5.

PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES

5.1 Introduction
The performance of a power system under normal balanced steady state conditions is of primary importance in
power system engineering. The transmission line is the main energy corridor in a power system. The
performance of a power system depends mainly on the performance of transmission lines in the system. The
important considerations in the operation of transmission lines are voltage drop and power losses occurring in
the line and efficiency of transmission. The performance of a transmission line is governed by its parameters –
series resistance R and inductance L, shunt capacitance C and conductance G. The resistance R is due to
the fact that every conductor offers opposition flow of current. The inductance L is due to the fact that the
current carrying capacitor is surrounded by the magnetic lines of force. The capacitance of the line is due to the
fact that the conductor carrying current forms a capacitor with the earth which is always at lower potential than
the conductor and the air between them forms a dielectric medium. The shunt conductance is mainly due to
flow of leakage currents over the surface of the insulators especially during bad weather.
The effect of line resistance is to cause voltage drop (IR volts) and power loss (I²R Watts) n the line. The effect
of line inductance is to cause voltage drop in the line in quadrature with the current flowing in the conductor,
which is equal to 2πfLI volts where f is supply frequency in Hz, L is the inductance per conductor in Henries
and I is the current flowing through the conductors in ampere. The effect of line capacitance is to produce a
current; called the charging current, which is in quadrature with the voltage. This component of current in the
conductor has its maximum value at the sending end of the line and decreases continuously as the receiving end
of the line is approached at which its value is zero. The magnitude of charging current I C at the sending end is
given by 2πfCV s where f is the supply frequency in Hz, C is the capacitor per conductor in farads and V s is the
voltage at the sending end to the neutral in volts. The shunt conductance is in parallel with the system.
Generally the leakage currents are small and the shunt conductance G is ignored in calculations.
It is noteworthy that both the reactive drop (2πfLI) and the charging current (2πfCV s ) of the line are
proportional to the supply frequency and thus have a far greater influence on the performance of a 50Hz line
than on a 25 Hz line. Also that with overhead lines reactance effects is relatively more important owing to wide
spacing of conductors which must be employed, whilst in the case of transmission by underground cables
reactance effects are small and the capacitance effect predominates.
5.2 Classification of Transmission Lines
The performance of overhead transmission lines are classified as short, medium, and long transmission lines.
The overhead transmission lines are classified depending upon the manner in which capacitance is taken into
account. Transmission lines having length lesser than 80km and operating voltage lower than 20kV fall in the
first category i.e., short transmission lines. Due to smaller distance and lower line voltage, the capacitance
effects are extremely small and, therefore can be neglected. Hence the performance of short transmission lines
depends upon the resistance and inductance of the line. Though in an actual line, the resistance and inductance
are distributed over the whole length, but in case of short lines, the total resistance and inductance are assumed
to be lumped at a place. In case of single phase circuits, the total loop resistance and inductance is to be taken
into account, whereas in case of 3-phase circuits only resistance and inductance to neutral i.e., per phase is
required to be taken into account. The effect of generators and transformers can be taken into account by adding
their impedances to the impedance of the line.
Transmission lines having length between 80km and 200km and line voltage between 20kV and 100kV fall into
second category i.e. medium transmission lines. Owing to appreciable length and voltage of the line the
1
charging current is appreciable and, therefore, capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the
line, yet the capacitance may be assumed to be concentrated at one or more points.
The transmission line having length above 200km and the line voltage above 100kV fall into the third class i.e.
long transmission lines. In these lines impedance and admittance are to be considered uniformly distributed
(not lumped) and, therefore, for their solution rigorous methods are employed.
It is to be emphasized that exact solution of any transmission line must be based on the fact that the parameters
or constants of any line are not lumped but are distributed uniformly throughout the length of the line. However,
results obtained by assuming the constants as lumped for short and medium transmission lines are reasonably
accurate.
5.3 Regulation and Efficiency of a Transmission Line
By performance of a transmission line is meant the determination of regulation and efficiency of the line.
1. Regulation. When the load is supplied, there is a voltage drop in the line due to resistance and
inductance of the line and, therefore, receiving-end voltage V R is usually less than sending-end voltage
V S . The voltage drop i.e., the difference of sending-end voltage and receiving-end voltage is called the
regulation.
When the load is thrown off i.e., when the line is supplying no load, the receiving-end voltage becomes
equal to sending-end voltage and therefore, regulation can be defined as below:
Regulation is defined as the changes in voltage at the receiving (or load) end when the full load is thrown
off, the sending-end (supply) voltage and supply frequency remaining unchanged. It is usually expressed as
a percentage of receiving end voltage.
Mathematically percentage voltage regulation of a transmission line is given by the expression
V S −V R
% Voltage regulation = x 100 (5)
VR
Where V S is the voltage at sending or supply end and V R is the voltage at the receiving or load end. It is to be
noted here that V S and V R are the magnitudes of the voltages.
The lower the voltage regulation, better it is because low voltage regulation means little variation in receiving-
end voltage due to variation in load current. Knowledge of voltage regulation helps in maintaining the voltage at
the load terminals within prescribed limits by employing suitable voltage control equipment.
2. Efficiency. When the load is supplied there are line losses due to ohmic resistance of the line conductors
and power delivered at the load end of a transmission line is less than the power supplied at the sending
end. Efficiency of a transmission line is defined as below:
Efficiency of a transmission line is defined as the ratio of power delivered at the receiving end to the
power sent from the sending end.
Mathematically transmission efficiency is given by the expression

V R I R cos ɸ R
ȠT = x 100 (5.1)
V S I S cos ɸS

V R I R cos ɸR
Or Ƞ T = x 100 (5.2)
V R I R cos ɸR +line losses

2
Where V R , I R and cos ɸR are the receiving-end voltage, current and power factor (all phase values) while V S , I S
and cos ɸS are the sending-end voltage, current and power factor (all phase values).

5.4 Short Transmission Lines

In a short transmission line the shunt conductance and shunt capacitance are neglected and so only the series
resistance and inductive reactance are to be considered. The equivalent circuit of a single phase short
transmission line is shown in Fig. 5 (i). Where R and X represent the total resistance and inductive reactance of
both the conductors (i.e., go and return) of a single phase transmission line. Here, the total line resistance and
inductance are shown as concentrated or lumped instead of being distributed. The circuit is a simple a.c. series
circuit.

Fig. 5 Short Transmission Line

I = load current
R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
X L = loop reactance
V R = receiving end voltage
cos ɸ R = receiving end power factor (lagging)
V s = sending end voltage
cos ɸ S = sending end power factor
The phasor diagram of the line for lagging load power factor is shown in Fig. 5 (ii). From the right angled
traingle ODC, we get,
(OC)² = (OD)² + (DC)²
or V 2s = (OE + ED)² + (DB + BC)²
= (V R cos ɸ R+ IR)² + (V R sin ɸ R + I X L)²
∴ V s = ( V R cos ɸR + IR )2 +(V R sin ɸR + I X L ) ²
√
V s−V R
(i) %age Voltage Regulation = x 100
VR

OD V R cos ɸR + IR
(ii) Sending end p.f., cos ɸ S = =
OC Vs

(iii) Power delivered = V R I R cos ɸ R

3
 Line losses = I²R
Power sent out = V R I R cos ɸ R + I²R
Power delivered
%age Transmission efficiency = x 100
Power sent out

V R I R cos ɸR
= x 100
V R I R cos ɸ R + I ² R
An approximate expression for the sending end voltage V s can be obtained as follows. Draw perpendicular from
B and C on OA produced as shown in Fig. 5.1. Then OC is nearly equal to OF
i.e.,

Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2

OC = OF = OA + AF = OA + AG + GF
= OA + AG + BH
∴ V s = V R + IR cos ɸ R + I X L sin ɸ R
Solution in complex notation. It is often convenient and profitable to make the line calculations in complex
notation.
Taking ⃗V R as the reference phasor, draw the phasor diagram as shown in Fig 5.2 It is clear that ⃗
V S is the phasor
V R and ⃗I ⃗Z .
sum of ⃗
VR=VR+j0
⃗

⃗I = ⃗I ˂ (angle) - ɸ R = I (cos ɸ R - j sin ɸ R)

⃗Z = R + j X L
⃗S = V
V ⃗R + ⃗I ⃗Z
= (V R + j 0) + I (cos ɸ R - j sin ɸ R) (R + j X L)
= (V R + IR cos ɸ R + X L sin ɸ R) + j ( I X L cos ɸ R - IR sin ɸ R)

∴ V s = ( V R + IR cos ɸ R + I X L sin ɸ R )2 +¿ ¿ ( I X L cos ɸ R - IR sin ɸ R)²

√
The second term under the root is quite small and can be neglected with reasonable accuracy. Therefore,
approximate expressions for V s becomes:
V s = V R + IR cos ɸ R + I X L sin ɸ R
The following points may be noted:

4
(i) The approximate formula for V s (=V R + IR cos ɸ R + I X L sin ɸ R) gives fairly correct results for lagging power
factors. However, appreciable error is caused for leading power factors. Therefore, approximate expression for
V s should be used for lagging p.f. only.
(ii) The solution in complex notation is in more presentable form.
Mixed Sending - and Receiving – end Conditions
Sometimes the mixed conditions arise for example when the sending-end voltage and the receiving-end power
and power factor are given and the sending-end power and power factor and receiving-end voltage are to be
determined. In such circumstances the solution becomes more complicated. Such problems can be dealt with as
follows:
We know that, Power delivered,
P = V R I cos ɸR watts (5)
Reactive volt-amperes delivered,
Q = V R I sin ɸ R (5.1)
Sending-end voltage,
V s = ( V R cos ɸR + IR )2 +(V R sin ɸR + IX )²
√
Or V 2s = V 2R cos ² ɸR + 2V RIR cos ɸR + I ² R ² + V 2R sin ² ɸ R + 2V RIX sin ɸ R + I ² X ²

Or V 2s = V 2R ¿ + sin ² ɸ R) + 2V R ¿ IR cos ɸR + IX sin ɸ R) + I ² ¿ + X ²)

Or V 2s = V 2R + 2V R I ¿R cos ɸR + X sin ɸ R) + I ² ¿ + X ²) (5.2)

P
Substituting V R I cos ɸ R = P, V R I sin ɸR = Q and I = from Eqs. (5), (5.1) and (5) respectively in above
V R cos ɸR
eq. (5.2) we have

2 2 ( R2 + X 2 ) P ²
V = V + 2(PR + QX) +
s R
V 2R cos ² ɸR

2 2 4 2 ( R2 + X 2 ) P ²
Or V - V = V + 2V (PR + QX) +
s R R R
cos ² ɸ R

4 2 2 ( R2 + X 2 ) P ²
Or V -VR R [V s −2(PR+ QX ) ] +
cos ² ɸ R
=0

Or V 4R - AV 2R + B = 0

( R2 + X 2 ) P ²
Where A = V 2s −2(PR+QX ) and B =
cos ² ɸ R

5
 A ± √ ( A2 −4 B)
Or VR=
√ 2
(5.3)

From the above expression two values for V R will be obtained depending on whether the +ive or –ive sign is
used. The solution giving the higher value of V R and consequently higher transmission efficiency is one
required in practice, and therefore the +ive is usually taken.
After determining the value of V R , other quantities can be evaluated.

Example 1
A single-phase line is transmitting 1,100kW power to a factory at 11kV and at 0.8pf lagging. It has a total
resistance of 2Ω and a loop reactance of 3Ω. Determine (i) the voltage at the sending end, (ii) percentage
regulation and (iii) transmission efficiency
Solution
P x 1000 1100 x 1000
Load current, I = = = 125A
V R cos ɸR 11,000 x 0.8

(i) Voltage at sending end,

V s = ( V R cos ɸR + IR )2 +(V R sin ɸR + IX )²
√
= √ ( 11,000 x 0.8+125 x 2 )2+(11,000 x 0.6+125 x 3) ²

= √ ( 9050 )2 +(6975) ² = 11426V

(ii) Percentage regulation

V s−V R 11426−11000
x 100 = x 100 = 3.873%
VR 11000
Line losses = I²R = (125)² x 2 = 31,250W or 31.25kW

(iii) Transmission efficiency,

Power delivered
ȠT x 100
Power sent out

V R I R cos ɸR
= x 100
V R I R cos ɸ R + I ² R

1100
= x 100 = 97.24%
1100+31.25
Example 2
A short three-phase transmission line of parameters R = 0.4Ω and X = 0.4Ω is delivering 2,000kVA to a load at
a pf of 0.8 lagging at the receiving end of the line. If the load voltage is 3,000V, determine the voltage
regulation and efficiency of the line.
Solution

6
 3,000
Phase voltage at sending end, V R = = 1732V
√3

Load delivered, P = 2000kVA

Load power factor, cos , ɸ L = 0.8 lagging

P∈VA 2,000 x 1000

Line current, I = = = 384.9A
3x VR 3 x 1732

Sending end voltage per phase,

V S = V R + IR cos ɸ R + IX sin ɸ R

= V R + I (R cos ɸ R + X sin ɸ R)

= 1732 + 384.9 (0.4 x 0.8 + 0.4 x 0.6)

= 1732 + 384.9 x 0.56 = 1947.5V

V s−V R 1947.5−1732
Percentage regulation = x 100 = x 100 = 12.44%
VR 1732

3 I ² R 3 x ( 384.9 )2 x 0.4
Total line losses = = = 177.8kW
1000 1000

Power output = KVA x cos ɸ = 2000 x 0.8 = 1600kW

Output Power
Transmission efficiency, Ƞ T x 100
Output Power+line losses

1600
= x 100 = 90%
1600+177.8

5.4.1 Three – phase Short Transmission Lines

For reasons associated with economy, transmission of electric power is done by 3-phase system. This system
may be regarded as consisting of three single phase units, each wire transmitting one-third of the total power.
As a matter of convenience, we generally analyze 3-phase system by considering one phase only. Therefore,
expression for regulation, efficiency etc. derived for a single phase line can also be applied to a 3-phase system.
Since only one phase is considered, phase values of 3-phase system should be taken. Thus, V s and V R are the
phase voltages, whereas R and X L are the resistance and inductive reactance per phase respectively. Fig. 5.3 (i)
shows a Y-connected generator supplying a balanced Y-connected load through a transmission line. Each
conductor has a resistance of RΩ and inductive reactance of X L Ω. Fig. 5..4 (ii) shows one phase separately. The
calculations can now be made in the same way as for a single phase line.

7
 Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4
Effect of Load p.f. on Regulation and Efficiency
The regulation and efficiency of a transmission line depend to a considerable extent upon the power factor of
the load.
1. Effect on regulation. The expression for voltage regulation of a short transmission line is given by :
I R cos ɸ R + I X L sin ɸ R
%age Voltage regulation = x 100 (for lagging p.f.)
VR

I R cos ɸ R−I X L sin ɸR

%age Voltage regulation = x 100 (for leading p.f.)
VR
The following conclusions can be drawn from the above expressions:
(i) When the load p.f. is lagging or unity or such leading that I R cos ɸR > I X L sin ɸR, then voltage regulation is
positive i.e., receiving end voltage V R will be less than the sending end voltageV S .
(ii) For a given V R and I, the voltage regulation of the line increases with the decrease in p.f. for lagging loads.
(iii) When the load p.f. is leading to this extent that I X L sin ɸ R > I R cos ɸ R, then voltage regulation is negative
i.e. the receiving end voltage V R is more than the sending end voltage V S .
(iv) For a given V R and I, the voltage regulation of the line decreases with the decrease in p.f. for leading loads.
2. Effect on transmission efficiency. The power delivered to the load depends upon the power factor.
P = V R Icos ɸR (For 1 phase line)

P
∴I=
V R cos ɸR

P = 3 V RI cos ɸR (For 3-phase line)

P
I=
3V R cos ɸ R
It is clear that in each case, for a given amount of power to be transmitted (P) and receiving end voltage (V R),
the load current I is inversely proportional to the load p.f. cos ɸR. Consequently, with the decrease in load p.f.,
the load current and hence the line losses are increased. This leads to the conclusion that transmission efficiency
of a line decreases with the decrease in load p.f. and vice-versa.
8
Example 3
What is the maximum length in km for a 1-phase transmission line having copper conductor of 0·775 cm² cross-
section over which 200 kW at unity power factor and at 3300V are to be delivered? The efficiency of
transmission is 90%. Take specific resistance as 1.725 μ Ω cm.
Solution
Receiving end power = 200 kW = 200000 W

Transmission efficiency = 0·9

200 000
∴ Sending end power = = 222222 W
0.9

∴ Line losses = 222222 − 200000 = 22222 W

200 x 10³
Line current, I = = 60.6A
3300 x 1

Let R Ω be the resistance of one conductor.

Line losses = 2 I² R

or 22222 = 2 (60·6)² × R

22222
∴ R= = 3.025Ω
2 x (60 · 6)²

Now, R = ρ l/a

Ra 3.025 x 0.775
∴l= = = 1.36 x 106 cm = 13.6km.
ρ 1.725 x 10−6
Example 4
Estimate the distance over which a load of 15000 kW at a p.f. 0·8 lagging can be delivered by a 3-phase
transmission line having conductors each of resistance 1 Ω per kilometer. The voltage at the receiving end is to
be 132 kV and the loss in the transmission is to be 5%.
Solution.
Power delivered 15000 x 103
Line current, I = = = 82A
√ 3 x line voltage x power factor √ 3 x 132 x 10 3 x 0.8

Line losses = 5% of power delivered = 0·05 × 15000 = 750 kW

Let R Ω be the resistance of one conductor.

9
 Line losses = 3 I²R

or 750 × 10³ = 3 × (82)² × R

750× 10³
∴ R=¿ = 37.18Ω
3 ×(82)²
Resistance of each conductor per km is 1 Ω (given).
∴ Length of line = 37·18 km

Example 5
An 11 kV, 3-phase transmission line has a resistance of 1·5 Ω and reactance of 4 Ω per phase. Calculate the
percentage regulation and efficiency of the line when a total load of 5000 kVA at 0.8 lagging power factor is
supplied at 11 kV at the distant end.
Solution.
Resistance of each conductor, R = 1·5 Ω

Reactance of each conductor, X L = 4 Ω

11 x 10³
Receiving end voltage/phase, V R = = 6351V
√3

Load power factor, cos ɸR = 0·8 lagging

Power delivered∈kVA x 1000

Load current, I =
3 xV R
5000 x 1000
= = 262.43A
3 x 6351

Using the approximate expression for V S (sending end voltage per phase), we get,

V S = V R + I R cos ɸR + I X L sin ɸ R

= 6351 + 262·43 × 1·5 × 0·8 + 262·43 × 4 × 0·6 = 7295·8 V

V s−V R 7295· 8−6351

% regulation = x 100 = x 100 = 14.88%
VR 6351

Line losses = 3 I² R = 3 × (262·43)² × 1·5 = 310 × 10³ W = 310 kW

Output power = 5000 × 0·8 = 4000 kW

Input power = Ouput power + line losses = 4000 + 310 = 4310 kW

10
 Output power 4000
Transmission efficiency = × 100 = × 100 = 92·8%
Input Power 4310
5.5 Medium Transmission Lines
In short transmission line calculations, the effects of the line capacitance are neglected because such lines have
smaller lengths and transmit power at relatively low voltages (< 20 kV). However, as the length and voltage of
the line increase, the capacitance gradually becomes of greater importance.
Since medium transmission lines have sufficient length (50-150 km) and usually operate at voltages greater than
20 kV, the effects of capacitance cannot be neglected. Therefore, in order to obtain reasonable accuracy in
medium transmission line calculations, the line capacitance must be taken into consideration.
The capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line. However, in order to make the
calculations simple, the line capacitance is assumed to be lumped or concentrated in the form of capacitors
shunted across the line at one or more points. Such a treatment of localizing the line capacitance gives
reasonably accurate results. The most commonly used methods (known as localized capacitance methods) for
the solution of medium transmissions lines are:
(i) End condenser method (ii) Nominal T method (iii) Nominal π method.
Although the above methods are used for obtaining the performance calculations of medium lines, they can also
be used for short lines if their line capacitance is given in a particular problem.
End Condenser Method
In this method, the capacitance of the line is lumped or concentrated at the receiving or load end as shown in
Fig. 5.5. This method of localizing the line capacitance at the load end overestimates the effects of capacitance.
In Fig. 5.5, one phase of the 3-phase transmission line is shown as it is more convenient to work in phase
instead of line-to-line values.
Let I R = load current per phase
R = resistance per phase
X L = inductive reactance per phase
C = capacitance per phase
cos ɸR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
V S = sending end voltage per phase
The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig 5.6. Taking the receiving end voltage V R as the reference
phasor, we have, V R = V R + j 0

Fig 5.5 End Condenser Method Fig. 5.6 Phasor Diagram

I R = I R (cos ɸR − j sin ɸ R)
Load current, ⃗
11
 IC = j ⃗
Capacitive current, ⃗ VRωC=j2πfC⃗
VR

I S is the phasor sum of load current ⃗

The sending end current ⃗ I R and capacitive current ⃗
I C i.e.,

IS = ⃗
⃗ IR + ⃗
IC

= I R (cos ɸR − j sin ɸ R) + j 2 π f CV R

= I R cos ɸR + j (- I R sin ɸ R + 2 π f CV R )

I S ⃗Z = ⃗
Voltage drop/phase = ⃗ I S (R + j X L)

V S= ⃗
Sending end voltage, ⃗ VR+⃗
I S ⃗Z = ⃗
VR+ ⃗
I S (R + j X L)

Thus, the magnitude of sending end voltage V S can be calculated.

V s−V R
% regulation = x 100
VR

Power delivered / phase

% Voltage transmission efficiency = x 100
Power delivered / phase +losses/ phase

V R I R cos ɸR
= x 100
V R I R cos ɸ R + I 2S R
Limitations. Although end condenser method for the solution of medium lines is simple to work out
calculations, yet it has the following drawbacks:
(i) There is a considerable error (about 10%) in calculations because the distributed capacitance has been
assumed to be lumped or concentrated.
(ii) This method overestimates the effects of line capacitance.
Nominal T Method
In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the middle point of the line and half
the line resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side as shown in Fig. 5.7. Therefore, in this
arrangement, full charging current flows over half the line. In Fig. 5.7, one phase of 3- phase transmission line
is shown as it is advantageous to work in phase instead of line-to-line values.

12
 Fig.5.7
Let I R = load current per phase; R = resistance per phase
X L = inductive reactance per phase; C = capacitance per phase
cos ɸR = receiving end power factor (lagging) ; V s = sending end voltage/phase
V 1 = voltage across capacitor C
The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig. 5.8. Taking the receiving end voltage V
⃗R as the reference
phasor, we have,

Fig 5.8 Phasor Diagram for Fig. 5.7

Receiving end voltage, VR=VR+j0

Load current, I R = I R (cos ɸR − j sin ɸ R)

⃗

Voltage across C, V1 = ⃗
⃗ VR+⃗
I R ⃗Z / 2
R X
(
= V R +¿ I R (cos ɸR − j sin ɸ R)
2
+j L
2 )
Capacitive current, IC = = j ω C ⃗
⃗ V1 = j 2 π f C ⃗
V1

Sending end current, IS = ⃗

⃗ IR + ⃗
IC

13
 Z
⃗ X
Sending end voltage, VS = ⃗
⃗ V1 + ⃗
IS = ⃗ IS R + j L
V1 + ⃗ ( )
2 2 2
Nominal π Method
In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line to neutral) is divided into two halves; one half being
lumped at the sending end and the other half at the receiving end as shown in Fig. 5.9. It is obvious that
capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the line drop. However, it’s charging current must be added to
line current in order to obtain the total sending end current.

Fig. 5.9 Nominal π Method

Let I R = load current per phase
R = resistance per phase
X L = inductive reactance per phase
C = capacitance per phase
cos ɸR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
V S = sending end voltage per phase
The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig. 5.10. Taking the receiving end voltage as the reference
phasor, we have,
VR =VR+j0
⃗

Load current, I R = I R (cos ɸR − j sin ɸR )

⃗

Charging current at load end is

I C 1 = j ω (C/2)⃗
⃗ V R = jπ f C ⃗
VR

Line current, IL = ⃗
⃗ IR + ⃗
IC1

VS = ⃗
Sending end voltage, ⃗ VR+⃗
I L ⃗Z = ⃗
VR+⃗
I L ( R + j X L)

Charging current at the sending end is I C 2 = j ω (C/2)⃗

⃗ V S = jπ f C ⃗
VS

14
 Fig. 5.10

IS = ⃗
∴ Sending end current, ⃗ IL + ⃗
IC2

5.6 Long Transmission Lines

It is well known that line constants of the transmission line are uniformly distributed over the entire length of
the line. However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained in line calculations for short and medium lines by
considering these constants as lumped. If such an assumption of lumped constants is applied to long
transmission lines (having length excess of about 150 km), it is found that serious errors are introduced in the
performance calculations. Therefore, in order to obtain fair degree of accuracy in the performance calculations
of long lines, the line constants are considered as uniformly distributed throughout the length of the line.
Rigorous mathematical treatment is required for the solution of such lines.

Fig. 5.11
Fig. 5.11 shows the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase long transmission line on a phase-neutral basis. The whole
1
line length is divided into n sections, each section having line constants th of those for the whole line. The
n
following points may by noted:
(i) The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line as is actually the case.
(ii) The resistance and inductive reactance are the series elements.
(iii) The leakage susceptance (B) and leakage conductance (G) are shunt elements. The leakage susceptance is
due to the fact that capacitance exists between line and neutral. The leakage conductance takes into account the
energy losses occurring through leakage over the insulators or due to corona effect between conductors.
Admittance = √ G ²+B ² .
(iv) The leakage current through shunt admittance is maximum at the sending end of the line and decreases
continuously as the receiving end of the circuit is approached at which point its value is zero.

15
5.6.1 Analysis of Long Transmission Line (Rigorous method)
Fig. 5.12 shows one phase and neutral connection of a 3-phase line with impedance and shunt admittance of the
line uniformly distributed.

Fig. 5.12
Consider a small element in the line of length dx situated at a distance x from the receiving end.

Let z = series impedance of the line per unit length

y = shunt admittance of the line per unit length
V = voltage at the end of element towards receiving end
V + dV = voltage at the end of element towards sending end
I + dI = current entering the element dx
I = current leaving the element dx
Then for the small element dx,
z dx = series impedance
y dx = shunt admittance
Obviously, dV = I z dx

dV
Or =Iz (i)
dx
Now, the current entering the element is I + dI whereas the current leaving the element is I. The difference in
the currents flows through shunt admittance of the element i.e.,
dI = Current through shunt admittance of element = V y dx

dI
or =Vy (ii)
dx

Differentiating eq. (i) w.r.t. x, we get,

d ²V dI dI
dx ²
= z
dx
= z (V y) [ ∴
dx
=V y ¿ exp .(ii) ]
d ²V
Or =yzV (iii)
dx ²

The solution of this differential equation is

16
 V = k 1 cosh ( x √ y z ) + k 2 sinh ( x √ y z ) (iv)

Differentiating exp. (iv) w.r.t. x, we have,

dV
= k 1 √ y z sinh ( x √ y z ) + k 2 √ y z cosh ( x √ y z )
dx

dV
But =Iz [from exp. (i)]
dx

∴ I z = k 1 √ y z sinh ( x √ y z ) + k 2 √ z y cosh ( x √ y z )

y
Or I=
√ [ k sinh ( x √ y z )+ k 2 cosh ( x √ y z ) ]
z 1
(v)

Equations (iv) and (v) give the expressions for V and I in the form of unknown constants k 1 and k 2. The values
of k 1 and k 2 can be found by applying end conditions as under:
At x = 0, V = V R and I = I R
Putting these values in eq. (iv), we have,

V R = k 1 cosh 0 + k 2 sinh 0 = k 1 + 0

∴ V R= k 1

Similarly, putting x = 0, V = V R and I = I R in eq. (v), we have,

y k sinh 0+ k cosh 0 y
IR =
√ z
[ 1 2 ]=
√ z
[ 0 + k2 ]

z I
∴ k2 =
y √R

Substituting the values of k 1 and k 2 in eqs. (iv) and (v), we get,

z I
V = V R cosh ( x √ y z ) +
√ y
R sinh ( x √ y z )

y V
And I=
√
z
R sinh ( x √ y z ) + I R cosh ( x √ y z )

The sending end voltage (V S ) and sending end current ( I S) are obtained by putting x = l in the above equations
i.e.,
V S = V Rcosh ( l √ y z ) + z I R sinh ( l √ y z )
y √ 17
 y V
IS =
z √ R sinh ( l √ y z ) + I R cosh ( l √ y z )

Now, l √ y z = √ l y . l z = √ Y Z

y yl Y
And
√ √ √
z
=
zl
=
Z

Where Y = total shunt admittance of the line

Z = total series impedance of the line
Therefore, expressions for V S and I S become:

Z
V S = V Rcosh √ Y Z + I R
√ Y
sinh √ Y Z

I S = V R Y sinh √ Y Z + I R cosh √ Y Z
Z√
It is helpful to expand hyperbolic sine and cosine in terms of their power series.

Z Y Z²Y ²
cosh √ Y Z = 1+ ( 2
+
24
+… .. )
sinh √ Y Z = ¿
Example 6
A 3-φ transmission line 200 km long has the following constants:
Resistance/phase/km = 0·16 Ω
Reactance/phase/km = 0·25 Ω
Shunt admittance/phase/km = 1·5 × 10−6 S
Calculate by rigorous method the sending end voltage and current when the line is delivering a load of 20 MW
at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The receiving end voltage is kept constant at 110 kV.
Solution
Total resistance/phase, R = 0·16 × 200 = 32 Ω
Total reactance/phase, X L = 0·25 × 200 = 50 Ω
Total shunt admittance/phase, Y = j 1·5 × 10−6 × 200 = 0·0003 ∠ 90º
Series Impedance/phase, Z = R + j X L = 32 + j 50 = 59·4 ∠ 58º
The sending end voltage V S per phase is given by:
Z
V S = V Rcosh √ Y Z + I R
√ Y
sinh √ Z Y

Now √ Z Y = √ 59· 4 ∠ 58º x 0.0003<90 ° = 0.133 ¿ 74˚

Z Y = 0.0178 ¿ 148˚
18
 Z²Y² = 0·00032 ∠ 296º

Z 59 · 4 ∠ 58 ˚
√ √
Y
=
0.0003< 90 °
= 445 ¿−¿ 16˚

Y 0.0003< 90 °
√ √
Z
=
59 · 4 ∠ 58 ˚
= 0.00224 ¿ 16˚

Z Y Z ²Y ²
∴ cosh √ Y Z = 1+ + approximately
2 24

0.0178 0.00032
=1+ ¿ 148˚ + ¿ 296˚
2 24

= 1 + 0·0089 ∠ 148º + 0·0000133 ∠ 296º

= 1 + 0·0089 (− 0·848 + j 0· 529) + 0·0000133 (0·438 − j 0·9)

= 0·992 + j 0·00469 = 0·992 ∠ 0·26º

Sinh √ Y Z = √ Y Z + ¿ ¿ approximately

0.0024<222 °
= 0 133 ¿ 74˚ +
6

= 0·133 ∠ 74º + 0·0004 ∠ 222º

= 0·133 (0·275 + j 0·961) + 0·0004 (− 0·743 − j 0·67)

= 0·0362 + j 0·1275 = 0·1325 ∠ 74º6′

Receiving end voltage per phase is

V R = 110 × 10³/√3 = 63508 V

20 x 10 6
Receiving end current, I R = = 131A
√ 3 x 110 x 103 x 0.8

Putting the various values in exp (i), we get,

V S = 63508 × 0·992 ∠ 0·26º + 131 × 445 ∠ − 16º0′ × 0·1325 ∠ 74º6′

19
= 63000 ∠ 0·26º + 7724 ∠ 58º6′

= 63000 (0·999 + j 0·0045) + 7724 (0·5284 + j 0·8489)

= 67018 + j 6840 = 67366 ∠ 5º50′ V

Sending end line-to-line voltage = 67366 × √3 = 116·67 × 10³ V = 116·67 kV

The sending end current I S is given by:

I S = V R Y sinh √ Y Z + I R cosh √ Y Z
√Z

Putting the various values, we get,

I S = 63508 × 0·00224 ∠ 16º × 0·1325 ∠ 74º6′ + 131 × 0·992 ∠ 0·26º

= 18·85 ∠ 90º6′ + 130 ∠ 0·26º

= 18·85 (− 0·0017 + j 0·999) + 130 (0·999 + j 0·0045)

= 129·83 + j 19·42 = 131·1 ∠ 8º A

∴ Sending end current = 131·1 A

5.7 Generalized Circuit Constants of a Transmission Line

In any four terminal networks, the input voltage and input current can be expressed in terms of output voltage
and output current. Incidentally, a transmission line is a 4-terminal network; two input terminals where power
enters the network and two output terminals where power leaves the network. Therefore, the input voltage ⃗ VS
I S of a 3-phase transmission line can be expressed
and input current ⃗
as:
VS = ⃗
⃗ A ⃗VR+⃗ B ⃗IR

IS = ⃗
⃗ VR+⃗
C ⃗ IR
D ⃗

Where V S = sending end voltage per phase

⃗
I S = sending end current
⃗
V R = receiving end voltage per phase
⃗
I R = receiving end current
⃗
A , ⃗
and ⃗ B , C ⃗ and ⃗ D (generally complex numbers) are the constants known as generalized circuit
constants of the transmission line. The values of these constants depend upon the particular method adopted for

20
solving a transmission line. Once the values of these constants are known, performance calculations of the line
can be easily worked out. The following points may be kept in mind:
(i) The constants ⃗ A ,⃗B ,⃗
C and ⃗ D are generally complex numbers.
(ii) The constants A and D are dimensionless whereas the dimensions of B and C are ohms and siemen
⃗ ⃗
respectively.
(iii) For a given transmisson line,
⃗A=⃗ D
(iv) For a given transmission line,
⃗A⃗D−⃗ B⃗C=1
5.7.1 Determination of Generalized Constants for Transmission Lines
As stated previously, the sending end voltage (⃗ V S ) and sending end current (⃗
I S) of a transmission line can be
expressed as:
VS = ⃗
⃗ VR+⃗
A ⃗ B ⃗IR (i)

IS = ⃗
⃗ C ⃗VR+⃗ D ⃗IR (ii)
The values of these constants for different types of transmission lines shall be determined.
(i) Short lines. In short transmission lines, the effect of line capacitance is neglected. Therefore, the line is
considered to have series impedance. Fig. 5.13 shows the circuit of a 3-phase transmission line on a single
phase basis.

Fig. 5.13 Short Lines

Here,
IS = ⃗
⃗ IR (iii)

And VS = ⃗
⃗ VR+⃗ I R ⃗Z (iv)
Comparing these with eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

A = 1;
⃗ B = ⃗Z , ⃗
⃗ C=0 D=1
and ⃗

Incidentally; A=⃗
⃗ D

And A⃗
⃗ D−⃗ B⃗C = 1 × 1 − ⃗Z × 0 = 1
(ii) Medium lines – Nominal T method. In this method, the whole line to neutral capacitance is assumed to be
concentrated at the middle point of the line and half the line resistance and reactance are lumped on either side
as shown in Fig. 5.14.
21
 Fig. 5.14 Medium Lines

Here, VS = ⃗
⃗ V1 IS ⃗
+⃗ Z /2 (v)

And V1 = ⃗
⃗ VR+⃗
IR ⃗
Z /2

Now, IC = ⃗
⃗ IS - ⃗
IR

V 1 Y⃗
=⃗ where Y = shunt admittance

IRZ
⃗
Y ⃗
=⃗ (
V R+
2 )
I⃗ Z
∴ IS = ⃗
⃗ IR + ⃗
Y⃗ Y R
VR+⃗
2

Y⃗
⃗ Z
Y⃗
⃗ VR +⃗ I R 1+ ( 2 ) (vi)

Substituting the value of V 1 in eq. (v), we get,

I ⃗
⃗ Z ⃗
I ⃗
Z
VS = ⃗
⃗ VR+ R + S
2 2
Substituting the value of I S, we get,

Y⃗
⃗ Z ⃗ Y⃗ ⃗
Z² ⃗
V S = 1+
⃗
(2
VR + ⃗ )
Z+
4 (
IR ) (vii)

Comparing eqs. (vii) and (vi) with those of (i) and (ii), we have,
Y⃗
⃗ Z ⃗ ⃗ Y⃗
⃗ Z ⃗ ⃗
⃗A=⃗ D=1+
2
; B = Z 1+
2( ; C=Y )
YZ YZ
Incidentally: A⃗
⃗ D-⃗
B⃗C = 1+
2 (
² - Z 1+
2
Y ) ( )
22
 Y ²Z ² Z ²Y ²
=1+ +YZ -ZY- =1
4 4
(iii) Medium lines—Nominal π method. In this method, line-to-neutral capacitance is divided into two halves;
one half being concentrated at the load end and the other half at the sending end as shown in Fig. 5.15.

Fig. 5.15 Medium Lines (Nominal π method)

Here, ⃗Z = R + j X L = series impedance/phase

Y = j ω C = shunt admittance
⃗

IS = ⃗
⃗ IL + ⃗
IC2

Or IS = ⃗
⃗ IL + ⃗
VS ⃗
Y /2 viii

Also IL = ⃗
⃗ IR + ⃗
IC1 = ⃗
IR + ⃗
VR⃗
Y /2 ix

Now VS = ⃗
⃗ VR+⃗
I L ⃗Z = ⃗
V R + (⃗
I R +⃗
V R⃗
Y /2 ) ⃗Z (Putting the value of ⃗
IL )

Y⃗
⃗ Z
∴ VS = ⃗
⃗ V R 1+( 2 )
I R ⃗Z
+⃗ x

Also IS = ⃗
⃗ IL + ⃗VS ⃗ I R +⃗
Y /2 = ( ⃗ V R⃗
Y /2 ) + ⃗
VS ⃗ IL )
Y /2 (Putting the value of ⃗
V S from eq. (x), we get,
Putting the value of ⃗

Y Y
⃗ ⃗ Y⃗ ⃗
Z ⃗⃗
IS = ⃗
⃗ IR + ⃗
VR +
2 2
V R 1+
⃗
{ (
2
+I R Z) }
Y ⃗
⃗ V ⃗Y ⃗
V ⃗
Y ²⃗
Z ⃗ Y⃗
IR ⃗
Z
IR + ⃗
=⃗ VR + R + R +
2 2 4 2

Y⃗
⃗ Z Y⃗
⃗ Z
=⃗ (
I R 1+
2
+⃗ )
V R Y⃗ 1+ (4 ) xi

Comparing equations (x) and (xi) with those of (i) and (ii), we get,
23
 Y⃗
⃗ Z ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ Y⃗
⃗ Z
D = 1+
A=⃗
⃗
(
2 )
; B = Z ; C = Y 1+
4 ( )
YZ 2 YZ
Also ⃗A⃗D-⃗ B⃗C = 1+( 2 )
- Z Y 1+( 4 )
Y ²Z ² Y ²Z ²
=1+ +YZ–ZY- =1
4 4
(iv) Long lines—Rigorous method. By rigorous method, the sending end voltage and current of a long
transmission line are given by:
V S = V Rcosh √ Y Z + I R Z sinh √ Y Z
√Y

I S = V R Y sinh √ Y Z + I R cosh √ Y Z
√
Z
Comparing these equations with those of (i) and (ii), we get,

Z ⃗ = Y sinh √ Y Z
A=⃗
⃗ D = cosh √ Y Z ; ⃗
B=
Y √
sinh √ Y Z ; C
Z √
Incidentally
Z Y
A⃗
⃗ D-⃗
B⃗C = cosh √ Y Z x cosh √ Y Z -
√ Y
sinh √ Y Z x
Z √
sinh √ Y Z

= cosh² √ Y Z - sinh² √ Y Z = 1

5.8 Surges on Power Transmission Lines

Due to a variety of reasons, such as a direct stroke of lightning on the line, or by indirect strokes, or by
switching operations or by faults, high voltage surges are induced on the transmission line. The surge can be
shown to travel along the overhead line at approximately the speed of light. These waves, as they reach the end
of the line or a junction of transmission lines, are partly reflected and partly transmitted. These can be analyzed
in the following manner.
Consider a small section of the transmission line, of length dx.
de
Let the voltage variation across this section at any instant of time be e to e + . dx, and let the current vary
dx
similarly.

24
 Fig. 5.16 Element of transmission line
Due to the surge, the voltage build-up in the line travels along the line and would cause damage to the
transformer and other terminal equipment.
Let e = instantaneous voltage (varies with both distance and time)
i = instantaneous current (varies with both distance and time)
r = resistance of line per unit length
l = inductance of line per unit length
c = capacitance of line per unit length
g = conductance of line per unit length
The voltage drop across PQ and the corresponding current through it are given by the following equations.

de di
v=- . dx = r dx i + l dx
dx dt

di de
i=- . dx = g dx e + c dx
dx dt
Eliminating dx gives us the partial differential equations

de di
- =ri+l xii
dx dt

di de
- =ge+c xiii
dx dt
Differentiating equation (xii) with respect to x, and equation (xiii) with respect to t, and eliminating i, we have
d ²e d ²e de
=l.c + (c . r + l . g) + g . r e
dx ² dt ² dt

A very similar partial differential equation can be obtained for i.

In practical power lines, the resistance r is much less than the inductance l, and the conductance g is negligible.
When these are neglected, the equation reduces to

25
 d ²e d ²e
=l.c
dx ² dt ²

It is usual to substitute l.c = 1/a2, where a has the dimension of velocity. In this case the equation becomes

d ²e d ²e
a² =
dx ² dt ²

The solution to this second order partial differential equation can be written in the form of two arbitrary
functions.
Consider the function e = f(x - at). For this

d ²e d ²e
a² = a² f” (x – at), also = f"(x - a t) . (- a )²
dx ² dt ²

It is thus seen that this function satisfies the partial differential equation. Similarly, consider the function e = F(x
+ at) . For this

d ²e d ²e
a² = a² f” (x + at), also = f"(x + a t) . ( a )²
dx ² dt ²
This too is seen to satisfy the partial differential equation. Thus the general solution to the partial differential
equation is

e = f(x - at) + F(x + at)

where f and F are two arbitrary functions of (x-at) and (x+at). These two functions can be shown to be forward
and reverse traveling, as follows.
Consider a point x 1 at an instant t 1 on a transmission line.

Fig. 5.17. Position ( x 1, t 1) on transmission line

The value of the function f(x-at) at position x 1 and time t 1 would be

e 1 = f( x 1 - a t 1)

At any time t afterwards (i.e. at time t + t 1), the value of this same function at the position x would be given by

e 2 = f[x - a (t + t 1)] = f(x-at + a t 1)

This latter voltage e 2 would be equal to e 1 at the position x 1 = x - at.

26
Now a.t is the distance traveled by a wave traveling with velocity a in the forward direction in a time t. Thus it
is seen that the voltage at a distance a.t in the forward direction is always equal to the value at the earlier
position at the earlier time for any value of time. Thus the function f(x-at) represents a forward wave.
Similarly, it can be seen that the function F(x+at) represents a reverse wave. The effect of resistance and
conductance, which have been neglected, would be so as to modify the shape of the wave, and also to cause
attenuation. These are generally quite small, and the wave travels with little modification.

5.9 Surge Impedance and Velocity of Propagation in Transmission Lines

Consider the forward wave e = f(x-at). The corresponding current wave i can be determined from equation
(xii) as follows.

de de
l =- = - f ' (x – at)
dt dt

1 1 c
∴i=
al
f(x – at) = . e =
al l
.e
√
1 1
i.e. e =
√ c √
. i = Z 0 . i where Z 0 =
c

Z 0 is known as the surge (or characteristic) impedance of the transmission line. The surge current i traveling
along the line is always accompanied by a surge voltage e = Z 0 i traveling in the same direction. For a reverse
wave, it can be similarly shown that the surge current i is associated with a surge voltage e = - Z 0 i.
For a transmission line, with conductors of radius r and conductor spacing d, it can be shown that the
inductance per unit length of the line is given by

μ0 d
l= log e H/m
2π r

The capacitance c per unit length is given by

2 π ε0 εr
c= d F/m
log e
r

for air ε r = 1

1
∴ 1. c = μ0 ε 0 =
a²

1
But = velocity of light
√ μ 0 ε0
27
Therefore the velocity of propagation of the wave a is equal to the velocity of light. [Note: If the resistance of
the line was not neglected, the velocity of propagation of the wave would be found to be slightly less than that
of light (about 5 to 10%)].
For a cable, the dielectric material has a relative permittivityε r different from unity. In this case, the above
derivation would give the velocity of propagation in a cable as

velocity of propagation = velocity of light / √ε r

For commercial cables, ε r lies between about 2.5 and 4.0, so that the velocity of propagation in a cable is about
half to two-third that of light. The surge impedance of a power transmission line can be calculated as follows.

2
d
√c
ε0 √(
Z 0 = 1 = μ 0 log e r
2 )
Substituting the velocity of light as 3 x 108 m/s and simplifying gives

d
Z 0 = 60 log e ( ) Ω
r
For an overhead line, for practical values of conductor radius r and spacing d, the surge impedance Z 0 is of the
order of 300 to 600 Ω. For a cable, the corresponding surge impedance would be given by the expression which
has values in the region of 50 to 60 Ω.
d
Z 0 = 60 / √ε r . log e ( ) Ω
r
5.10 Energy stored in surge
The energy stored in a traveling wave is the sum of the energies stored in the voltage wave and in the current
wave.
1 1
Energy = c e² + 1 i²
2 2

l 1 1
e=
√ c
i, i.e. c e² = 1 i² , i.e c e² = 1 i²
2 2

∴ total energy = c e²
But for a surge, e = Zo i. It is seen that half the energy of the surge is stored in the electrostatic field and half in
the electromagnetic field.

5.11. Various Factors governing the performance of Transmission Lines

1. SKIN EFFECT

28
The phenomena arising due to unequal distribution of current over the entire cross section of the conductor
being used for long distance power transmission is referred as the skin effect in transmission lines. Such a
phenomena does not have much role to play in case of a very short line, but with increase in the effective length
of the conductors, skin effect increases considerably. So the modifications in line calculation need to be done
accordingly. The distribution of current over the entire cross section of the conductor is quite uniform in case of
a dc system. But what we are using in the present era of power system engineering is predominantly an
alternating current system, where the current tends to flow with higher density through the surface of the
conductors (i.e skin of the conductor), leaving the core deprived of necessary number of electrons. In fact there
even arises a condition when absolutely no current flows through the core, and concentrating the entire amount
on the surface region, thus resulting in an increase in the effective resistance of the conductor. This particular
trend of an ac transmission system to take the surface path for the flow of current depriving the core is referred
to as the skin effect in transmission lines.
Why skin effect occurs in transmission lines?
Having understood the phenomena of skin effect let us now see why this arises in case of an a.c. system. To
have a clear understanding of that look into the cross sectional view of the conductor during the flow of
alternating current given in Fig. 5.17 below.

Fig. 5.17 Cross sectional view of a Conductor

Let us initially consider the solid conductor to be split up into a number of annular filaments spaced infinitely
small distance apart, such that each filament carries an infinitely small fraction of the total current.
Like if the total current = I
Lets consider the conductor to be split up into n filament carrying current ‘i’ such that I = n i .
Now during the flow of an alternating current, the current carrying filaments lying on the core has a flux linkage
with the entire conductor cross section including the filaments of the surface as well as those in the core.
Whereas the flux set up by the outer filaments is restricted only to the surface itself and is unable to link with
the inner filaments. Thus the flux linkage of the conductor increases as we move closer towards the core and at
the same rate increases the inductance as it has a direct proportionality relationship with flux linkage. This
results in a larger inductive reactance being induced into the core as compared to the outer sections of the
conductor. The high value of reactance in the inner section results in the current being distributed in an un
uniform manner and forcing the bulk of the current to flow through the outer surface or skin giving rise to the
phenomena called skin effect in transmission lines.
Factors affecting skin effect in transmission lines.
The skin effect in an ac system depends on a number of factors like:-
1) Shape of conductor.
2) Type of material.
29
3) Diameter of the conductors.
4) Operational frequency.

2. FERRANTI EFFECT
In general practice we know, that for all electrical systems current flows from the region of higher potential to
the region of lower potential, to compensate for the potential difference that exists in the system. In all practical
cases the sending end voltage is higher than the receiving end, so current flows from the source or the supply
end to the load. But Sir S.Z. Ferranti, in the year 1890, came up with an astonishing theory about medium or
long distance transmission lines suggesting that in case of light loading or no load operation of transmission
system, the receiving end voltage often increases beyond the sending end voltage, leading to a phenomenon
known as Ferranti effect in power system.
Why Ferranti effect occurs in a transmission line?
A long transmission line can be considered to compose a considerably high amount of capacitance and
inductance distributed across the entire length of the line. Ferranti Effect occurs when current drawn by the
distributed capacitance of the line itself is greater than the current associated with the load at the receiving end
of the line (during light or no load). This capacitor charging current leads to voltage drop across the line
inductance of the transmission system which is in phase with the sending end voltages. This voltage drop keeps
on increasing additively as we move towards the load end of the line and subsequently the receiving end voltage
tends to get larger than applied voltage leading to the phenomena called Ferranti effect in power system. It is
illustrated with the help of a phasor diagram below.

Thus both the capacitance and inductance effect of transmission line are equally responsible for this particular
phenomena to occur, and hence Ferranti effect is negligible in case of a short transmission lines as the
inductance of such a line is practically considered to be nearing zero. In general for a 300 Km line operating at a
frequency of 50 Hz, the no load receiving end voltage has been found to be 5% higher than the sending end
voltage.
Now for analysis of Ferranti effect let us consider the phasor diagram shown above.
Here Vr is considered to be the reference phasor, represented by OA.

Thus Vr = Vr (1 + j0)

Capacitance current, Ic = jωCVr

Now sending end voltage Vs = Vr + resistive drop + reactive drop.

= Vr + IcR + jIcX

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= Vr+ Ic (R + jX)

= Vr+jωcVr (R + jω L) [since X = ωL]

Now Vs = Vr -ω2cLVr + j ωcRVr

This is represented by the phasor OC.

Now in case of a long transmission line, it has been practically observed that the line resistance is negligibly
small compared to the line reactance, hence we can assume the length of the phasor Ic R = 0, we can consider
the rise in the voltage is only due to OA – OC = reactive drop in the line.
Now if we consider c0 and L0 are the values of capacitance and inductance per km of the transmission line,
where l is the length of the line.

Thus capacitive reactance Xc = 1/(ω l c0)

Since, in case of a long transmission line the capacitance is distributed throughout its length, the average current
flowing is,

Ic = 1/2 Vr/Xc = 1/2 Vrω l c0

Now the inductive reactance of the line = ω L0 l

Thus the rise in voltage due to line inductance is given by,

IcX = 1/2Vrω l c0 X ω L0 l

Voltage rise = 1/2 Vrω² l ² c0L0

From the above equation it is absolutely evident, that the rise in voltage at the receiving end is directly
proportional to the square of the line length, and hence in case of a long transmission line it keeps increasing
with length and even goes beyond the applied sending end voltage at times, leading to the phenomena called
Ferranti effect in power system.

3. CORONA
Electric-power transmission practically deals in the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating stations
situated many kilometers away from the main consumption centers or the cities. For this reason the long
distance transmission cables are of utmost necessity for effective power transfer, which in-evidently results in
huge losses across the system.
Minimizing those has been a major challenge for power engineers of late and to do that one should have a clear
understanding of the type and nature of losses. One of them being the corona effect in power system, which
has a predominant role in reducing the efficiency of EHV(extra high voltage lines).
What is corona effect in power system and why it occurs?
For corona effect to occur effectively, two factors here are of prime importance as mentioned below:-
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1) Alternating potential difference must be supplied across the line.
2) The spacing of the conductors, must be large enough compared to the line diameter.

Fig. 5.18. Corona Effect in Transmission Line

When an alternating current is made to flow across two conductors of the transmission line whose spacing is
large compared to their diameters, then air surrounding the conductors (composed of ions) is subjected to di-
electric stress. At low values of supply end voltage, nothing really occurs as the stress is too less to ionize the
air outside. But when the potential difference is made to increase beyond some threshold value of around 30 kV
known as the critical disruptive voltage, then the field strength increases and then the air surrounding it
experiences stress high enough to be dissociated into ions making the atmosphere conducting. This results in
electric discharge around the conductors due to the flow of these ions, giving rise to a faint luminescent glow,
along with the hissing sound accompanied by the liberation of ozone, which is readily identified due to its
characteristic odor. This phenomenon of electrical discharge occurring in transmission line for high values of
voltage is known as the corona effect in power system. If the voltage across the lines is still increased the glow
becomes more and more intense along with hissing noise, inducing very high power loss into the system which
must be accounted for.
Factors affecting corona effect in power system.
As mentioned earlier, the line voltage of the conductor is the main determining factor for corona in transmission
lines, at low values of voltage (lesser than critical disruptive voltage) the stress on the air is too less to dissociate
them, and hence no electrical discharge occurs.
Since with increasing voltage corona effect in a transmission line occurs due to the ionization of atmospheric air
surrounding the cables, it is mainly affected by the conditions of the cable as well as the physical state of the
atmosphere. Let us look into these criterions now with greater details:-
Atmospheric conditions for corona in transmission lines.
It has been physically proven that the voltage gradient for di-electric breakdown of air is directly proportional to
the density of air. Hence in a stormy day, due to continuous air flow the number of ions present surrounding the
conductor is far more than normal, and hence its more likely to have electrical discharge in transmission lines
on such a day, compared to a day with fairly clear weather. The system has to design taking those extreme
situations into consideration.
Condition of cables for corona in transmission line
This particular phenomenon depends highly on the conductors and its physical condition. It has an inverse
proportionality relationship with the diameter of the conductors. i.e. with the increase in diameter, the effect of
corona in power system reduces considerably. Also the presence of dirt or roughness of the conductor reduces
the critical breakdown voltage, making the conductors more prone to corona losses. Hence in most cities and
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industrial areas having high pollution, this factor is of reasonable importance to counter the ill effects it has on
the system.
Spacing between conductors.
As already mentioned, for corona to occur effectively the spacing between the lines should be much higher
compared to its diameter, but if the length is increased beyond a certain limit, the di-electric stress on the air
reduces and consequently the effect of corona reduces as well. If the spacing is made too large then corona for
that region of the transmission line might not occur at all.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage overhead line, a balance
should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages. Below are the advantages and disadvantages of
Corona.
Advantages
 Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual
diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electrostatic stresses between
the conductors.
 Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.
Disadvantages
 Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the line.
 Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical action.
 The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal voltage drop
occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighboring communication lines.
Methods to reduce Corona Discharge Effect
Corona can be avoided
1. By minimizing the voltage stress and electric field gradient.: This is accomplished by using utilizing good
high voltage design practices, i.e., maximizing the distance between conductors that have large voltage
differentials, using conductors with large radii, and avoiding parts that have sharp points or sharp edges.
2. Surface Treatments: Corona inception voltage can sometimes be increased by using a surface treatment,
such as a semiconductor layer, high voltage putty or corona dope.
3. Homogenous Insulators: Use a good, homogeneous insulator. Void free solids, such as properly prepared
silicone and epoxy potting materials work well.
4. If you are limited to using air as your insulator, then you are left with geometry as the critical parameter.
Finally, ensure that steps are taken to reduce or eliminate unwanted voltage transients, which can cause corona
to start.
5. Using Bundled Conductors: on our 345 kV lines, we have installed multiple conductors per phase. This is a
common way of increasing the effective diameter of the conductor, which in turn results in less resistance,
which in turn reduces losses.
6. Elimination of sharp points: electric charges tend to form on sharp points; therefore when practicable we
strive to eliminate sharp points on transmission line components.
7. Using Corona rings: On certain new 345 kV structures, we are now installing corona rings. These rings have
smooth round surfaces which are designed to distribute charge across a wider area, thereby reducing the electric
field and the resulting corona discharges.
8. Weather: Corona phenomena much worse in foul weather, high altitude
9. New Conductor: New conductors can lead to poor corona performance for a while.
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10. By increasing the spacing between the conductors: Corona Discharge Effect can be reduced by
increasing the clearance spacing between the phases of the transmission lines. However increase in the phase’s
results in heavier metal supports. Cost and Space requirement increases.
11. By increasing the diameter of the conductor: Diameter of the conductor can be increased to reduce the
corona discharge effect. By using hollow conductors corona discharge effect can be improved.

4. PROXIMITY EFFECT
Proximity means nearness in space or time, so as the name suggests, proximity effect in transmission lines
indicates the effect in one conductor for other neighboring conductors. When the alternating current is flowing
through a conductor, alternating magnetic flux is generated surrounding the conductor. This magnetic flux
associates with the neighboring wires and generates a circulating current (it can be termed as ‘eddy current’
also). This circulating current increases the resistance of the conductor and push away the flowing current
through the conductor, which causes the crowding effect. When the gaps between two wires are greater the
proximity effect is less and it rises when the gap reduces. The flux due to central conductor links with right side
conductor. In a two wire system more lines of flux link elements farther apart than the elements nearest to each
other. Therefore, the inductance of the elements farther apart is more as compared to the elements near to each
other and hence the current density is less in the elements farther apart than the current density in the element
near to each other. As a result the effective resistance of the conductor is increased due to non uniform
distribution of current. This phenomenon is actually referred as proximity effect. This effect is pronounced in
the case of cables where the distance between the conductors is small whereas proximity effect in transmission
lines in the case of overhead system, with usual spacing is negligibly small.

5. SERIES AND SHUNT COMPENSATION

The demand of active power is expressing Kilo watt (kW) or mega watt (MW). This power should be supplied
from electrical generating station. All the arrangements in electrical pomes system are done to meet up this
basic requirement. Although in alternating power system, reactive power always comes in to picture. This
reactive power is expressed in Kilo VAR or Mega VAR. The demand of this reactive power is mainly
originated from inductive load connected to the system. These inductive loads are generally electromagnetic
circuit of electric motors, electrical transformers, inductance of transmission and distribution networks,
induction furnaces, fluorescent lightings etc. This reactive power should be properly compensated otherwise,
the ratio of actual power consumed by the load, to the total power i.e. vector sum of active and reactive power,
of the system becomes quite less. This ratio is alternatively known as electrical power factor, and fewer ratios
indicates poor power factor of the system. If the power factor of the system is poor, the ampere burden of the
transmission, distribution network, transformers, alternators and other equipments connected to the system,
becomes high for required active power. And hence reactive power compensation becomes so important. This is
commonly done by capacitor bank.

We know that active power is expressed =VIcosθ

Where, cosθ is the power factor of the system. Hence, if this power factor has got less valve, the corresponding
current (I) increases for same active power P. As the current of the system increases, the ohmic loss of the
system increases. Ohmic loss means, generated electrical power is lost as unwanted heat originated in the
system. The cross section of the conducting parts of the system may also have to be increased for carrying extra
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ampere burden, which is also not economical in the commercial point of view. Another major disadvantage is
poor voltage regulation of the system, which mainly caused due to poor power factor.
The equipments used to compensate reactive power. There are mainly two equipments used for this purpose.
(1) Synchronous condensers
(2) Static capacitors or Capacitor Bank
Synchronous condensers can produce reactive power and the production of reactive power can be regulated.
Due to this regulating advantage, the synchronous condensers are very suitable for correcting power factor of
the system, but this equipment is quite expensive compared to static capacitors. That is why synchronous
condensers, are justified to use only for voltage regulation of very high voltage transmission system. The
regulation in static capacitors can also be achieved to some extend by split the total capacitor bank in 3 sectors
of ratio 1: 2:2. This division enables the capacitor to run in 1, 2, 1+2=3, 2+2=4, 1+2+2=5 steps. If still further
steps are required, the division may be made in the ratio 1:2:3 or 1:2:4. These divisions make the static
capacitor bank more expensive but still the cost is much lower them synchronous condensers. It is found that
maximum benefit from compensating equipments can be achieved when they are connected to the individual
load side. This is practically and economically possible only by using small rated capacitors with individual
load not by using synchronous condensers.

Static capacitor Bank.

Static capacitor can further be subdivided in to two categories,
(a) Shunt capacitors
(b) Series capacitor

Fig. 5.19 Series Capacitor Bank

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 Fig. 5.20 Series and Shunt Capacitor Bank

These categories are mainly based on the methods of connecting capacitor bank with the system. Among these
two categories, shunt capacitors are more commonly used in the power system of all voltage levels. There are
some specific advantages of using shunt capacitors such as,
a) It reduces line current of the system.
b) It improves voltage level of the load.
c) It also reduces system Losses.
d) It improves power factor of the source current.
e) It reduces load of the alternator.
f) It reduces capital investment per mega watt of the Load.
All the above mentioned benefits come from the fact, that the effect of capacitor reduces reactive current
flowing through the whole system. Shunt capacitor draws almost fixed amount of leading current which is
superimposed on the load current and consequently reduces reactive components of the load and hence
improves the power factor of the system. series capacitor on the other hand has no control over flow of current.
As these are connected in series with load, the load current always passes through the series capacitor bank.
Actually, the capacitive reactance of series capacitor neutralizes the inductive reactance of the line hence,
reduces, effective reactance of the line. Thereby, voltage regulation of the system is improved. But series
capacitor bank has a major disadvantage. During faulty condition, the voltage across the capacitor maybe raised
up to 15 times more than its rated value. Thus series capacitor must have sophisticated and elaborate protective
equipments. Because of this, use of-series capacitor is confined in the extra high voltage system only.

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