment
inventories, training records and reviews of past disaster experiences and lessons learned in research
studies and reports should be undertaken.

B. Analysis
A contingency plan should be based on a sound analysis of risk in a specific context and will therefore
reflect the nature of the hazards or threats, as well as the vulnerabilities and capacities in a particular
context.

C. Response Planning
Based on agreed upon roles and responsibilities, it is important for participants in the contingency
planning process to define response objectives and strategies in more detail. While the institutional
arrangements outlined earlier in this document spell out overarching common objectives and strategies
for response, the contingency planning process will provide more detail on how they will meet their
responsibilities.

D. Implementing Preparedness: Consolidating the process and follow-up actions

A plan in and of itself is not enough. The plan needs to be tested and exercised by the people and
organisations that will use it. Classroom or actual field simulation exercises, based on specific scenarios,
are an effective means to determine how realistic the plan is and to assess the capacity of the different
actors. Based on the results and lessons learned during such exercises, plans (procedures,
responsibilities, etc.) can then be modified accordingly.

2. Capacity Analysis and Capacity-Building

Expected Outcome: All organisations, persons and volunteers responsible for maintaining preparedness
are equipped and trained for effective disaster preparedness and response.

Building a preparedness capability requires an assessment of current systems and resources. Capacity
assessments can reveal hidden assets and resources in governmental agencies and civil society that can
be built upon to strengthen preparedness and lead to a more predictable and efficient response and
recovery process.

Assessment should consider:

a. available resources,
b. existing capacities,
c. operational plans and procedures,
d. as well as communications and coordination systems at every level in order to identify gaps and capacity
building needs and to plan accordingly.

3. Capacity Analysis

The capacity analysis process should also assess material resource needs, and the availability of funds in
comparison to needs. If necessary, a strategy should be developed to bridge the gap between available
and required resources. The analysis process should be used as the base for developing a comprehensive
capacity building programme which will likely include training courses, but also research, evaluation and
other activities to enhance preparedness capacity. Training materials for different target audiences
(decision makers, managers, technical staff, community organisations) will need to be developed and
made available, and experienced trainers identified. Increasingly, tools such as web-based training are
also being used to expand the scope and decrease the costs of training activities.

4. Hazard Monitoring, Forecasting and Early Warning

Expected Outcome: An effective national and regional early warning system that applies sound scientific
information and risk knowledge is in place and able to communicate warnings to mobilise action in all
at-risk communities.

As part of the national preparedness capability, disaster authorities should be linked to the
meteorological and seismic monitoring departments both nationally and regionally, and to key
government or academic institutions that consistently track disaster trends. Depending on the hazard
type, community-based monitoring mechanisms may be able to monitor changes at the
local level. These need to be developed and strengthened by providing support to the development of
early warning indicators at community level.

It is also advisable to ensure that multiple communication mediums are used for warning dissemination
(e.g. mass media and informal communication). Warnings generated should be distributed to those at
risk by credible sources (e.g. government, spiritual leaders, respected community organisations).
Example: PAGASA and PHIVOLCS

5. Information Management and Communication

Expected Outcome: An information management and dissemination system that facilitates the two-way
exchange of pertinent technical and management information between internal and external
stakeholders is developed and maintained.

The communication of accurate, timely, and useful information and instructions to the public is necessary
throughout a disaster, not only during the early-warning period. In addition, it is essential that a disaster
preparedness capability continually collects and analyses information for its own use, so that it can make
sure that humanitarian needs are met and can learn from its experiences.

1. Public Information Management

Information must reach not only the people at risk but also the public at large. During and
immediately after a hazard event there will likely be a high demand for updates and information by those
indirectly affected by the disaster event.

2. Data Management
It is also important that data is collected and managed throughout an emergency. This will not
only increase financial and end-user accountability but will also be essential if lessons are to be learned
for future responses. This may include the creation of a central library or database to store hazard risk
information and disaster statistics. The maintenance and updating of such a service is essential.

Note:

All these key components should be initiated by the government.

Topic 4: Disaster Management Cycle:

 Phase 3 Response and Phase 4 Recovery

Disaster response is the sum of actions taken by people and institutions in the face of disaster. These
actions commence with the warning of an oncoming threatening event or with the event itself if it occurs
without warning. The focus in the response and recovery phases of the disaster management cycle is on
meeting the basic needs of the people until more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found.

Developmental considerations contribute to all aspects of the disaster management cycle. One of the main
goals of disaster management, and one of its strongest links with development, is the promotion of
sustainable livelihoods and their protection and recovery during disasters and emergencies. Where this
goal is achieved, people have a greater capacity to deal with disasters and their recovery is more rapid
and long lasting. In a development-oriented disaster management approach, the objectives are to reduce
hazards, prevent disasters, and prepare for emergencies.

Phase 3: Disaster Response

The aim of emergency response is to provide immediate assistance to maintain life, improve health, and
to support the morale of the affected population. Such assistance may range from providing specific but
limited aid, such as assisting refugees with transportation, temporary shelter, and food, to establishing
semi-permanent settlement in camps and other locations. It also may involve initial repairs to damaged
infrastructure. The focus in the response phase is on meeting the basic needs of the people until more
permanent and sustainable solutions can be found. Humanitarian organizations are often strongly
present in this phase of the disaster management cycle.

During a disaster, humanitarian agencies are often called upon to deal with immediate response and
recovery. To be able to respond effectively, these agencies must have experienced leaders, trained
personnel, adequate transportation and logistic support, appropriate communications, and guidelines for
working in emergencies. If the necessary preparations have not been made, the humanitarian agencies
will not be able to meet the immediate needs of the people.
This section identifies the principal activities of disaster response. Each activity is (formally or informally)
governed by a set of policies and procedures, typically under the auspices of a lead agency. In the end,
disaster response activities are implemented by multiple government organizations, international and
national agencies, local entities, and individuals, each with their roles and responsibilities.

Aims of disaster response

The overall aims of disaster response are:

• To ensure the survival of the maximum possible number of victims, keeping them in the best possible
health in the circumstances.
• To re-establish self-sufficiency and essential services as quickly as possible for all population groups, with
special attention to those whose needs are greatest: the most vulnerable and underprivileged.
• To repair or replace damaged infrastructure and regenerate viable economic activities. To do this in a
manner that contributes to long-term development goals and reduces vulnerability to any future
recurrence of potentially damaging hazards.
• In situations of civil or international conflict, the aim is to protect and assist the civilian population, in
close collaboration with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and in compliance with
international conventions.
• In cases involving population displacements (due to any type of disaster) the aim is to find durable
solutions as quickly as possible, while ensuring protection and assistance as necessary in the meantime.

Disaster Response Activities

The following are typical activities of emergency response:

1. Warning

Warning refers to information concerning the nature of the danger and imminent disaster threats.
Warnings must be rapidly disseminated to government officials, institutions and the population at large
in the areas at immediate risk so that appropriate actions may be taken, namely, either to evacuate or
secure property and prevent further damage. The warning could be disseminated via radio, television,
the written press, telephone system and cell phone.

2. Evacuation and migration

 Evacuation involves the relocation of a population from zones at risk of an imminent disaster to a safer
location. The primary concern is the protection of life of the community and immediate treatment of
those who may be injured. Evacuation is most associated with tropical storms but is also a frequent
requirement with technological or industrial hazards. For evacuation to work there must be:

• A timely and accurate warning system,

• Clear identification of escape routes,
• An established policy that requires everyone to evacuate when an order is given,
• A public education programme to make the community aware of the plan.

In the case of a slow onset of a disaster, for example severe drought, the movement of people from the
zone where they are at risk to a safer site is not, in fact, evacuation, but crisis-induced migration. This
movement is usually not organized and coordinated by authorities but is a spontaneous response to the
perception by the migrants that food and/or security can be obtained elsewhere.

3. Search and rescue (SAR)

Search and Rescue (SAR) is the process of identifying the location of disaster victims that may be trapped
or isolated and bringing them to safety and medical attention. In the aftermath of tropical storms and
floods, SAR usually includes locating stranded flood victims, who may be threatened by rising water, and
either bringing them to safety or providing them with food and first aid until they can be evacuated or
returned to their homes.

In the aftermath of earthquakes, SAR normally focuses on locating people who are trapped and/ or
injured in collapsed buildings.

4. Post-disaster assessment

The primary objective of assessment is to provide a clear, concise picture of the post-disaster situation,
to identify relief needs and to develop strategies for recovery. It determines options for humanitarian
assistance, how best to utilize existing resources, or to develop requests for further assistance.

5. Response and relief

When a disaster has occurred response and relief must take place immediately; there can be no delays. It
is therefore important to have contingency plans in place.

Relief is the provision on a humanitarian basis of material aid and emergency medical care necessary to
save and preserve human lives. It also enables families to meet their basic needs for medical and health
care, shelter, clothing, water, and food (including the means to prepare food). Relief supplies or services
are typically provided, free of charge, in the days and weeks immediately following a sudden disaster. In
the case of deteriorating slow-onset emergency situations and population displacements (refugees,
internally and externally displaced people), emergency relief may be needed for extended periods.

6. Logistics and supply

The delivery of emergency relief will require logistical facilities and capacity. A well-organized supply
service is crucial for handling the procurement or receipt, storage, and dispatch of relief supplies for
distribution to disaster victims.

7. Communication and information management

All the above activities are dependent on communication. There are two aspects to communications in
disasters. One is the equipment that is essential for information flow, such as radios, telephones and their
supporting systems of repeaters, satellites, and transmission lines. The other is information
management: the protocol of knowing who communicates what information to whom, what priority is
given to it, and how it is disseminated and interpreted.

8. Survivor response and coping

In the rush to plan and execute a relief operation it is easy to overlook the real needs and resources of the
survivors. The assessment must consider existing social coping mechanisms that negate the need to bring
in outside assistance. On the other hand, disaster survivors may have new and special needs for social
services to help adjust to the trauma and disruption caused by the disaster. Participation in the disaster
 response process by individuals to community organizations is critical to healthy recovery. Through these
appropriate coping mechanisms will be most successfully developed.

9. Security

Security is not always a priority issue after a sudden onset of disasters. It is typically handled by civil
defense or police departments. However, the protection of the human rights and safety of displaced
populations and refugees can be of paramount importance requiring international monitoring.

10. Emergency operations management

None of the above activities can be implemented without some degree of emergency operations
management. Policies and procedures for management requirements need to be established well in
advance of the disaster.

11. Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation consists of actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to enable basic services to resume
functioning, assist victims’ self-help efforts to repair dwellings and community facilities, and to facilitate
the revival of economic activities (including agriculture). Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected
populations (families and local communities) to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of
life. It may be considered as a transitional phase between (i) immediate relief and (ii) more major, long-
term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.

12. Reconstruction

Reconstruction is the permanent construction or replacement of severely damaged physical structures,

the full restoration of all services and local infrastructure, and the revitalization of the economy (including
agriculture). Reconstruction must be fully integrated into ongoing long-term development plans, taking
account of future disaster risks. It must also consider the possibilities of reducing those risks by the
incorporation of appropriate mitigation measures. Damaged structures and services may not necessarily
be restored in them previous form or locations. It may include the replacement of any temporary
arrangements established as a part of the emergency response or rehabilitation. Under conditions of
conflict, however, rehabilitation and reconstruction may not be feasible. For obvious reasons of safety
and security, activities in rehabilitation and reconstruction may need to wait until peace allows them.

Phase 4 Disaster Recovery

As the emergency is brought under control, the affected population can undertake a growing number of
activities aimed at restoring their lives and the infrastructure that supports them. There is no distinct
point at which immediate relief changes into recovery and then into long-term sustainable development.
There will be many opportunities during the recovery period to enhance prevention and increase
preparedness, thus reducing vulnerability. Ideally, there should be a smooth transition from recovery to
on-going development.

Recovery activities continue until all systems return to normal or better. Recovery measures, both short
and long term, include returning vital life-support systems to minimum operating standards; temporary
housing; public information; health and safety education; reconstruction; counselling programmed; and
economic impact studies. Information resources and services include data collection related to
rebuilding, and documentation of lessons learned. Additionally, there may be a need to provide food and
shelter for those displaced by the disaster.

Recovery activities are classified as short-term and long-term.

During response, emergency action was taken to restore vital functions while carrying out protective
measures against further damage or injury.

a. Short-term recovery is immediate and tends to overlap with response. The authorities restore
interrupted utility services, clear roads, and either fix or demolish severely damaged buildings.
Additionally, there may be a need to provide food and shelter for those displaced by the disaster. Although
called short-term, some of these activities may last for weeks
b. Long-term recovery may involve some of the same activities, but it may continue for several months,
sometimes years, depending on the severity and extent of the damage sustained. For example, it may
include the complete redevelopment of damaged areas. The goal is for the community to return to a state
that is even better than before the emergency.
This is an ideal time to implement new mitigation measures so that the community is better prepared to
deal with future threats and does not leave itself vulnerable to the same setbacks as before. Helping the
community to take new mitigation steps is one of the most important roles during the recovery phase.

The Recovery Plan

The recovery process should be understood clearly, and it is important to have a general plan for recovery
which should be appended to emergency operation plans.

The primary purpose of the plan is to spell out the major steps for managing successful recovery. For each
step you will also designate key partners and their roles and steps to mobilize them. The plan should have
at least the following seven steps:

1. Gathering basic information

2. Organizing recovery
3. Mobilizing resources for recovery
4. Administering recovery
5. Regulating recovery
6. Coordinating recovery activities
7. Evaluating recovery

For most disasters, local communities are able to provide the assistance needed for recovery. However,
for a major disaster, it may be necessary to obtain assistance from the government and other sources.
Therefore, preparations must be made to request outside aid if a major disaster occurs. This will mean
informing and convincing decision makers, especially those outside the affected area. Documenting the
effects of the disaster is the best way to carry this out.

Documentation involves providing evidence of what happened. Photographs of the damage provide
irrefutable evidence. Take pictures of the damage, the repair work, and completed restorations. You
cannot take too many pictures.

There can be a good documentation if the following five simple steps are followed:

1. Take pictures of damages and repairs. More is better than too little. Private citizens may have excellent
shots to supplement your own.
2. Take notes on damages and repairs. Again, more is better than too little. If there is too much to write at
one time, dictate your notes into a tape recorder for later transcription.
3. Clip and file newspaper reports and stories. If you can get video footage from the television stations,
do that also.
4. Record all expenditures carefully and keep all receipts and invoices.
5. Make sure anyone acting on behalf of the jurisdiction does the same.

Disasters as opportunities for development initiatives

Disasters can be a vehicle for major development programs. The political impact of damage and
disruption can be a real catalyst for change. Disaster inspired development initiatives are influenced in a
number of ways, but two aspects are especially important. First, disasters can highlight areas of
vulnerability, for example where serious loss of life has occurred, or where the economic damage is
disproportionate to the strength of the impact. The outcome of this is usually to highlight the general level
of underdevelopment. Second, for a few weeks or months, the political environment may favour a much
higher rate of economic and social change than before, in areas such as land reform, new job training,
housing improvements, and restructuring of the economic base (note however that this may involve a
transfer of resources from other areas and sectors). The value of direct international assistance given after
disasters may partially compensate for economic losses, although the amounts are usually rather small
in relation to the total loss.
There may also be longer-term benefits from a drastic restructuring of the economy because of a disaster.
For example, small island economies which were previously dependent on a single crop may expand their
economic base, often with international assistance. The extent to which development opportunities can
be followed up after a disaster will usually be constrained or otherwise influenced by donor investment
policy for emergency loans. It is illustrative to review the current World Bank criteria for emergency
lending for post disaster investment.