Chapter 4: Behavioral Learning Theories

Chapter Introduction
Some of the most popular learning theories are lodged under behaviorism. It is primarily
concerned with influencing change in one’s behavior. Hence, in this chapter, you will discover the
fundamental tenets of behaviorism and how such concepts are applied to facilitating learner-centered
classroom. It is therefore important for you to immersed into the principles so that you can easily use
them in facing the real world of teaching. In this chapter, you are expected to:
● Analyze learning theories under behaviorism;
● Discuss the different phenomena of learning under behaviorism; and
● Cite applications of behaviorism theories to teaching.

Lesson 1: Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
● Explain how behaviors are learned according to the Pavlovian and Watsonian theories;
● Discuss the salient processes and phenomena of the Pavlovian and Watsonian theories; and
● Cite classroom applications of the association theory.

THINK
Pavlovian Conditioning
In the parlance of psychology, behaviorism is concerned with the behavioral changes and the
role of the environment in these changes. Behaviorism claim that nurture is crucial in the process of
acquiring knowledge (Dastpak et al., 2017). One known behaviorist is John B. Watson (1982), who writes
that the ultimate goal of behaviorism is to derive laws to explain the relationships existing among
antecedent conditions (stimuli), behavior (responses), and following conditions (rewards, punishments,
or neutral effects). The theory of behaviorism may be dichotomized into associationism and
reinforcement.
The name Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) rings a bell within the context of the association theory in
behaviorism. Pavlov was a physiologist, who, out of serendipity, discovered classical conditioning. 1904,
he won the Nobel Prize for his outstanding studies on the physiology of digestion. He spent the rest of
his life studying reflexes of dogs, which led him to the discovery of classical conditioning, also known as
the association theory.
Still recognized as an essential parcel of contemporary psychological knowledge and classical
conditioning has become the basis for many early learning theories. In this discovery, Pavlov found out
that the sight of food does not only trigger the salivation of the dog, but any other stimulus may result to
such effect if paired with the food (Le Francois, 2000). In another version, the salivation of the dog is
influenced by associating the steps of the attendant with the food (Schunk, 2012).

Pavlovian Conditioning in a Nutshell

The theory of Pavlovian conditioning involves a set of multilayered procedures. Initially, the food
is called unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In psychology, any environmental event that affects the organism
is called stimulus. The food is an unconditioned stimulus because it leads to an unconditioned response
(UCR) without any learning taking place. The immediate salivation of the dog is referred to as the UCR.
The UCS and UCR are considered unlearned stimulus-response units termed as reflexes.
 Conditioning the dog requires recurrent presentation of a neutral stimulus paired with the UCS.
For instance, the buzzer was sounded repeatedly but caused no dog’s salivation at all. However, when
the buzzer came with food, the dog salivated. Later, by just hearing the buzzer, the dog salivated (see
figure 14). The buzzer is now called conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited the salivation of the dog, now
termed as a conditioned response (CR).

Figure 14. An illustration of Pavlovian conditioning.

When applied in the classroom, the use of the pointer or stick to whip unruly learners in class
may affect other pupils. They may associate the stick with whipping, thus triggering fear. Later, merely
hearing or seeing a stick in class may elicit fear among them. This is why expert educators in the country
suggest that classroom teachers should avoid using the stick as pointers. Instead, they are advised to use
their open palm to pointing words on the chalkboard.

Other Phenomena in Classical Conditioning

According to Buoton and Moody (2004), when the CS is repeatedly unreinforced, that is, without
the UCS, the CR will eventually diminish in intensity and effect. This phenomenon is called extinction.
When the extinction of learning passes through time, the CR may still be restored (Robins, 1990). This
recovery-after-extinction phenomenon is termed as spontaneous recovery. This means that extinction
does not completely involve unlearning of the pairings (Redish et al., 2018).
Generalization is another phenomenon in Pavlovian’s classical conditioning (Figure 15). When
the dog salivates by just merely hearing the buzzer, it is likely to elicit similar CS when it hears a faster or
a slower beat of the buzzer or any device with quite a similar sound. Harris (2006), however, pointed out
that the more different the new stimulus to the CS, the lesser generalization surfaces.
 Figure 15. Other salient phenomena in classical conditioning.

When the dog recognizes that sound of the buzzer is different from other stimuli (i.e., the sound
of a bell), thus salivating only upon hearing the buzzer, discrimination occurs. This is a phenomenon
when the subject reacts differently to other stimuli. This means that it can decipher the CS very strongly.

Watsonian Conditioning
During the dawn of the 20th century, a psychologist, greatly influenced by Pavlov, rose and aimed
to revolutionize the status of American psychology. He was John Broadus Watson (1878-1958). According
to Watson, if Pavlov is successful in proving associationism between stimulus and response, people can
also have such ability to associate certain feelings, behaviors, instances, and even symbols. He theorized
that unlearning and relearning can occur. He also posited that humans are born with emotional
responses such as love, fear, and hate.
Perhaps the most popular conditioning experiment he did was “Little Albert.” Here, Watson tried
to prove that emotions can be learned. Initially, Albert played with the white rat, thus not eliciting any
fear upon seeing the rat. After some time, Watson and his partner, Rosalie Rayner, accompanied the
appearance of the white rat with a banging sound, so Albert was conditioned to fear the rat. Later,
Watson and Rayner accompanied the presentation of the rat with other objects. They found out that
Albert also feared the occurrence of the objects even without the rat’s presence. This experiment
became the anchor of Watson’s belief that learning happens by association (Figure 16).
 Figure 16. Illustrating association theory according to Pavlov and Watson.

EXPERIENCE
Separation anxiety among kindergarten and early elementary pupils continue to persist
(Hudson et al., 2011). In using the theories of Pavlov and Watson, teacher can diminish the
recurrence of fear and anxiety by association. For instance, before the opening of classes,
teachers might want to encourage parents with prospective kindergarten pupils to go and visit
their classrooms with seats that have their names on them. Fun and calm activities must be
given in the first few weeks to condition the children that learning in school is fun, thus
diminishing anxiety.
The application of classical conditioning has a wide ambit in education, including
classroom management (Macias, 2018). For example, a teacher wants to condition his or her
class to pass their test papers quietly and systematically. Before the conditioning stage, the
teacher will instruct the students to move their test papers forward. The unconditioned
response will, of course, be the passing of the papers. Later, the teacher will clap 10 times.
Initially, the students will not pass their papers, as instructions to pass their papers have not
been disclosed. The teacher will try to accompany the instructions of passing the papers with
clapping 10 times. During the post-conditioning stage, when the teacher claps 10 times, the
students will be conditioned to pass their test papers without verbally repeating the
instructions.
Even in tertiary education or adult learning, conditioning may be applied. For instance,
in a drama class, many students, as neophyte actors, may experience jittery feelings and stage
fright. Drama teachers may help diminish the anxiety by conditioning the students to perform in
an actual stage and later opening the rehearsals to a few audiences. Exposing the students in
this type of repetition may condition them to act with ease with the presence of other people.
Activity: Answer the questions briefly. Limit your answer to a minimum of 5 sentences per
question.

1. Teacher Clariza is a neophyte teacher in a public elementary school. She always complains
about her noisy and unruly pupils. Telling them to keep quiet in a soft manner has not been
effective. Suggest some tips on how she can condition her class to keep still by applying the
Pavlovian and Watsonian Behaviorism theories.
 ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. How do teachers form a good and lasting image to their students by using classical
conditioning?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is it important for in-service teachers to learn the concept of conditioning in teaching a
learner-centered classroom?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

The Lesson in a Capsule

Shaping human behavior is possible through associationism, posited by Pavlov and
Watson. It is concerned with strengthening the relationship of stimulus and response
through repetition over time. Such a theory can be applied to facilitate learner-centered
teaching.
Lesson 2: Thorndike’s Connectionism
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
● Identify the primary laws of learning postulated by Edward Thorndike;
● Describe how behaviors are learned according to Thorndike’s law of learning; and
● Provide teaching implications of Thorndike’s law of learning.

THINK
st
Within the first half of 21 century in the United States, Edward L. Thorndike
(1874-1949) was prominent because of his laws of learning, primarily under the umbrella of
association or connectionism (Mayer, 2003). It is mainly concerned with the connection
between the stimulus and response (S-R). According to Karadut (2012), Thorndike is one of the
few psychologists who focused on education. In proving his findings, Thorndike used an
experimental approach in measuring a student’s academic achievement. Thorndike believed
that forming associations or connections between sensory experiences and neural impulses
results in the prime type of learning. The neural impulses, called responses, are behaviorally
manifested. He believed that learning often occurs by trial and error (selecting and connecting).

Laws of Learning
Thorndike’s basic ideas rest in the laws of exercise and effect. Firstly, the Law of Exercise
is divided into two parts: the law of use and the law of disuse. The law of use means that the
frequent recurring of the response to a stimulus strengthens their connection. Meanwhile, the
law of disuse means that when a response is not made to stimulus, the connection’s strength is
weakened or even forgotten.
Drills are vital to acquire and sustain learning. In the very words of Thorndike (1913),
bonds between stimuli and responses are strengthened through being exercised frequently,
recently and “vigorously.” Learners usually learn faster when they often apply a certain skill
(e.g., spelling new terms) and tend to forget when such a response does not recur over
sometime (Karadut, 2012). This explains why pianists, for example, repeatedly practice their
pieces before their performances. By practicing (law of use), they ensure that they will play
correctly. If they do not exercise playing their pieces (law of disuse), they may encounter
difficulty in smoothly accomplishing their performances.
Thorndike later revised the Law of Exercise. He confessed that by merely practicing, one
does not bring improvement in learning. Practicing according to Thorndike, is not sufficient.
Hence, the constant practice must be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner. In
short, the pupil must be motivated to learn.
The Law of Effect, meanwhile, emphasizes that if a response is followed by a “satisfying”
state of affairs, the S-R connection is strengthened; if a person is followed by an “annoying”
state of affairs, the S-R connection is weakened. Thus, Thorndike posited that satisfiers and
annoyers are critical t5o learning. This explains why teachers give favorable comments to
students who show pleasant behavior in class; when such ego-boosting comments satisfy the
learners, the higher the chance that they will repeat such behavior.
The third law of learning also has something to do with boosting human motivation. The
law of readiness states that if one is prepared to act, to do so is rewarding, and not to do so is
punishing. In short, before learning commences, one must be physically, emotionally, mentally,
and psychologically prepared. This law is illustrated when a learner knows the answer to a
particular question, thus raising his or her hand. Calling him or her to recite is rewarding.
However, when the teacher calls on a student who does not know the answer may be annoying
on his or her part, thus weakening the bond of stimulus and response. The law of readiness is
also used in sequencing topics. When students are ready to learn a particular action (in terms of
developmental level or prior skill acquisition), then behaviors that foster this learning will be
rewarding. Meanwhile, when students are not ready to learn or do not possess prerequisite
skills, then attempting to learn is punishing and even becomes a waste of time.

Other Laws of Learning

Thorndike also observed that the first thing learned has the strongest S-R bond and
almost inerasable. He calls this as the Law of Primacy. It implies that learning a concept or skill
again is more difficult than the first time one has learned it. This explains why teachers correct
students who have misconceptions in a new lesson. The application part in a lesson plan or daily
lesson log is strategically situated before generalizing a concept so that the teacher can detect
the misunderstandings of the students in a certain lesson. When the misconception is not
corrected for the first time, that may lead to habit formation. In English Language Teaching, a
recurring mistake among learners is called fossilization (Demirezen & Topal, 2015). Relearning
the correct concept later will be confusing to the students or even time-consuming. Hence, the
first (prime) learning experience should be as functional, as precise, and as positive as possible
so that it paves the way to the more comfortable learning experiences to follow.
The concepts or skills most recently learned are least forgotten. This is the gist of the
Law of Recency. Thus, when learners are isolated in time from learning a new concept, the
more difficult it is for them to remember. For instance, in a foreign language class (e.g., French),
it is easier to recall and recite those which are learned minutes ago than those which are taught
the other month. This implies that the teachers should facilitate learning by providing the
learners with a clear connection between the previous and the current learning experience.
Letting the students mention or apply the formerly learned skill or concept in the new learning
experience may refresh their memory, thus the higher the probability of forgetting.
Thorndike also mentioned that humans tend to show an almost similar response to an
entirely different stimulus if, on recurring instances, that stimulus has slight changes compared
to the previously known one. Thorndike coins this as the Principle of Associative Shifting. For
example, to teach pupils to add a three-digit number, teachers let them master the adding of
one-digit number first. As they solve increasing numbers, pupils will tend to associate the
response to the previously paired S-R.
 Figure 17. Thorndike’s connectionism and teaching.

The transfer occurs when the contexts of learning have identical elements and call for
similar responses. Thorndike called it as generalization (Thorndike, 1913). This implies that not
only skills should be taught in one isolated topic, but also that other related subjects or topics
should provide opportunities for the students to apply them. In a Social Studies class, it is not
enough to teach the students to read maps, but it is better if they are also taught to calculate
miles from inches. Later, that skill is reinforced when they will create their maps and map
problems to solve.

EXPERIENCE
Journaling has been a perennial writing enhancement strategy. Hight (2013) found out
that students who are engaged continuously in journaling have improve writing skill. In Hight’s
study, he used the Law of Exercise and Effect as theoretical bases. He proved that correct,
constant practice coupled with “satisfiers” such as appreciative praises and good grades could
improve learning.
Meanwhile, motivating the students before the formal introduction of the lesson is vital
in directing the students to learn. The Law of Readiness is highly noticeable in this situation. If
the students are well prepared to learn new concepts, learning becomes easier.
In conducting classes, teachers are advised to use activities that are within the mental
and contextual frames of the students. By exposing them into real-world activities like
simulations and immersions, the more they will consider the learning experience as an
“intense” one; hence, the easier they create a strong connection between the stimulus and the
response, the least they forget the skill or concept learned. This is one application of the Law on
Intensity.

ASSESS
Activity 1: Match the statements under Column A to the concepts being defined or
described under Column B. write the letter of your choice on the space provided before
each number in Column A.

A B
___ 1. Exciting, enjoyable, and immediate a. Law of Rcency
learning experience can facilitate
learning.
b. Law of Exercise
___ 2. Teachers should ensure that students
are free from any anxieties before they c. Law of Primacy
are engaged in the learning process.

___ 3. Teacher JC leads his class to a short d. Generalization

revisit of the salient concepts
tackled yesterday before the e. Law of Intensity
continuation of the lesson for the
day.
f. Principle of Associative Shifting
___ 4. Teacher X provides the short,
unrecorded drills at the middle of his g. Law of Readiness
class.

___ 5. Teacher Joy makes use of student-

centered activities to detect
misconceptions of her class. Later,
she will correct such misconceptions
to ensure that her students had
grasped the concepts correctly.
Activity 2: complete the segmented explanatory organizer related to the application of the Laws
of Learning by Edward Thorndike.
 CHALLENGE
1. In what ways do the theories of Pavlov and Thorndike become similar and different?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. If you were to critic the Laws of Learning postulated by Thorndike, what may be its
weakness/es?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Do you think the laws of learning can be applied to all ages and subject areas? Why or
why not?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
HARNESS
With a partner, get a detailed lesson plan in your field of specialization and capture the
instances where Thorndike’s laws of learning are reflected or applied. Use the grid below.
Report your findings in class.
In the Thorndike’s Implication/s
Lesson Plan Laws of Learning to teaching

The Lesson in a Capsule

Thorndike’s laws of learning are an offshoot of his S-R framework of behavioral
psychology. He claimed that learning could be explained without considering any unobservable
internal states. When applied to facilitate learning, Thorndike’s laws of entail both practice and
rewards.
 Lesson 3: Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
● Describe reinforcement and punishment in the context of operant conditioning;
● Differentiate the characteristics of the theories of classical and operant conditioning;
● Analyze a research article about operant conditioning; and
● Devise a teaching strategy bank of classroom applications of operant conditioning.

THINK
One of the most popular behavioral theories of all time is B.F. (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner
(1904-1990). He postulated the operant conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to the
association of stimuli whereas operant conditioning actively involves the subject’s participation.
The subject in operant conditioning has a choice to respond. In other words, operant
conditioning is the type of learning whereby learning occurs as a consequence of the learner’s
behavior.
B.F. Skinner made this conclusion after experimenting on animals through his Skinner’s
box, a device that modified the animal’s behavior. In his experiment, he put a rat in a box with a
lever, a bowl, and a closed chamber. If the lever was pushed, the chamber opened and dispense
food. Unconscious about this mechanism, the rat accidentally pushed the
lever, and the food was dispensed. The rat learned that continuously pushing the lever could
open the food dispenser to the bowl. Skinner termed the food in such an experiment as the
reward.
Reinforcement
Skinner’s operant condition is dichotomized into reinforcement and punishment. Each
category is also divided into positive or negative. Reinforcement is defined as something that
strengthens the behavior or is sometimes called as the response strengthener (Schultz, 2006).
Positive reinforcement is defined as the addition of a pleasant stimulus. This is exactly what is
illustrated in the Skinner’s box. The dispensed food became a positive reinforcement that
caused the rat to continually push the lever (behavior).
Positive reinforcement has may classroom applications. Preschool teachers stamp three
big stars on the hands of their pupils who may have behaved throughout the class, achieved the
highest score, or become friendly within the academic time. To maximize the use of the positive
reinforcement, however, teachers should make it clear to their students why they are stamping
them three stars and what the three big stars mean. In that way, the pupils will be motivated to
repeat their pleasant behavior and can eventually gain the reward-the stamp.
By building operant conditioning techniques into lesson plans, it is easily possible to
teach children useful skills as well as good behaviors. By using symbols like smiley faces, “Good
Work” stamps, stickers, and even simple ticks when a child does something correctly, you are
encouraging them to repeat such satisfying work further down the line.
 Meanwhile, negative reinforcement is taking away from a situation that subsequently
increases the occurrence of the response. In other words, it is taking away an unpleasant
consequence to cause the behavior to happen again. Some stimuli that often function as
negative reinforcers are loud noises, criticisms, annoying people, and low grades, because
actions that remove them tend to be reinforcing. For instances, Teacher X wants her grade 3
class to master the multiplication table, so she gives pupils a problem set on multiplication.
After a set is solved, they would recite the multiplication table from multiples of 5 to 10. If they
master the multiplication table, the problem set is withdrawn, thus strengthening the
behavior-perfectly reciting the multiplication table.

Schedule of reinforcements
According to Skinner (1938), as mentioned by Zeiler (1977), schedules refer to
when reinforcement is applied (Skinner, 1938; Zeiler, 1977). Table 1 summarizes the
reinforcement schedules according to Skinner.

Table 1. Reinforcement schedules according to Skinner

Reinforcement Description Classroom Application
Schedule

Continuous Schedule Reinforcement is given every time Students receive feedback after each
the animal gives the desired response concerning the accuracy of
response. their work.

Intermittent Schedule Reinforcement is given irregularly Students are not called on every time
as the animal gives the desired they raise their hands, not praised
response. after working each problem, and not
always told they are behaving
appropriately.

Fixed interval The time interval is constant from Appreciating a students’ answer is
one reinforcement to the next. done for the first response made
after 5 minutes.

Variable interval The time interval varies from The first correct response after 5
occasion to occasion around some minutes is reinforced, but the time
average value. interval varies (e.g., 2, 3, 7, or 8
minutes).

Ratio Schedule Reinforcement is given depending Teacher gives praises to a student

on the number of correct responses after reciting the fifth correct answer.
or the rate of responding.

Fixed ratio Every nth correct response is Every 10th correct response receives
reinforced, where n is constant. reinforcement.
 Variable ratio Every nth correct response is A teacher may give free time
reinforced, but the value varies periodically around an average of five
around an average number n. completed assignments.

Punishment
Operant conditioning also includes punishment, whose main aim is to weaken the response.
However, punishment does not necessarily eliminate the behavior; when the threat of punishment is
removed, the punished response may recur (Merrett & Wheldall, 1984). Skinner believed that positive
punishment is an addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the behavior. For instance, Max, a
grade 6 pupil, had been neglecting his Math assignments. He completely hated washing the dishes. To
decrease such behavior of neglecting his assignments, her parents assigned him to wash the dishes after
dinner. After some time, Max eventually became more diligent to complete his assignments in Math. The
addition (positive) of the work Max hates (punishment) decreases the likelihood for the behavior
(neglect of doing the assignments) to occur.
Negative punishment, meanwhile, is the removal of rewarding stimulus to decrease the
behavior. For example, Jennie, a grade 3 pupil, is always noisy in a group activity. Her teacher calls her
attention and warns her that she could not participate in the subsequent fun activity if she continues to
behave noisily. Joining in a fun activity is a pleasant stimulus. Withdrawing it (negative) is believed to
reduce noisy behavior (punishment).

Table 2. Relationship of reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement Punishment
(increasing the behavior) (decreasing the behavior)
Positive Adding something to increase the Adding something to decrease the
(adding) behavior behavior
Negative Subtracting something to Subtracting something to decrease
(subtracting) increase the behavior the behavior

Alternatives to Punishment
Punishment is often applied in schools to address disruptions. Maag (2001) enumerated
some common punishments like loss of privileges, removals from the classroom, in- and
out-of-school suspensions, and expulsions. Nonetheless, there are several alternatives to
punishment (see figure 18). The primary advantage of this alternative over punishment is that it
shows the student how to behave adaptively.

Change the
discriminative stimuli
● Move
misbehaving
students away
from other
misbehaving
students.

Allow the unwanted

behavior to continue

● Have student
who stands when
he or she should
be sitting
continue to
stand.

Extinguish
the unwanted
behavior
● Ignore minor
misbehavior so
that it is not
reinforced by
teacher
attention.

Condition an
incompatible
behavior
● Reinforce
learning
progress, which
occurs only when
a student is not
misbehaving.

Figure 18. Alternatives to punishment.

EXPERIENCE
The use of rewards and punishments in a classroom setting is very noticeable in an everyday
situation. For instance, the teacher may use prizes or rewards in exciting collaborative games to increase
student participation. Notably, the K-12 curriculum promotes higher student participation and
collaboration. Knowing the appropriate use of rewards and punishments in teaching may address this
pedagogical requirement.
 Showing simple ways to reinforce students may somehow build an image of a teacher who is
supportive. For instance, the teacher positively reinforcing a pleasant behavior who often smiles, praises,
and shows affectionate patting on the back is considered a kind and caring teacher.
Moreover, classroom management is one of the key areas of concern in teaching. Operant
conditioning can also be applied to ensure a well-organized climate in class. For example, a teacher may
ignore students who shout out correct answers but may give them opportunity to recite when they raise
their hands. Moreover, using operant conditioning, the teacher may give immediate feedback toward
pleasant or unpleasant behavior. Giving feedback is a vital in diminishing undesirable student behavior.
Reinforcement in teaching has different effects on different learners; therefore, the use of varied
ways for different types of learners should be observed. Moreover, it is worth extending continuous
reinforcement to enable the learners to acquire new behavior.

ASSESS
Activity 1: on the space provided before each item, write “YES” if the statement is true and
“NO” if it is false.
____ 1. In the context of operant conditioning, punishment aims to strengthen pleasant
behavior.
____ 2. Operant conditioning is the type where learning occurs as a consequence of the
learner’s
behavior.
____ 3. Classical conditioning: Watson:: Operant conditioning: Skinner
____ 4. Every time students get the correct answer to a word problem, Teacher X gives them
appreciative statements. This is a sample application of the intermittent schedule of
reinforcement.
____ 5. The main aim of negative reinforcement is to diminish the occurrence of unpleasant
behavior.
____ 6. Positive reinforcement is adding something pleasant to sustain the occurrence of
behavior.
____ 7. Negative punishment strengthens the occurrence of behavior by taking away something
pleasant to the learner.
____ 8. Operant conditioning is also referred to as associationism.
____ 9. In the context of operant conditioning, the consequences that strengthen any behavior
are referred to as “reinforces.”
____ 10. Negative reinforcement is taking something away from a situation that increases the
occurrence of the response.

Activity 2. Research Digest. In a group of three, make a summary of the following research
article by filling out the repertory grid below.

Visit this link and download the research article:

 https://www.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/EDKKUJ/article/download/50190/41579/

Title, Author, Research Key Results and Conclusions and

Date of Problem/ Research Methodology Implications for Recommendation/s
Publication Objective Questions Teaching
Design:
Tool:
Analysis:
Participants:

CHALLENGE
1. React on a criticism to operant conditioning that there is no lasting behavioral change. In
short, reinforcing a behavior through rewards or punishments only lasts temporarily.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. How does operant conditioning create the opposite effect than what was intended? Cite
a sample classroom situation.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. How does feedbacking interplay in the use of punishments and rewards in classroom
situations to facilitate a learner-centered class? You can provide sample classroom
situation/s to illustrate your point.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
HARNESS
In a group of three members, interview two teachers on how they apply operant conditioning
concepts in facilitating a learner-centered classroom. Create a teaching strategy bank. You may
want to enrich your bank through an actual teaching observation.
 My Teaching Strategy Bank

The Lesson in a Capsule

B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning is lodged under behaviorism. It has two main
features: positive and negative reinforcements that have the same aim. They increase the
likelihood that the response will be made in the future in the presence of the stimulus.
Moreover, operant conditioning can be applied to teaching. Reinforcements may be given at
various schedules, and punishments may have some alternatives.

Lesson 4: Neo-Behaviorism
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
● Distinguish behaviorism by Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner to Neo-Behaviorism by Tolman
and Bandura;
● Relate the salient features of Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and Bandura’s social-cognitive theory
to actual teaching; and
● Analyze detailed lesson plans using the principles of Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and Bandura’s
social-cognitive theory.
THINK

As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill in the gap between
behaviorism and cognitive learning beliefs. It is called neo-behaviorism. Notable psychologists that
contributed much in the development of neo-behaviorism included Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura.
The neo-behaviorists were more self-consciously trying to formalize the laws of behavior. They believed
that some mediating variables into the established stimulus-response theory contribute much to
learning.

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive learning encapsulates Edward Tolman’s theory. He insisted that all behavior is directed
because of purpose. Hence, all behaviors are focused on achieving some goals by cognition-an
intervening variable. For Tolman, behavior is never merely the result of mindless S-R connections. He
further believed that “mental processes are to be identified in terms of the behaviors to which they
lead.” In other words, his intervening variables are tied to observable behaviors.
In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes for 17 days. The first group of rats was
fed (rewarded) every time they found their way out. The second group of rats was non-reinforced. The
rats did not receive any food from days 1 to 10 even if they have seen the end point. Later, it was
observed that in 10 days, the rats developed a cognitive map. Hence, from day 11 onward, they were
motivated to perform and look for the end point faster than the first group to find food because they
were hungry.
From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a behavior because it has a
purpose or a goal. It has also led t the birth of latent learning--a form of learning that occurs without any
visible reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. In addition, latent learning occurs
every time an organism sees a reason to perform or show it. For instance, a 4-year-old boy observed his
father in using the TV remote control. When he would be left alone and had the opportunity to turn on
the TV using the remote control, he could easily demonstrate the learning.
Another distinctive feature of the purposive behaviorism is the coining of the term “cognitive
map.” According to Tolman, it is a mental illustration of the layout of the environment. It is believed that
everything in our cognitive map influences our interaction with the environment. Hence, making our
cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning.

Tolman’s Other Salient Principles

1. Behavior is always purposive. By this, he meant that all behavior is ignited to accomplish a
specific goal. In its purest sense, a demonstration of learning is the outcome of possessing a
purpose to show it.
2. Behavior is cognitive. The expectations that underlie and guide behavior are cognitions. This
means that an organism is mindful of the connections between specific actions and certain
outcomes (cognitive map). Such mental map is developed by expanding the experiences,
coupled with the stimuli and rewards. Notably, Tolman considered a cognition as an abstraction
or a theoretical invention. He believed that cognitions should only be inferred from behavior, not
through introspection.
3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies. Tolman also underscored the role of
reinforcement in learning. As previously stated, learning, according to Tolman, deals with
connections between stimuli and expectancies or perceptions, representations, needs, and other
intervening variables. Because expectancies develop in situations in which reinforcement is
possible, the role of reinforcement is primarily one of confirming expectancies. The more often
an expectancy is established, the more likely it is that the stimuli (signs) associated with it will
become linked with the relevant significance (expectancy).

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Under the social learning theory, learning occurs within the social context and by observing and
copying other’s behavior or imitation (Akers & Jensen, 2006). Albert Bandura is the proponent of this
theory, where modeling is crucial component. Modeling refers to a change in one’s behavior by
observing models (Rosenthal &Bandura, 1978). Historically, modeling was equated with imitation, but
modeling is more inclusive concept (Mussen, 1983).

Bandura’s theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because of the influence of cognition
in his history. He is one among few behaviorists who believed that humans process information through
cognition. The term self-efficacy has bridged social learning theory and cognitive psychology. Self-efficacy
is defined as one’s evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish or perform an action in a particular
context. Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as capable, or useful, in dealing with the world and
with other people.
The following are the fundamental principles of social learning theory:
1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior. This is in contrast to what other
behaviorists discussed earlier; for them, a change in behavior is always an indication of
learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model. That model possesses characteristics (i.e.,
intelligence, physical aura, popularity, or talent) that a learner finds attractive and desirable.
Admiration plays an essential role in imitating a particular behavior of the model. This
explains why speech teachers recite a crucial sound first, then guide the learners until they
can recite the sound correctly by themselves.
3. An observing person will always react to the one being imitated depending on whether the
model is rewarded or punished. If the model receives rewards, the imitator copies the
behavior; and if the former is punished, the latter will most likely avoid copying the behavior.
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different. Bandura made a demarcation line
between performing and acquiring a behavior. One can acquire the behavior by observing
someone but may opt not to perform it until the context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning. Social learning may occur successfully
when learners interact with their co-learners and models (Mourlam, 2013). Learning in
isolation may dampen self-efficacy. This means that copying behavior involves the guiding of
one person’s behavior by another person, such as when an art instructor gives guidance and
corrective feedback to an art student who is attempting to draw a picture. Without copying
behavior, the final “copied” response is reinforced and thereby strengthened.
6. Learning is self-regulated. Bandura noted that self-regulation occurs when individuals
observe, assess, and judge their behavior against their standards, and subsequently reward
and punish them.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously. Vicarious learning is acquired from observing the
consequences of other’s behavior. For instance, when a model is given praises and rewards,
the observer may likely repeat the copied behavior because he or she feels the same
satisfaction, too.
8. Learning ma be reinforced by the model or by others. Compliments coming from the model
ma strengthen the occurrence of the behavior. Similarly, when a person is praised by his or
her peers because of a change in behavior, he or she may show an increase in that behavior.
Components of Successful Modeling
1. Attention. To meaningfully perceive relevant behaviors, one should pay attention. At any given
moment, one can attend to many activities. The characteristics of the model and observer
influence one’s attention to models. This explains why teachers make use of bright colors or
large fonts in their instructional aids for modeling to snatch the attention of the learners.
2. Retention. Paying attention to something should result in retention that requires cognitively
organizing, rehearsing, coding, and transforming modeled information for storage in memory.
Rehearsal also serves a vital role in the retention of knowledge. This is a mental review of
information. Sometimes, the observer retains the information through association and cognitive
pattern. In a dance class, for instance, an observer counts 1-2-3-4 and 5 with corresponding
steps to store the dance steps in his or her memory. Rehearsal without coding and coding
without rehearsal are less effective.
 3. Production. To strengthen learning through observation, one needs to translate the visual and
symbolic conceptions into observable behavior. Subsequent production of this behavior indicates
an increase in learning. Bandura noted that observers refine their skills with practice, corrective
feedback, and reteaching. Sometimes, problems in producing modeled behaviors arises not only
because information is inadequately coded but also because learners experience difficulty
translating coded information in memory into overt action. For example, a child may have a basic
understanding of how to tie shoelaces but not be able to translate that knowledge into behavior.
Teachers who suspect that are having trouble demonstrating what they have learned may need
to test students in different ways.
4. Motivation. Influencing observational learning is motivation. Individuals perform actions they
believe will result in rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be responded
to negatively (Schunk, 1987). Persons also act based on their values, performing activities they
value and avoiding those they find unsatisfying, regardless of the consequences to themselves or
others. Motivation is a critical process of observational learning that teachers promote in various
ways, including making learning interesting, relating material to student interests, having
students set goals and monitor goal progress, providing feedback indicating increasing
competence, and stressing the value of learning.

EXPERIENCE
Tolman advanced that learning is goal directed. This goal is specific, but for some children, it is
distant and might be viewed as too complicated. To ensure that all students achieve the over all goal, as
a teacher later, you may set short-term goals each day by saying, “Today we are going to work on these
five words. By the end of class time, I know that you will be able to spell these five words.” Children
should view their daily goals as easier to attain than the weekly goal. To further ensure goal attainment,
you will make sure that the 15 words selected for mastery by Friday challenge the students but are not
overly burdensome.
Self-efficacy and learning through observation are from Bandura’s social-cognitive theory. We
can merge these principles and apply them to teaching. For instance, you may select certain students to
solve a board mathematical problem. When they are successful, the peer models help elevate observers’
self-efficacy for performing well. Students in the class are more likely to perceive themselves as similar in
terms of competence to at least one of the models.
Using demonstration models or demo teaching is an effective way to facilitate student-centered
learnings. For instance, if you were a TLE teacher, you could teach your students how to insert a sleeve
into a garment through modeled demonstrations. You might begin by describing the process and then
use visual aids to portray the procedure. You could conclude the presentation by demonstrating the
process at a sewing machine.
Compliments in the form of feedback can increase self-efficacy while learning through modeling.
If you were a drama teacher, for instance, you could model various performance skills while working with
students as they practice a play. You might demonstrate desired voice inflections, mood, volume, and
body movements for each character in the play. As the students perform their parts, you may highlight
their strengths or give them pat on their shoulders or a thumbs-up sign before telling them their points
for improvement.

ASSESS
Activity 1: fill out the Venn diagram by pointing out the similarities and differences of Behaviorism by
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner to Neo-Behaviorism by Tolman and Bandura.

Activity 2: Choose a topic in your field of specialization. Suggest some teaching strategies and
applications on how you could reflect the following concepts from Tolman and Bandura. The table below
will help you organize your thoughts.

Topic/Subject Matter:

Grade Level:

Concepts/Principles Teaching Strategies/Applications

Cognitive map
Latent learning
Learning may be acquired vicariously.
Learning takes place by imitating a model.
Self-efficacy
 CHALLENGE
1. How should seasoned teachers help in increasing the beginning teachers’ level of
self-efficacy?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. If you were to critic the concepts postulated by Tolman and Bandura, what may be their
weakness?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. How do the theories of Tolman and Bandura aid in developing the characteristics of the
21st Century learners?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

HARNESS
With a partner, check on two detailed lesson plans in your field of specialization. Analyze the lesson
plans by annotating them with the concepts posited by Tolman and Bandura. Be ready to present your
findings in class.

The Lesson in Capsule

Neo-behaviorism emerged to bridge the gap between behaviorism and cognitivism. It disputed
the behaviorists’ assumptions by explaining that the active cognitive processes help individuals to learn
other than just becoming a passive learner. Tolman postulated the purposive-behaviorism theory,
believing that learning is always goal oriented. Bandura, meanwhile, advanced his learning through
modeling or social-cognitive theory. He underscored the importance of self-efficacy and possesses of
learning by observation. Such theories have many teaching applications to facilitate learner-centered
classes.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Learning can be explained by psychological theories, and one of these is behaviorism. It is mostly
concerned with change of behavior by reacting to the environment. Notable early behaviorists include
Thorndike, Pavlov, and Watson. With differing views, they are lodged under behaviorism because they
believe that learning is a process of forming associations between stimuli and responses. These theories
have influenced teaching. Rewards and punishments are vital in facilitating learning and in motivating
students to learn.

Neo-behaviorism also emerged to contradict some of the claims of the early behaviorists.
Bandura and Tolman led they group of neo-behaviorists, who believed that learners are not passive but
instead use cognition, too. Hence, neo-behaviorism filled in the gap of the early behaviorism and
cognitivism.

In facilitating learner-centered classroom and in developing 21st Century learners, these theories
are all vital to apply. Teachers should be equipped with the theories and concepts so they can use them
correctly in class to maximize the teaching and learning process.