MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

 To describe a whole set of data with a single

value that represents the middle or centre of its
distribution is the purpose of measure of central
tendency (measures of centre or central
location).

 To put in other words, it is a way to describe the

center of a data set.

 It lets us know what is normal or 'average' for

a set of data.

 It also condenses the data set down to one

representative value, which is useful when you
are working with large amounts of data.  Observation or a dataset divided by the total
number of observations. This is also known as
the arithmetic average.

 The mean can be used for both continuous and

discrete numeric data as well as for categorical
data, as the values cannot be summed.

 As the mean includes every value in the

distribution the mean is influenced by outliers
(which are numbers that are much higher or
much lower than the rest of the data set) and
skewed (asymmetric) distributions.

 This measurement is applicable to use for ratio

and interval data.
 The median is considered as the physical
middle point in a distribution because it is  The mode can be found for both numerical and
located at the center position when the values categorical (non-numerical) data. It is the most
are arranged in ascending or descending commonly occurring value in a distribution.
order, which in turn divides the distribution in
 There can be more than one mode for the same
half (there are 50% of observations on either
distribution of data, (bi-modal, or multi-
side of the median value).
modal), thus limiting the ability of the mode in
 If a distribution has an odd number of describing the center of the distribution.
observations, the median value is the middle
 In some particular cases, the distribution may
value.
have no mode at all (i.e. if all values are
 If it is an even number, the median value is the different).In such case, it may be better to
mean or average of the two middle values. consider using the median or mean, or group the
data in to appropriate intervals, and find the
modal class.
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY • The Quartile Deviation

• A measure of variation shows the extent to o Another way of measuring the

which numerical values tend to spread out over variability of an observation is through
the average. A suitable measure should be large quantile deviation, these are:
when the value vary over a wide range and
should be small when the range of variation is  Percentile Deviation (PD)
not too great.
 Decile Deviation (DD)
• A measure of dispersion is a method of
 Quartile Deviation (QD)
measuring the degree by which numerical data
or values tend to spread from or cluster about a  Inter-quartile Range (IR)
central point of average.
o It is a measure of variation based on the
• The Range quartiles of the distribution.
o The range is the simplest form of o It describes the variations of the middle
measuring the variation of a distribution. 50% of the data set.
To get the range, subtract the lowest
score or observation from the highest Q 3−Q 1
o Formula: QD=
score. 2
o Formula: Ungrouped Data k
o Ungrouped Data Q k = N
4
o R=HS−LS

 Where: • The Percentile Deviation

 R=Range o Percentile Deviation describes the
variations of the middle 80% of the data
 HS=Higher Score
set.
 LS=Lower Score
o Formula: PD=P90 −P10

• The Mean Absolute Deviation k

o Ungrouped Data Pk = N
100
o The mean deviation (also called the
mean absolute deviation) is the mean of • The Decile Deviation
the absolute deviations of a set of data
o Same with the Percentile Deviation that
about the data's mean.
describes the variations of the middle
o The mean deviation or the average 80% of the data set.
deviation is defined as the mean of the
o Formula: DD=D 9−D 1
absolute deviations of observations
from some suitable average which may k
be the arithmetic mean, the median or o Ungrouped Data D k = N
10
the mode.
• The Inter-quartile Range
o Formula: Ungrouped Data
o It is a measure of variation based on the
o MAD=
∑|x −x́| quartiles of the distribution.
N
 o It describe the variations of the middle
 3 23 26.67 711.2889
50% of the data set.

o Formula: IR=Q 3−Q 1 25 24.67 608.6089

 4
o Ungrouped Data
 5 36 13.67 186.8689
k
Qk = N
4
 6 42 7.67 58.8289
• The Variance

o Sample Variance (s2)  7 48 1.67 2.7889

 Ungrouped Data
 8 68 18.33 335.9889
2
 S2 = ∑
|x− x́|
N −1  9 77 27.33 746.9289

o Population Variance (2)  10 78 28.33 802.5889

 Ungrouped Data 80 30.33 919.9089

 11
2
2 ∑ | x−x́|
 σ =
N  12 83 33.33 1110.8889

  596 275.34 7490.6668

• The Standard Deviation

o Sample Standard Deviation (S)

 S= √ S2

o Population Standard Deviation ()

 σ =√ σ 2

Remember this!

A small standard deviation (and variance) means a

high degree of uniformity in the observations and
homogeneity in the distribution.

 N x |x− x́| |x− x́|2

 1 18 31.67 1002.9889

 2 18 31.67 1002.9889
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Characteristic of a Normal Curve

 It is symmetrical and bell-shaped.

 The normal curve is symmetrical about the

mean μ;

 The mean is at the middle and divides the area

into halves;

 The mean, median, and mode are identical.

 The normal curve is asymptotic to the base line,

even when extended to great distances beyond
the mean and it continues to approach but never
quite reaches the baseline.

 The total area under the curve is equal to 1;

Mean = Median = Mode

Carl Gauss

 The normal curve is often called the Gaussian

distribution, after Carl Friedrich Gauss, who
discovered many of its properties.  Gauss,
commonly viewed as one of the greatest
mathematicians of all time (if not the greatest),
is honored by Germany on their 10 Deutschmark
bill.
Properties of a Normal Curve

 Theoretical construction

 Also called Bell Curve or Gaussian Curve

Has a mean = 0 and standard deviation = 1.
 Perfectly symmetrical normal distribution
General relationships: ±1 s = about 68.26%
 The mean of a distribution is the midpoint of the
curve

 The tails of the curve are infinite

 Mean of the curve = median = mode

 The “area under the curve” is measured in

standard deviations from the mean

Has a mean = 0 and standard deviation = 2.

General relationships: ±2 s = about 95.44%

Normal Curve

Has a mean = 0 and standard deviation = 3.

 General relationships: ±3 s = about 99.74%

Find the area under the standard normal curve for

the following, using the z-table. Sketch each one. 

1. Between z = 0 and z = 0.78

 P(Z = 0.78)
o 0.2823

4. Between z = 0.44 and z = 1.50

 P(0.44 < Z < 1.50)

o 0.4332 - 0.1700
 = 0.2632

2. Between z = -0.56 and z = 0

 P(Z = - 0.56)
o 0.2123

5. The right of z = -1.33

 P(Z < - 1.33)

o 0.4082 + 0.5
 = 0.9082

3. Between z = -0.43 and z = 0.78

 P(- 0.43 < Z < 0.78)

o 0.1664 + 0.2823
 = 0.4487

Standard Scores Z-Scores

 Are a way of determining the position of a

single score under the normal curve.
  Measured in standard deviations relative to the
mean of the curve.
Solution for No. 2
 The Z-score can be used to determine an area
under the curve known as a probability. if x = 12

x−μ 12−20
 Formula: z= z=
σ 10

• z – standard score z=−0.8

• x – score z=0.2881

• µ - mean if x = 15

• σ – population standard deviation 15−20

z=
10
Find the area under the curve between 12 and 15 with:
z=−0.5
1. µ = 10 σ=5
z=0.1915
2. µ = 20 σ = 10
P(-0.8 < Z < -0.5)
If the sample is 300, find the percentage.
0.2881 - 0.1915
Solution for No. 1
= 0.0966
if x = 12
N= 300 ×0.0966
12−10
z=
5 N= 28.98

z=0.4 N= 29

z=0.1554

if x = 15 CORRELATION

15−10 Pearson-Product Moment Correlation

z=
5
Formula:
z=1
N ∑ XY −∑ X ∑ Y
r xy =
z=0.3413 2 2 2 2
√[ N ∑ X −( ∑ X ) ][ N ∑ Y −(∑ Y ) ]
P(0.4 < Z < 1)
The Significance Test for the Coefficient of
0.3413 - 0.1554 Correlation

= 0.1859 Table of Relationship for the Value of r

N= 300 × 0.1859  

N= 55.77 The Value of r Verbal Interpretation

N= 56
  1 Perfectly Relationship Pearson-Product Moment Correlation Example No. 1

 0.81 to  0.99 Very High Relationship The following data represent the Mathematics grades
(Y) for a random sample of 6 freshmen students of a
 0.71 to  0.80 High Relationship certain school along with their IQ score (X). Use 0.05
Level of Significance.
 0.41 to  0.70 Moderate Relationship
Student X Y X2 Y2 XY
 0.21 to  0.40 Low Relationship
A 67 78 4489 6084 5226
 0.01 to  0.20 Slight Relationship
B 71 71 5041 5041 5041
0 No Relationship
C 60 88 3600 7744 5280
n−2
t=r xy
√ 1−r xy2 D 95 90 9025 8100 8550

df =n−2 E 80 73 6400 5329 5840

The Significance Test for the Coefficient of F 67 89 4489 7921 5963

Correlation
  440 489 33044 40219 35900
Test the Ho:  = 0
N ∑ XY −∑ X ∑ Y
r xy =
against Ha:   0 2 2 2 2
√[ N ∑ X −( ∑ X ) ][ N ∑ Y −(∑ Y ) ]
Formula:
( 6 ) ( 35900 )−(440)(489)
r xy =
n−2
t=r xy
√ 1−r xy2
2
√ [(6)(33044)−( 440 ) ] [(6)(40219)−( 489 ) ]
215400−215160
2

Degree of Freedom r xy =
√ [ 198264−193600 ] [ 241314−239121 ]
df =n−2
240
r xy =
Level of Significance (α) √ [ 4664 ][ 2193 ]
1%  5%  10% 240
r xy =
√ 10228152
240
LINEAR REGRESSION r xy =
3198.1482
Formula:
r xy =0.0750
y=a+bx
r xy =0.0 8
( ∑ y ) ( ∑ x 2 ) −( ∑ x )( ∑ xy ) Interpretation: Slight Relationship
a= 2
( N ) ( ∑ x 2 )−( ∑ x )
Ho: =0
( N ) ( ∑ xy )−( ∑ x )( ∑ y ) (There is no significant relationship between the
b= 2
2
( N ) ( ∑ x )−( ∑ x ) Mathematics and IQ scores.)
Ha: 0 Non rejection of Ho means that there is no significant
relationship between the IQ scores and Mathematics
(There is a significant relationship between the Scores of the students.
Mathematics and IQ scores.)
Solution
: 0.05 or 5%
( ∑ y ) ( ∑ x 2 ) −( ∑ x )( ∑ xy )
(Two-tailed Test) a= 2
( N ) ( ∑ x 2 )−( ∑ x )
Use 5%
( 489 ) ( 33044 )− ( 440 ) ( 35900 )
n−2 a=
t=r xy
√ 1−r xy2
( 6 ) ( 33044 )−( 440 )2

16158516−15796000
a=
6−2 198264−193600
t=( 0.08)
√
1−(0.08)2
a=
362516
4 4664
t=( 0. 08 )
√ 0. 9936
a=77.73
t=( 0.08)(2.0064)
( N ) ( ∑ xy )−( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
b=
t=0.1605 ( N ) ( ∑ x 2 )−( ∑ x )
2

Degree of Freedom
( 6 ) (35900 )−( 440 )( 489 )
b=
df =n−2 ( 6 ) ( 33044 ) −( 440 )2
df =6−2 215400−215160
b=
198264−193600
df =4
240
Critical/Tabular Value b=
4664
2.7764
b=0.05

Since , a=77.73
Decision Rule:
y=a+bx
Reject Ho if:
y=77.73+ 0.05(85)
Computed Value > Tabular Value (2.7764)
y=77.73+ 4.25
Computed Value < Tabular Value (-2.7762)
y=81.98
Otherwise, do not reject Ho.
If the IQ score is 85 , what is
Decision:
the predicting score
Since the computed value (0.1605) is less than the
tabular value (2.7764), therefore fails to reject Ho. ¿ Mathematics ?
Interpretation:
Z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.
0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.
1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.
2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.
3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.
4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.
5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.
6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.
7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.
8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.
9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.
0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.
1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.
2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.
3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.
4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.
5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.
6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1. 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
 7
1.
8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.
9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.
0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.
1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.
2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.
3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.
4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.
5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.
6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.
7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.
8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.
9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.
0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990

Table 2. Critical Values for Pearson’s r

Level of Significance for a One-Tailed Test

.10 .05 .025 .01 .005 .0005

Level of Significance for a Two-Tailed Test

df .20 .10 .05 .02 .01 .001
1 0.951 0.988 0.997 0.9995 0.9999 0.99999
2 0.800 0.900 0.950 0.980 0.990 0.999 Interpretation of Coefficient of Correlation

Value of r Strength of Correlation

+1 Perfect Positive Correlation
+0.71 to +0.99 Strong positive correlation
3 0.687 0.805 0.878 0.934 0.959 0.991
4 0.608 0.729 0.811 0.882 0.917 0.974
5 0.551 0.669 0.755 0.833 0.875 0.951

6 0.507 0.621 0.707 0.789 0.834 0.925

7 0.472 0.582 0.666 0.750 0.798 0.898
8 0.443 0.549 0.632 0.715 0.765 0.872
9 0.419 0.521 0.602 0.685 0.735 0.847
10 0.398 0.497 0.576 0.658 0.708 0.823

11 0.380 0.476 0.553 0.634 0.684 0.801

12 0.365 0.457 0.532 0.612 0.661 0.780
13 0.351 0.441 0.514 0.592 0.641 0.760
14 0.338 0.426 0.497 0.574 0.623 0.742
15 0.327 0.412 0.482 0.558 0.606 0.725

16 0.317 0.400 0.468 0.542 0.590 0.708

17 0.308 0.389 0.456 0.529 0.575 0.693
18 0.299 0.378 0.444 0.515 0.561 0.679
19 0.291 0.369 0.433 0.503 0.549 0.665
20 0.284 0.360 0.423 0.492 0.537 0.652

21 0.277 0.352 0.413 0.482 0.526 0.640

22 0.271 0.344 0.404 0.472 0.515 0.629
23 0.265 0.337 0.396 0.462 0.505 0.618
24 0.260 0.330 0.388 0.453 0.496 0.607
25 0.255 0.323 0.381 0.445 0.487 0.597

26 0.250 0.317 0.374 0.437 0.479 0.588

27 0.245 0.311 0.367 0.430 0.471 0.579
28 0.241 0.306 0.361 0.423 0.463 0.570
29 0.237 0.301 0.355 0.416 0.456 0.562
30 0.233 0.296 0.349 0.409 0.449 0.554

40 0.202 0.257 0.304 0.358 0.393 0.490

60 0.165 0.211 0.250 0.295 0.325 0.408
120 0.117 0.150 0.178 0.210 0.232 0.294 ∞ 0.057 0.073 0.087 0.103 0.114 0.146