PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 3 – Electrical Fundamentals

Category – B Sub Module 3.2 – Static Electricity and Conduction

MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.2

STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTOIN

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Contents
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 3
STATIC ELECTRICITY .................................................................................... 4
ATTRACTIVE AND REPULSIVE FORCES ........................................................ 4
TRIBOELECTRIFICATION........................................................................... 6
ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION AND POLARIZATION ......................................... 7
INDUCTION IN A CONDUCTING MATERIAL.................................................. 7
Removing Charge From Electroscope............................................................. 8
ELECTRIC FIELD ................................................................................... 12
ELECTROSTATIC LAWS OF ATTRACTION ANDREPULSION ................ 12
FIRST LAW ...................................................................................................... 12
Nature Of Charges ........................................................................................ 15
Movement Of Charge ................................................................................... 15
UNIT OF CHARGE .......................................................................................... 16
Coulomb ....................................................................................................... 16
STATIC ELECTRICITY AND THE AIRPLANE ................................................... 16
LIGHTNING................................................................................................ 17
COMPOSITE MATERIALS ....................................................................... 19
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH SOLIDS ........................................ 20
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH LIQUIDS ....................................... 21
AQUEOUS SOLUTION WHICH CONDUCT ELECTRICITY ................................... 21
3.2.14 CONDUCTION THROUGH A GAS AT LOW PRESSURE ........................... 24

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INTRODUCTION Gilbert classified all the substances which possessed properties

similar to those of amber as electrics, a word of Greek origin
Electrostatics (electricity at rest) is a subject with which most meaning amber because of Gilbert’s work with electrics, a
persons entering the field of electricity and electronics are substance such as amber or glass when given a vigorous
somewhat familiar. For example, the way a person’s hair stands rubbing was recognized as being electrified or charged with
on end after a vigorous rubbing is an effect of electrostatics. electricity.
While pursuing the study of electrostatics, you will gain a better
understanding of this common occurrence. Of even greater In the year 1733, Charles Dufay, a French scientist, made an
significance, the study of electrostatics will provide you with the important discovery about electrification. He found that when a
opportunity to gain important background knowledge and to glass was rubbed with fur, both the glass rod and the fur
develop concepts which are essential to the understanding of became electrified. This realization came when he
electricity and electronics. systematically placed the glass rod and the fur near other
electrified substances and found that certain substances which
Electrostatics is the branch of science that deals with the were attracted to the glass rod were repelled by the fur, and
phenomena arising from stationary or slow-moving electric vice versa. From experiments such as this, he concluded that
charges Interest in the subject of static electricity can be traced there must be two exactly opposite kinds of electricity.
back to the Greeks. Thales of Miletus, a Greek philosopher and
mathematician, discovered that when an amber rod is rubbed Benjamin Franklin, American statesman, inventor, and
with fur, the rod has the amazing characteristic of attracting philosopher, is credited with first using the terms positive and
some very light objects such as bits of paper and shavings of negative to describe the two opposite kinds of electricity. The
wood. charge produced on a glass rod when it is rubbed with silk,
Franklin labeled positive. He attached the term negative to the
About 1600, William Gilbert, an English scientist, made a study charge produced on the silk. Those bodies which were not
of other substances which had been found to possess qualities electrified or charged, he called neutral.
of attraction similar to amber. Among these were glass, when
rubbed with silk, and ebonite, when rubbed with fur. It took about 50 years to find out that charges are polarized.

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STATIC ELECTRICITY

Electricity is often described as being either static or dynamic.

The difference between the two is based simply on whether the
electrons are at rest (static) or in motion (dynamic). Static
electricity is a buildup of an electrical charge on the surface of
an object. It is considered “static” due to the fact that there is no
current flowing as In AC or DC electricity. Static electricity is
usually caused when non-conductive materials such as rubber,
plastic or glass is rubbed together, causing a transfer of
electrons, which then results in an imbalance of charges
between the two materials. The fact that there is an imbalance
of charges between the two materials means that the objects
will exhibit an attractive or repulsive force.

Attractive and Repulsive Forces

One of the most fundamental laws of static electricity, as well as

magnetism, deals with attraction and repulsion. Like charges
repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. All
electrons possess a negative charge and as such will repel
Figure 3.2.1: Reaction of like and unlike charges
each other. Similarly all protons possess a positive charge and
as such will repel each other. Electrons (negative) and protons
For example, if two pith balls are suspended, as shown in the
(positive) are opposite in their charge and will attract teach
figure3.2.1, and each ball is touched with the charged glass rod,
other.
some of the charge from the rod is transferred to the balls. The
balls now have similar charges and, consequently, repel each
other as shown in part B of Figure 3.2.1. If a plastic rod is
rubbed with fur, it becomes negatively charged and the fur is
positively charged. By touching each ball with these differently
charged sources, the balls obtain opposite charges and attract
each other as shown in part C of Figure 3.2.1.

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Although most objects become charged with static electricity by

means of friction, a charged substance can also influence A method of charging a metal bar by induction is demonstrated
objects near it by contact. This is illustrated in Figure 3.3.2. in Figure 3.2.3. A positively charged rod is brought near, but
does not touch, an uncharged metal bar. Electrons in the metal
bar are attracted to the end of the bar nearest the positively
charged rod, leaving a deficiency of electrons at the opposite
end of the bar. If this positively charged end is touched by a
neutral object, electrons will flow into the metal bar and
neutralize the charge. The metal bar is left with an overall
excess of electrons.

Figure 3.2.2: Charging by contact

If a positively charged rod touches an uncharged metal bar, it

will draw electrons from the uncharged bar to the point of
contact. Some electrons will enter the rod, leaving the metal bar
with a deficiency of electrons (positively charged) and making
the rod less positive than it was or, perhaps, even neutralizing Figure 3.2.3: Charging a bar by induction
its charge completely.

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Triboelectrification free charge carriers, and so excess charge tends to stay where
it’s put on the surface of an insulator.

Today, the process of rubbing two materials together to transfer When an insulator is charged by rubbing it with a dissimilar
some amount of electric charge is known as triboelectric material, the charge remains at the points where the friction
charging it can also be said as static charging by friction occurs because the electrons cannot move through the
between two or more dissimilar materials. This type of charging material; however, when a conductor is charged, it must be
is an important factor in the design and installation of electric insulated from other conductors or the charge will be lost.
and electronic equipment in aircraft. Table 1 below indicates the Walking is one of the biggest sources of triboelectric charging.
relative ability of a material to gain or lose charges due to Shoe soles contact and then separate from the floor or carpet,
rubbing. More plusses (+) next to a material in the chart effectively leaving both person and floor charged. Conveyor
indicates a greater ability to obtain a net positive charge. More belts and other moving machinery are also sources of
minuses (−) next to a material in the chart indicates a greater triboelectric charging.
ability to obtain a net negative charge.

In general when two objects listed in the chart are rubbed

together, the material listed higher in the chart becomes
positively charged and the material listed lower in the chart
becomes negatively charged. The greater the separation of the
materials in the chart, the greater the magnitude of the charge
transferred.

We can also characterize how easily charge can flow along or

through a material. Materials that easily allow charge to flow
through them are known as conductors. Materials through which
charge cannot easily flow are known as insulators. We
understand this distinction today in terms of the mobility of
charge carriers within the material. For instance, in most metals
(which are often good conductors), valence electrons are free to
move anywhere throughout the metal, and thus can easily
transfer charge from one location to another within the metal. In Table 3.2.1Tribolectric charging
insulating materials, on the other hand, there are relatively few

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Electrostatic Induction And Polarization Induction In A Conducting Material

In general terms, polarization means to separate into opposites. In its normal, neutral state, an electrically conducting object
In the political world, we often observe that a collection of typically has an equal number of positive (+) and negative (−)
people becomes polarized over some issue. For instance, we electrical charges—such as positive ions, negative ions and
might say that the United States has become polarized over the electrons—intermingled within the material. When a static
issue of the death penalty. That is, the citizens of the United electrically charged object is brought near this conductor, the
States have been separated into opposites - those who are for electrical charges on or near the surface of the object attract the
the death penalty and those who are against the death penalty. opposite charges in the conductor and repel the like charges.
In the context of electricity, polarization is the process of Plastic rod near metal plate
separating opposite charges within an object. The positive
charge becomes separated from the negative charge. By As shown in figure3.2.4 (a), if a charged plastic rod is brought
inducing the movement of electrons within an object, one side of near a metal plate, the negative charges on the rod attract the
the object is left with an excess of positive charge and the other positive charges in the plate and repel its negative charges.
side of the object is left with an excess of negative charge. This creates a redistribution of electrical charges in the plate. As
Charge becomes separated into opposites. long as the electrically charged rod is near the metal plate, the
electrical charges in the plate will be redistributed. But once the
Electrostatic induction is a method to create or generate static charged object is removed, thermal motion of the atoms in the
electricity in a material by bringing an electrically charged object metal will cause the charges to intermingle again.
near it. This causes the electrical charges to be redistributed in
the material, resulting in one side having an excess of either Bringing Charge Near Electroscope
positive (+) or negative (−) charges.
Another example is the electroscope. If you bring a charged
This phenomenon is most effective when the object is a object such as the plastic rod near an electroscope, opposite
conducting material, such as metals. The only drawback is that electrical charges will move towards the metal end of the
once the electrically charged object is removed, the conductor
loses its charge. This can be solved by temporarily grounding electroscope.
the conductor.
In this illustration, the rod has negative (−) electrical charges on
Certain non-conducting materials can also be given a static its surface, which attract positive (+) charges in the metal shaft
electric charge by electrostatic induction. In these cases, it is
of the electroscope by means of electrostatic induction.
caused by polarization of their molecules.

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The electrical charges in the metal shaft are redistributed, with
negative charges collecting on the leaves at the other end of the
shaft. Since like charges repel, the electroscope leaves push
part, due to the electrical force where opposite charges repel.

The electroscope has not gained any electric charges. They

have just been redistributed, with positive charges near the top
and negative charges by the leaves, as seen in figure 3.2.4.

Figure 3.2.4(b): Electroscope leaves separate because of

electrical charges

Figure 3.2.4(a): Electrical charges in the conductor are Removing Charge From Electroscope
redistributed
When the charged rod is removed, the electrical charges in the
electroscope intermingle again and the leaves fall back to a
neutral position.

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Figure3.2.5: Electroscope leaves fall back after charged rod

Figure3.2.6: Electroscope remain charged after grounding
removed

Ground to Keep Charges

You can cause the electroscope to have an excess of one type Induction In Non-Conducting Materials
of electrical charge by drawing off the other type of charge.
This is shown in figure 3.2.6 by touching the negative (−) Electrostatic induction can also work in non-conducting or
electrical charged rod to the shaft containing the positive (+) dielectric materials. However, movement of electrical charges is
charges or by simply touching the shaft with your finger. This much more constrained in nonconductors than in conductors.
will result in drawing off many of the positive charges but Electrons are allowed to move about in a conductor, and that is
allowing the negative charges in the leaves to remain. It is often what allows the flow of electricity in a metal wire. In a
called grounding, although the charges aren't really going into nonconductor, the electrons are constrained within the atoms,
the ground. so separation of charges particles does not work.
You can tell the leaves are still charged, because they remain
separated. However, if the nonconductor consists of polar molecules—that
is, molecule that have one side more positive than the other
side—then electrostatic induction will cause those molecules to
be aligned with positive charges on one side and negative
charges on the other side.

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Figure3.2.7: Water molecule can polarize by electrostatic

induction

For example, the water molecule has more positive charges on

one side of the molecule and negative charges on the other
side. Thus, water can be slightly attracted to a static electric
Figure 3.2.8
charge.
Conduction
A demonstration of that can be seen in bending a stream of
water with a charged plastic comb in the figure below. Conduction is the transfer of charge through direct contact.
Conduction occurs when a charged object directly contacts an
object with a different charge. There must be a conductive path
between the objects.

Let's assume we have a negatively charged metal object and an

uncharged metal sphere (Illustration 3.2.9 a). The uncharged
sphere is on an insulating stand so it will not interact with
anything else.

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We bring the two objects close together. We will see a

separation of charge happen in the neutral object as negative
electrons are repelled to the right hand side (Illustration 3.2.9b).

At this time, they are not touching and no charges have been
transferred. We allow the two objects to touch (Illustration 3.2.9
c).

Some of the negative charge will transfer over to the uncharged

metal object. This happen since the negative charges on the
first object are repelling each other, by moving onto the second
object they spread away from each other. When the negative
object is removed, it will not be as negative as it was (Illustration
3.2.9d).

Both of the objects have some of the negative charge… how

much depends on the size of the objects and the materials they Figure 3.2.9
are made of.
Total deficiency or addition of access electrons in an atom is
If they are the same size, made of the same materials, then the called its charge and the element is said to be charged. The
charge will be the same on both.
charge on one electron or proton is 1.602×10-19 coulomb.

One coulomb charge is a charge possessed by a total of

1/1.602x10-19 electrons i.e. 6.24x1018 electrons

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Electric Field ELECTROSTATIC LAWS OF ATTRACTION ANDREPULSION

The medium around a charge is surrounded by an invisible field FIRST LAW

of force. The region in which the stress exists or in which the
electric force acts is called Electric or Dielectric or electrostatic
Like charges of electricity repel each other, whereas unlike
field.
charges attract each other. Charged objects repel or attract
each other because of the way electrostatic fields act together.
A field of force exists around a charged body. This field is an This force is present with every charged object.
electrostatic field (sometimes called a dielectric field) and is
represented by lines extending in all directions from the charged When two objects of opposite charge are brought near one
body and terminating where there is an equal and opposite another, the electrostatic field is concentrated in the area
charge. To explain the action of an electrostatic field, lines are between them, as shown in Figure3.2.11.The direction of the
used to represent the direction and intensity of the electric field small arrows shows the direction of the force as it would act
of force. As illustrated in Figure 3.2.10, the intensity of the field upon an electron if it were released into the electric field. When
two objects of like charge are brought near one another, the
lines of force repel each other, as shown in Figure 3.2.12.
is indicated by the number of lines per unit area, and the
direction is shown by arrowheads. Force between 2 charges each 1Q when they are at 1metre
apart in air: Ɛ0 = 8.854 x 10-12 Farad/meter.

Now F = Q1. Q2 / 4π Ɛ0 d2 by putting values we get

F = 8.9878 x 109 N

.
Figure 3.2.10: Direction of electric field around positive
and negative charges

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SECOND LAW (COULOMB’S LAW)

The strength of the attraction or of the repulsion force depends

upon two factors:
(1) The amount of charge on each object, and
(2) The distance between the objects.
(3) The nature of medium surrounding the charges

The greater the charge on the objects, the greater is the

Figure 3.2.11: Electrostatic Field between Two Charges of electrostatic field. The greater the distance between the objects,
Opposite Polarity the weaker the electrostatic field between them, and vice versa.
This leads us to the law of electrostatic attraction, commonly
referred to as Coulomb’s Law of electrostatic charges, which
states that

The force of electrostatic attraction, or repulsion, is directly

proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them

Consider two point charges Q1 and Q2 placed d distance apart.

Figure 3.2.12: Electrostatic Field between Two Charges of Same
Then the Force exerted between the two charges,
Polarity

If, k is the constant of proportionality representing the

surrounding medium,

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F = k Q1Q2 / d2
The value of this constant for free space is given as, k=1/4πЄ0 Electro statics. It is also a replica for the Dielectric constant,
Where, Є0Epsilon is the permittivity of free space, which is which is the ability of an insulator to concentrate flux on it.
equal to 8.854 PF/m for air.
As we know that
Therefore in free space, C of a capacitor = Dielectric Constant K x Area of the plates
Distance b/w the plates
i.e. C = k A/d
K = C d/A = C.m/m2 = F/m………… (a)

If the charges are placed in any other medium, Similarly in comparison to µ0 = B/H: Ɛ0 = D/E
Then, Where D = Electric flux density = Coulomb/meters (q = Q/A)
E = Electric field strength = Volt/meter = V/d
This is potential drop per unit length or the potential gradient.

The ratio of electric flux density to the electric field strength is

Where, Є is the absolute permittivity of the medium.
called the permittivity of free space Ɛ0, hence
The knowledge of relative permittivity is of importance since in
Ɛ0 = D/E = Q/m2 . m/V
practice the permittivity of materials is defined by this e.g.,
= Q/V x m/m2 since C= Q/V
relative permittivity of air = 1, water = 81, paper = 2-3, glass= 5-
Ɛ0 = C/m = F/m…………………………….. (b)
10, mica = 2.5 - 6.

Relative permittivity or the Dielectric constant of the material

Permittivity of free space:
inserted between the plates, is the ratio of the C of a capacitor
having a certain material as a dielectric to the capacitance of the
The term permeability of free space µ0 = B/H is used in same capacitor having free space or vacuum.
electromagnetism whereas the term permittivity is used in
Єr = Cd / Co = Є /Єo
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Conversely, whenever an atom acquires an extra electron, it
becomes a negative ion and has a negative charge.
Є = Єr . Єo
This is the Absolute permittivity of a medium. Due to normal molecular activity, there are always ions present
in any material. If the number of positive ions and negative ions
Charge is equal, the material is electrically neutral. When the number of
positive ions exceeds the number of negative ions, the material
Static electricity arises as the separation of positive and is positively charged. The material is negatively charged
negative charges at the interface between two dissimilar whenever the negative ions outnumber the positive ions.
surfaces. If one or other of the surfaces prevent easy migration
of charge, or the conductor on which they reside is isolated, Since ions are actually atoms without their normal number of
then this charge is 'static' on the surface and remains available electrons, it is the excess or the lack of electrons in a substance
to influence the surroundings. 'Static' electricity can also arise that determines its charge. In most solids, the transfer of
on surfaces as trapped ions from the air. charges is by movement of electrons rather than ions. The
transfer of charges by ions will become more significant when
Static charges may be electrons, or positive, or negative ions - we consider electrical activity in liquids and gases. At this time,
but they are in the basic units of electronic charge 1.602x10-19 we will discuss electrical behavior in terms of electron
coulomb movement.

Nature Of Charges Movement Of Charge

When in a natural or neutral state, an atom has an equal Although electric current is referred to as the flow of electrons
number of electrons and protons. Because of this balance, the through a conductor, it should be noted that more exactly, any
net negative charge of the electrons in orbit is exactly balanced movement of electric charge constitutes an electric current.
by the net positive charge of the protons in the nucleus, making Thus, passage of electricity may occur through a:
the atom electrically neutral.
 Conductor such as metal, due to the movement of the
loosely held outer electrons of the atoms.
An atom becomes a positive ion whenever it loses an electron,
and has an overall positive charge.  Vacuum or gas, due to the movement of electrons.
 Gas, due to the movement of the ionised gas molecules.

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 Liquid, due to the ionisation of certain molecules, We can write this in equation form.
particularly those of acids and salts in solution (e.g.
Electrolytes).  = Q/t amperes (A) where t is the time in seconds
The ampere may be defined in terms of the mechanical units of
force and length, a more helpful picture is that of moving Thus 1 ampere of current flowing in a conductor for 1 hour is
electrons. When a current of one ampere is flowing in a equivalent to 3600 coulombs and this is called an ampere-hour.
conductor, one coulomb of charge passes any point in the
conductor every second. STATIC ELECTRICITY AND THE AIRPLANE
The ampere is thus a measure of the rate of flow of electrons.
As mentioned earlier, the effects of static electricity are of
considerable importance in the design of aircraft and aircraft
UNIT OF CHARGE equipment. An aircraft in flight picks up static charges as it flies
through rain, cloud, snow, dust and other particles in the
Coulomb is the unit of charge. atmosphere. This build-up of statics is referred to as
precipitation static.
Coulomb The amount of charge that builds up in any particular part of the
aircraft depends on the atmospheric conditions to which it is
We have seen that a current of electricity () is a flow of subjected, and the material of which it is made. If two adjacent
electrons but the electron itself is too small to be of use as the pieces of material are able to build up charges at different rates,
unit of electrical quantity and therefore a more practical unit a potential difference will exist between them. Eventually the
consisting of many millions of electrons has been chosen. It is potential difference will be sufficient to break down the
called the COULOMB (C) and is 6.28 x 1018 electrons. insulation and current will jump as a spark between the 2
materials. This spark creates numerous problems; it damages
This is a Quantity of electricity (Q) not a measure of current, but the materials, it causes corrosion, it radiates radio frequencies
it is used to define the unit of electrical current the AMPERE (A). that interfere with radio and navigation equipment and it could
When a current of one ampere is flowing in a conductor, 1 ignite fuel or oil vapor. In order to prevent this happening, it is
coulomb of electrons passes any point in the conductor every essential that all of the aircraft structure and equipment is
second. In other words the size of an electrical current is interconnected or bonded. Bonding allows small currents to
dependent upon the rate of flow of electrons not a number of continuously flow between materials and equipment, thereby
electrons. preventing the buildup of large static charges.

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An aircraft often accumulates very high electric charges, not  An aircraft in flight can have a potential several thousand
only from precipitation but also from the high velocity gases
volts higher than the ground. This charge is dissipated
exiting the engine exhausts. When the charge is sufficiently
through the tyres or special straps on the undercarriage
large, it will start to dissipate into the surrounding atmosphere
when the aircraft lands.
from any sharp or pointed parts of the aircraft, such as the
trailing edges of aerofoil sections. The point at which this  When an aircraft is inside a hangar for maintenance it
occurs is called the corona threshold. The corona discharge should be correctly grounded.
produces severe radio interference and needs to be controlled.
This is achieved using special devices called wicks that allow
the charge to dissipate in a controlled manner from specific LIGHTNING
points on the aircraft so that it causes minimum interference.
The subject of static electricity can be considered amusing or Lightning occurs as a result of a buildup of static charges within
annoying when one suffers from its effects. However, it must be a Cumulonimbus cloud, often associated with the vertical
taken very seriously by aircraft maintenance engineers. The movement and collision of ice particles (Hail), which result in a
following are a few points to consider. negative charge at the base of the cloud and a positive charge
at the top of the cloud. Beneath the cloud, a "shadow" positive
 It essential to maintain the integrity of bonding when charge is created on the ground and, as the charge builds,
carrying out any maintenance work on aircraft. eventually a circuit is created and discharges takes place
between the cloud and the ground, or between the cloud and
 You can build up a charge on yourself as you move and another cloud. An aircraft passing close to an area of charge
work around the aircraft. Much of the equipment in modern can initiate a discharge and this may occur some distance from
aircraft is electronic, and can easily be destroyed by you a Thunderstorm.
discharging static through it.
 When an aircraft is refuelled, is the refuel vehicle at the Lightning strikes on aircraft commonly occur within 5,000 feet
same potential as the aircraft. If it isn’t, then it could be of the freezing level.
possible for a spark to ignite fuel vapour as the fuel nozzle
comes into close proximity with the aircraft. It is essential Lightning is accompanied by a brilliant flash of light and often by
that the two vehicles are interconnected electrically before the smell of burning, as well as noise. A lightning strike can be
any hoses or fillers are opened. very distressing to passengers (and crew!) but significant
physical damage to an aircraft is rare and the safety of an
aircraft in flight is not usually affected.

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Damage is usually confined to aerials, compasses, avionics, Effects
and the burning of small holes in the fuselage. Of greater
concern is the potential for the transient airflow disturbance Aircraft Damage
associated with lightning to cause engine shutdown on both
FADEC and non-FADEC engines with close-spaced engine Structural damage to aircraft from Lightning strikes is
pairs. rare and even more rarely of a nature that threatens the
safety of the aircraft.
Lightning may also occur in Volcanic Ash clouds formed in the
immediate vicinity of eruptions because the vertical movement Nevertheless, there have been many incidents of lightning
and collision between solid particles within the cloud generates strikes leaving puncture holes in the radome and tail fins of
static charges. aircraft (entry and exit holes) and damage to control
mechanisms and surfaces.

Crew Incapacitation

Momentary blindness from the lightning flash, especially

at night, is not uncommon.

Interference with Avionics

A lightning strike can affect avionics systems,

particularly compasses.

Engine Shutdown

Transient airflow disturbance associated with lightning

to cause engine shutdown on both FADEC and non-FADEC
engines with close-spaced engine pairs.

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Defenses

Avoidance

Standard advice to pilots is to remain 20 nautical miles

displaced from any Cumulonimbus cloud. The dangers from
Turbulence, Wind Shear, and Icing associated with
Cumulonimbus clouds are far greater than the threat of
Lightning.

Bonding
.
Figure 3.2.14: Bonding
It is a mandatory requirement that aircraft structure and
equipment are electrically bonded. Specific bonding and
grounding connections are made in an aircraft to accomplish the Composite Materials
following:
There is an increasing use of composite materials being used
 dissipate energy from a high intensity radiated fields
in the construction of aircraft because of their good strength-to-
(HIRF) and lightning strikes
weight ratio (compared with aluminum). Composite material has
 dissipate static electricity a high electrical resistance and is intrinsically unsuitable for
 limit the potential difference between equipment bonding earth returns and lightning strike dissipation. A ground
 Provide a low resistance path for earth return systems. plane has to be integrated into the airframe; this is normally
achieved by bonding an aluminum wire mesh into the composite
Bonding connections are made between components and structure during manufacture. This mesh is accessed at key
structure using purpose-made straps, see Fig. 3.2.14. points around the aircraft to gain access to the ground plane.
Bonding is categorized as either primary or secondary; this is Direct bonding (Fig.3.2.15) is achieved by exposing the mesh
determined by the magnitude of current being conducted. (ground plane) and mounting the equipment directly on to the
Primary bonding is designed for carrying lightning discharges conductive path. Indirect bonding (Fig.3.2.16) is achieved by
and to provide electrical return paths. Secondary bonding is exposing the mesh and installing a bonding wire and connector.
used to dissipate static electricity and keep all structure at the The mesh must always be coated after making a connection
same potential. Bonding straps (or leads) are pre-fabricated since the aluminums will oxidize when exposed to air, leading to
from braided copper or aluminum terminated with crimps high resistance and unreliable joints. Lightning protection in

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composite aircraft is achieved via aluminum wire integrated into The lightning strike will enter and leave the aircraft at its
the outer layers of the composite construction. extremities; the integrated wires are installed in anticipation of
this and the energy dissipated through the aircraft long pre-
determined routes to the exit point(s).

CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY

Conduction of electricity through solids

The only solids, which conduct electricity, are:

Metals- you can find these on the left side of the periodic table.
Graphite is one of the forms of the element carbon.
Figure 3.2.15: Direct bonding on composite
Structure Nearly all of the other solids in the world - non-metal elements,
solid ionic and covalent compounds are non-conductors of
electricity.

Why can metals conduct electricity?

Figure: 3.2.16: Indirect bonding on composite

Structure
Figure 3.2.17: Movements of electrons

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The conductivity of metals is much higher than that of When an electric current is applied to an ionic melt the
semiconductors and insulators because they have many more electricity is carried by the ions that are now able to move. In an
free electrons. The free electrons come from the metal atoms. ionic melt the electric current is a flow of ions.

In metals the charge carriers are the electrons, and because Aqueous solution which conduct electricity
they move freely through the lattice, metals are highly
conductive. The very low mass and inertia of the electrons
allows them to conduct high-frequency alternating currents Remember firstly, that water is considered to be a non-
conductor of electricity. It can allow some electricity through it if
a high voltage is applied to it. This is due to the presence of a
Conduction of electricity through liquids minute concentration of H + (aq) and OH - (aq) ions in the
water. However, electrons cannot flow through water.

The only liquid elements, which conduct, are the liquid metals. Covalent substances do not conduct at all in solution. Ionic
At room temperature liquid mercury is a conductor. Other substances are able to conduct electricity when they are
metals continue to conduct electricity when they are melted. dissolved in water.
Covalent liquids like water, alcohol, ethanoic acid, propanone,
and hexane and so on, are all non-conductors of electricity. Why can ionic substances conduct in solution?
Even solid covalent substances remain non-conductors when
you melt them. Ionic substances do conduct when you melt The reason lies again in the fact that ionic substances are made
them. of charged particles - ions. When the ionic solid is dissolved in
water the ionic lattice breaks up and the ions become free to
Why do ionic melts conduct? move around in the water. When you pass electricity through
the ionic solution, the ions are able to carry the electric current
Ionic substances are made of charged particles - positive and because of their ability to move freely. A solution conducts by
negative ions. In the solid state they are held very firmly in place means of freely moving ions.
in a lattice structure. In the solid state the ions cannot move
about at all. When the ionic solid is melted, the bonds holding
the ions in place in the lattice are broken. The ions can then
move around freely.

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Anions carry negative electric charges toward the anode,
positive electrode. Strong electrolytes release many ions and
conduct electricity well.

Weak electrolytes, like acetic acid, don’t release many ions and
conduct poorly. Non electrolytes, like sugar, release no ions and
form non conducting solutions.

A couple electrolytes conduct electricity as solids. These solid

electrolytes have ions that can move and carry charges without
solvents.

Example The electrolysis of copper (II) chloride solution

The products of this electrolysis are:

Figure3.2.18: Ionic compounds which dissolve in water to form Brown copper metal at the negative electrode.
aqueous solutions will conduct electricity Chlorine gas (Cl2) at the positive electrode.

ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTROLYTES Happening Hint

Electrolytes are liquids that conduct electricity. Most need to be

dissolved into water or another solvent. Batteries have an At the negative electrode:
electrolyte in them, either as a liquid or as a paste. Liquid
electrolytes are used in electrolysis, electroplating, and other Copper (II) ions (Cu2+) are attracted.
chemical processes. When electrolytes dissolve they release The blue Cu2+ ions are forced to accept two electrons.
positive and negative ions. The released ions carry electric The ion-electron half equations for this reaction are:
charges between electrodes, in the solution. Cation (a positively
charged ion that migrates to the cathode, a negative electrode) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
carry positive electric charges toward the cathode.
The copper forms as a brown solid on the negative electrode.

At the positive electrode:

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of electrons near the cathode, called space charge. If anode is
Colorless chloride ions (Cl-) are attracted to the positive made positive w.r.t. cathode, the electrons (magenta dots) from
electrode. the space charge speed towards the anode and collide with gas
molecules (cyan circles) in the tube.

The chloride ions are forced to give away their extra electron to
form chlorine atoms.

The chlorine atoms join up in pairs to form diatomic chlorine gas

(Cl2).

The ion-electron half equation for this reaction is:

Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-

The chlorine appears as a gas with a characteristic smell at the

positive electrode.

Conduction of electricity in a gas

A gas under ordinary pressure is a perfect insulator and cannot

conduct current. However, if the gas pressure is low, it is
possible to produce a large number of free electrons in the gas
by the process of ionization and thus cause the gas to become
a conductor. This is precisely what happens in gas filled tubes.
The current conduction in a gas at low pressure can be
beautifully illustrated by referring to the hot-cathode gas diode

shown in Fig. 3.2.19. The space between cathode and anode of

the tube contains gas molecules. When cathode is heated, it
emits a large number of electrons. These electrons form a cloud

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3.2.14 Conduction through a gas at low pressure work function, while field emission occurs when the electric field
at the surface of the metal is high enough to cause tunneling,
If the anode-cathode voltage is low, the electrons do not which results in the ejection of free electrons from the metal into
possess the necessary energy to cause ionization of the gas. the vacuum. Externally heated electrodes are often used to
Therefore, the plate current flow in the tube is only due to the generate an electron cloud as in the filament or indirectly heated
electrons emitted by the cathode. As the anode-cathode voltage cathode of vacuum tubes. Cold electrodes can also
is increased, the electrons acquire more speed and energy and
a point–called ionization voltage is reached, where ionization
of the gas starts. The ionization of gas produces free electrons spontaneously produce electron clouds via thermionic emission
and positive gas when small incandescent regions (called cathode spots or
anode spots) are formed. These are incandescent regions of
ions (cyan circles with +ve signs). The additional free electrons
flow to the anode together with the original electrons, thus the electrode surface that are created by a localized high
increasing plate current. However, the increase in plate current current flow. These regions may be initiated by field emission,
due to these added electrons is practically negligible. But the but are then sustained by localized thermionic emission once a
major effect is that the positive gas ions slowly drift towards the vacuum arc forms. These small electron-emitting regions can
cathode and neutralize the space charge. Consequently, the form quite rapidly, even explosively, on a metal surface
resistance of the tube decreases, resulting in large plate subjected to a high electrical field. Vacuum tubes and sprytrons
current. are some of the electronic switching and amplifying devices
based on vacuum conductivity.
Hence, it is due to the neutralization of space charge by the
positive gas ions that plate current in a gas tube is too much
increased.

Conduction of electricity in Vacuum

Since a "perfect vacuum" contains no charged particles,

vacuums normally behave as very good insulators. However,
metal electrode surfaces can cause a region of the vacuum to
become conductive by injecting free electrons or ions through
either field emission or thermionic emission. Thermionic
emission occurs when the thermal energy exceeds the metal's

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