Chapter 4 - Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms

The “Puzzle” of the nucleus:

• Protons and electrons are attracted to each other because of opposite charges
• Electrically charged particles moving in a curved path give off energy
• Despite these facts, atoms don’t collapse

4-1 The Development of a New Atomic Model

I. Properties of Light
A. Electromagnetic Radiation
1. Many types of EM waves
a. visible light
b. x-rays
c. ultraviolet light
d. infrared light
e. radio waves
2. EM radiation are forms of energy which move through space as waves
a. Move at speed of light
(1). 3.00 x 108 m/s
b. Speed is equal to the frequency times the wavelength c = νλ
(1). Freqency (ν) is the number of waves passing a given
point in one second
(2). Wavelength (λ) is the distance between peaks of
adjacent waves

c. Speed of light is a constant, so νλ is also a constant

(1) ν and λ must be inversely proportional
 B. Light and Energy - The Photoelectric Effect
1. The Photoelectric Effect
a. Electrons are emitted from a metal when light shines on the metal
2. Radiant energy is transferred in units (or quanta) of energy called
photons
a. A photon is a particle of energy having a rest mass of zero and
carrying a quantum of energy
b. A quantum is the minimum amount of energy that can be lost or
gained by an atom
3. Energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency of radiation
a. E = hν (h is Planck’s constant, 6.62554 x 10 -27 erg sec)

10-12 10-10 10-8 4 to 7x10-7 10-4 10-2 1 102 104

gamma xrays UV visible IR micro Radio waves

FM short AM

Wavelength increases
Frequency decreases
Energy decreases

4. Wave-Particle Duality
a. Energy travels through space as waves, but can be thought of as a
stream of particles (Einstein)

II. The Hydrogen Line Spectrum

A. Ground State
1. The lowest energy state of an atom
B. Excited State
1. A state in which an atom has a higher potential energy than in its ground
state
C. Bright line spectrum
1. Light is given off by excited atoms as they return to lower energy states
2. Light is given off in very definite wavelengths
3. A spectroscope reveals lines of particular colors

410nm 434nm 486nm 656nm

a. Definite frequency
b. Definite wavelength
hc
∆E = hv =
λ
III. The Bohr Model of the Atom
A. Electron Orbits, or Energy Levels
1. Electrons can circle the nucleus only in allowed paths or orbits
2. The energy of the electron is greater when it is in orbits farther from the
nucleus
3. The atom achieves the ground state when atoms occupy the closest
possible positions around the nucleus
4. Electromagnetic radiation is emitted when electrons move closer to the
nucleus

B. Energy transitions
1. Energies of atoms are fixed and definite quantities
2. Energy transitions occur in jumps of discrete amounts of energy
3. Electrons only lose energy when they move to a lower energy state
C. Shortcomings of the Bohr Model
1. Doesn't work for atoms larger than hydrogen (more than one electron)
2. Doesn't explain chemical behavior
4-2 The Quantum Model of the Atom
I. Electrons as Waves and Particles
A. Louis deBroglie (1924)
1. Electrons have wavelike properties
2. Consider the electron as a wave confined to a space that can have only
certain frequencies
B. The Heisenbery Uncertainty Principle (Werner Heisenberg - 1927)
1. "It is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and
velocity of an electron or any other particle
a. Electrons are located by their interactions with photons
b. Electrons and photons have similar energies
c. Interaction between a photon and an electron knocks the
electron off of its course
C. The Schroedinger Wave Equation
1. Proved quantization of electron energies and is the basis for Quantum
Theory
a. Quantum theory describes mathematically the wave properties
of electrons and other very small particles
2. Electrons do not move around the nucleus in "planetary orbits"
3. Electrons exist in regions called orbitals
a. An orbital is a three-dimensional region around the nucleus that
indicates the probable location of an electron

dψ + ψ
2 2

− h V = Eψ
8 π m dx
2 2

Schroedinger equation for probability of a single electron

being found along a single axis (x-axis)

II. Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

Quantum Numbers specify the properties of atomic orbitals and the properties of the
electrons in orbitals

A. Principal Quantum Number (n)

1. Indicates the main energy levels occupied by the electron
2. Values of n are positive integers
a. n=1 is closest to the nucleus, and lowest in energy
3. The number of orbitals possible per energy level (or "shell") is equal to
n2
B. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
1. Indicates the shape of the orbital
2. Number of orbital shapes = n
a. Shapes are designated s, p, d, f
C. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
1. The orientation of the orbital around the nucleus
a. s orbitals have only one possible orientation
m=0
b. p orbitals have three, d have five and f have 7 possible
orientations

s orbital px orbital py orbital pz orbital

dxy orbital dxz orbital dyz orbital dx2-y2 orbital dz2 orbital

Principal Sublevels in Number of Number of Number of

Quantum main energy orbitals per electrons per electrons per
Number (n) level sublevel sublevel main energy
(n sublevels) level (2n2)
1 s 1 2 2
2 s 1 2 8
p 3 6
3 s 1 2 18
p 3 6
d 5 10
4 s 1 2 32
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14

D. Spin Quantum Number

1. Indicates the fundamental spin states of an electron in an orbital
2. Two possible values for spin, +1/2, -1/2
3. A single orbital can contain only two electrons, which must have
opposite spins
4-3 Electron Configurations
I. Writing Electrons Configurations
A. Rules
1. Aufbau Principle
a. An electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle
a. No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of
four quantum numbers
3. Hund's Rule
a. Orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron
before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all
electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

2p 2p 2p

B. Orbital Notation
1. Unoccupied orbitals are represented by a line, _____
a. Lines are labeled with the principal quantum number and the
sublevel letter
2. Arrows are used to represent electrons
a. Arrows pointing up and down indicate opposite spins
C. Configuration Notation
1. The number of electrons in a sublevel is indicated by adding a
superscript to the sublevel designation
Hydrogen = 1s1
Helium = 1s2
Lithium = 1s22s1

II. Survey of the Periodic Table

A. Elements of the Second and Third Periods
1. Highest occupied energy level
a. The electron containing energy level with the highest principal
quantum number
2. Inner shell electrons
a. Electrons that are not in the highest energy level
3. Octet
a. Highest energy level s and p electrons are filled (8 electrons)
b. Characteristic of noble gases, Group 18
4. Noble gas configuration
a. Outer main energy level fully occupied, usually (except for He)
by eight electrons
b. This configuration has extra stability
B. Elements of the Fourth Period
1. Irregularity of Chromium
a. Expected: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4
b. Actual: 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5
2. Several transition and rare-earth elements borrow from smaller
sublevels in order to half fill larger sublevels