PISTON ENGINE

TPPU
ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
PISTON ENGINE INTRO
• Piston Engine or usually called reciprocating engine, principle work:
• Internal combustion engine
• The heart of engine is piston which is moves reciprocate from top of cylinder
to bottom of cylinder and vise versa.
• The movement of piston is transferred to the crank shaft which is convert
reciprocate movement of piston to rotation movement.
• The output power produce by piston engine is use to rotate the propeller or
the gear box when used in helicopter.
ENGINE COMPONENTS
CRANKCASE
 CRANKCASE
• the crankcase is the core of a reciprocating engine.
• it contains the engine's internal parts and provides attach points for
the cylinders, external accessories, and airframe installation.
• subject to dynamic bending load.
• a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil.
• consist of at least two pieces.
• Made of cast aluminum alloys
 OPPOSED ENGINE CRANKCASES
• Consists of two pieces of cast aluminum alloy manufactured in sand
castings or permanent molds.
• Greater density permits molded crankcases to have relatively thinner
walls than similar sand-cast crankcases.
• molded crankcases tend to better resist cracking due to fatigue.
• There is a cylinder pad the surface on which a cylinder mounts to the
crankcase.
• For the crankcase to support a crankshaft, a series of transverse webs
are cast directly into the crankcase parallel to its longitudinal axis.
OPPOSED ENGINE CRANKCASES CONT….
• The crankcase is integral to the lubrication system. Passages are
drilled into the case halves to deliver oil to the moving parts within
the crankcase.
• Most crankcases split vertically; the halves are aligned and held
together with studs, bolts, and nuts.
• Most crankcase halves are sealed with a very thin coating of a
nonhardening gasket compound.
OPPOSED ENGINE CRANK CASE
 RADIAL ENGINE CRANKCASES
• Radial-engine crankcases are divided by function.
• A typical radial engine crankcase separates into four main sections:
nose, power, supercharger, and accessory.
• A typical nose section is made of an aluminum alloy that is cast as
one piece with a domed or convex shape.
• Nose section typically supports and contains a propeller governor
drive shaft, the propeller shaft, a cam ring, and, if required, a
propeller reduction gear assembly.
RADIAL ENGINE CRANKCASES CONT…………
• The second section of a radial engine crankcase is referred to as the
power section and it contains the components that transfer energy
from the pistons to the crankshaft.
• The power section can be one, two, or three pieces.
• Multipiece power sections are typically manufactured from aluminum
or magnesium and bolted together.
• The inner circumference of a cylinder pad is sometimes chamfered or
tapered to permit the installation of a large, rubber 0-ring around the
cylinder skirt. This 0-ring seals the joint between the cylinder and the
cylinder pads.
RADIAL ENGINE CRANKCASES CONT…………
• The diffuser or supercharger section is located directly behind the
power section and is typically made of cast aluminum alloy or
magnesium.
• The supercharger section incorporates attach points to secure the
engine assembly to the engine mounts.
• The accessory section is usually cast of aluminumalloy or magnesium.
• On engines with one piece accessory sections, the casting is
machined to provide means for mounting accessories. Two-piece
accessory sections consist of an aluminum alloy casting and a
separate magnesium cover plate that provides attach points for the
accessories.
RADIAL ENGINE CRANK CASE
 ENGINE MOUNTING POINTS
• For opposed engines, engine mounting points, sometimes called
mounting lugs, can be cast as a part of the crankcase or can be a bolt-
on addition.
• For radial engines, mounting lugs are spaced around the periphery of
the supercharger section. As with opposed engines, the mounting
lugs on radial engines can be integral with the casting or bolted on.
CRANKSHAFT
 CRANKSHAFT
• they are generally forged from a strong alloy such as chromium-nickel
molybdenum steel.
• crankshafts must withstand high stress.
• Some crankshafts are made from a single forging, while others are
formed by joining several components.
• To minimize wear, most main bearing journals are hardened through
a nitriding process.
CRANKSHAFT
 CRANKSHAFT CONT…………..
• Crankshafts in most aviation engines are usually hollow to reduce
weight. This also provides a passage for lubricating oil and serves as a
collection chamber for sludge, dirt, carbon deposits, and other
foreign material.
• Most crank cheeks have drilled passageways to permit oil to flow
from the main journal to the crankpin.
• To help minimize unwanted vibration, crankshafts are balanced
statically and dynamically.
• If the crankshaft tends to favor any one rotational position during the
test, it is out of static balance.
• A crankshaft is considered in dynamic balance when the centrifugal
forces and power pulses are offset with counterweights.
• A dynamic damper is a counterweight that is fastened to a
crankshaft’s crank cheek assembly so that it can move back and
• The construction of the dynamic damper used in one type of engine
consists of a movable slotted-steel counterweight attached to a crank
cheek by two spool-shaped steel pins that extend through oversized
holes in the counterweight and crank cheek.
A one-piece, single-throw
crankshaft is cast as one solid
piece. However, a clamp type,
two-piece crankshaft is held
together by a bolt that passes
through the crankpin.
BEARINGS
 BEARINGS
• A bearing is any surface that supports and reduces friction between
two moving parts.
• Typical areas where bearings are used in an aircraft engine include
the main journals, crankpins, connecting rod ends, and accessory
drive shafts.
• A good bearing must be composed of material that is strong enough
to withstand the pressure imposed on it, while allowing rotation or
movement between two parts with a minimum of friction and wear.
 BEARINGS CONT……..
• Bearings must hold two parts in a nearly fixed position with very close
tolerances. Furthermore, depending on their specific application,
bearings must be able to withstand radial loads, thrust loads, or both.
• Aircraft reciprocating engines typically use include plain bearings, ball
bearings, and roller bearings.
 PLAIN BEARING
• Plain bearings are generally used as crankshaft main bearings, cam
ring and camshaft bearings, connecting rod end bearings, and
accessory drive shaft bearings.
• Plain bearings are typically subject to radial loads only.
• Plain bearings are usually made of nonferrous metals such as silver,
bronze, Babbitt, tin, or lead.
• Smaller bearings, such as those used to support various accessory
drive shafts, are called bushings.
• One type of bushing that is used in aviation is the oil impregnated
porous Oilite® bushing.
PLAIN BEARINGS
 BALL BEARINGS
• Ball bearings are well-suited to withstand thrust loads; because of
this, they are used as thrust bearings in large radial engine.
• Most ball bearings are used in accessories such as magnetos,
alternators, turbochargers, and vacuum pumps.
• Many of these bearings are prelubricated and sealed to provide
trouble-free operation between overhauls.
• However, if a sealed ball bearing must be serviced, you must use the
proper tools to avoid damaging the bearing and its seals.
BALL BEARING
 ROLLER BEARINGS
• Roller bearings are available in many styles and sizes, but most
aircraft engines either have a straight roller or tapered roller bearing.
• Straight roller bearings are suitable when the bearing is subjected to
radial loads only.
• Most high-power aircraft engines use straight roller bearings as
crankshaft main bearings.
• Tapered roller bearings, on the other hand, have cone-shaped inner
and outer races that enable the bearing to withstand both radial and
thrust loads.
ROLLER BEARING
CONNECTING RODS
 CONNECTING RODS
• The connecting rod is the link that transmits the force exerted on the
piston to the crankshaft.
• Connecting rods are made of a durable steel alloy; however, low-
horsepower engines sometimes use aluminum.
• Engine manufacturers strive to make connecting rods as light as
possible, to reduce inertial forces, but still maintain their necessary
strength.
• A typical connecting rod is forged with a cross-sectional shape
resembling an "H" or "I."
 CONNECTING RODS CONT………
• The three major types of connecting rod assemblies are plain, master-
and-articulated, and fork-and-blade.
• Plain connecting rods are used in opposed and inline engines.
• The piston end of a plain connecting rod is fitted with a bronze
bushing to accommodate the piston pin.
• The bearing inserts are typically steel lined with a nonferrous alloy
such as Babbitt, lead, bronze, or copper.
• If a connecting rod is ever removed, it should be replaced in the same
cylinder and relative position.
The two piece bearing shell on a typical
plain connecting rod fits tightly in the
crankpin end of the connecting rod. The
bearing is held in place by pins or tangs
that fit into slots cut into the cap and
connecting rod. The piston end of the
connecting rod contains a bushing that
is pressed into place.
 CONNECTING RODS CONT………
• Radial engines use a master-and-articulated rod assembly to
connect the pistons to the crankshaft.
• one piston in each row of cylinders is connected to the crankshaft by
a master rod.
• The remaining pistons are connected to the master rod with
articulated rods.
• A nine-cylinder single-row engine has one master rod and eight
articulating rods and a double-row 18-cylinder engine has two master
rods and 16 articulating rods.
 CONNECTING RODS CONT………
• Master rods are typically manufactured from a steel alloy forging that
is machined and heat-treated for maximum strength.
• Articulated rods are constructed of a forged steel alloy with an I- or H-
cross-sectional profile. Bronze bushings are pressed into the bores in
each end of the articulated rods.
• Each articulated rod is hinged to the master rod by a knuckle pin.
• Because of the varying angularity, not all pistons move an equal
amount in each cylinder for a given number of degrees of crankshaft
rotation. To compensate for this, the knuckle pin holes in the master
rod flange are positioned at varying distances from the center of the
crankpin
On a single piece master rod, the
master-and articulated rods are
assembled and installed on the
crankpin before the crankshaft
sections are joined together. On a
multiple piece master rod, the
crankpin end of the master rod
and its bearing are split and
installed on the crankpin. The
bearing cap is then set in place
and bolted to the master rod.
Articulated rods are attached to the
master rod by knuckle pins. A
knuckle pin lock plate retains the
pins.
Knuckle pins rotate in
different elliptical paths.
Each articulated rod has a
varying degree of
angularity relative to the
center of the crank throw.
 CONNECTING RODS
• The fork-and-blade rod assembly used in V-type engines consists of a
fork connecting rod and a blade connecting rod. The forked rod is split
at the crankpin end to allow space for the blade rod to fit between
the prongs. The fork-and-blade assembly is then fastened to a
crankpin with a two-piece bearing.
A fork-and-blade rod assembly
used in a V-type engine consists
of a blade connecting rod whose
crankpin end fits between the
prongs of the fork connecting rod.
PISTON
 PISTONS
• Pistons perform two primary functions; in conjunction with the
valves, pistons manage the fuel, air, and exhaust pressures in the
cylinder and they transmit the force of combustion through the
connecting rod to the crankshaft.
• Aircraft engine pistons are typically machined from aluminum alloy or
steel forgings.
• Parts of Piston:
o Grooves are machined into a piston's outside surface to hold a set of piston
rings.
 PISTONS CONT……..
o Ring land: The portion of the piston between the ring grooves.
o Piston head: The piston’s top surface is directly exposed to the heat and force of
combustion.
o Piston pin boss: is an enlarged area inside the piston that provides additional bearing
area for the piston pin.
o Piston skirt: To help align a piston in a cylinder, the piston base is extended

• Pistons are sometimes classified according to their head design.

• The most common types of piston heads are flat, recessed, cupped, and
domed
 PISTONS CONT……..
• A cam-ground piston is machined with a slightly oval shape, such that
the diameter of the piston parallel to the piston boss is slightly less
than the diameter perpendicular to the piston boss. This
compensates for differential expansion and produces a round piston
at normal operating temperatures. Furthermore, the oval shape holds
the piston centered in the cylinder during engine warm-up and
prevents the piston from moving laterally within a cylinder.
A typical piston has ring grooves cut into its outside surface to support
piston rings. Cooling fins are sometimes cast into the piston interior to
dissipate heat. The piston pin boss provides support for the piston pin
The majority of modem aircraft
engines use flathead pistons;
however, other designs are still in
service.
Cam ground pistons compensate for the greater expansion parallel to the piston boss
during engine operation. The diameter of a cam ground piston measures several
thousandths of an inch larger perpendicular to the piston boss than parallel
to the piston boss.
PISTON RINGS
 PISTON RINGS
• Piston rings perform three functions:
o They prevent pressure leakage from the combustion chamber,
o Control oil seepage into the combustion chamber, and
o Transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder walls.

• Piston rings are spring-loaded and press against the cylinder walls;
when properly lubricated, they form an effective seal.
• Piston rings are usually made of high-grade gray cast iron or chrome-
plated, mild steel. The chromeplated rings can withstand higher
temperatures.
 PISTON RINGS CONT…………..
• The point where a piston ring is split is called the piston ring gap. The
gap can be a simple butt joint with flat faces, an angle joint with
angled faces, or a step joint.
• Ring gaps must be staggered, or offset to create the best seal, which
prevents combustion gases from leaking past the rings into the
crankcase. This blow-by, as it is often called, results in a loss of power
and increased oil consumption.
Of the three types of joints used in piston ring gaps, the
butt joint is the most common in aircraft engines.
 PISTON RINGS CONT…………..
• New piston rings require some wear-in during engine operation so
that the ring contour matches the cylinder wall.
• A ring that matches its cylinder is considered to be seated
• The two main types of piston rings used in reciprocating engines are
compression rings and oil rings.
• The compression rings, located in the ring grooves immediately
below the piston head, prevent gas from escaping around the piston
during engine operation.
• Two or three compression rings on each piston is common.
 PISTON RINGS CONT…………..
• The cross section of a compression ring can be rectangular, wedge
shaped, or tapered.
• compression rings receive limited lubrication and are closest to the
heat of combustion, they are more prone to sticking
• Rectangular compression ring fits flat against a cylinder wall with a
large contact area to provide a tight seal. The large contact area
requires a relatively long time to seat.
• Tapered rings have a beveled face to reduce contact area, which
reduces friction and hastens ring seating.
Compression rings can
have three different ring
cross sections. The
tapered face presents
the narrowest bearing
edge to the cylinder wall
to reduce friction and
accelerate ring seating.
Compression rings are installed in
the upper piston ring grooves to
help prevent the combustion gases
from escaping. Oil rings,, on the
other hand, are installed near the
middle and bottom of a piston to
control the amount of oil
applied to the cylinder wall.
 PISTON RINGS CONT…………..
• Wedge-shaped rings also have a beveled face to promote rapid ring
seating.
• The wedge shape also helps prevent a ring from sticking in a groove.

• Oil rings control the amount of oil applied to the cylinder walls and
prevent oil from entering the combustion chamber.
• The two types of oil rings, that are found on most engines are oil
control rings and oil scraper rings
 PISTON RINGS CONT…………..
• Oil control rings are placed in the piston ring grooves below the
compression rings.
• The primary purpose of oil control rings is to regulate the thickness of
the oil film on a cylinder wall.
• An oil control ring returns excess oil to the crankcase through small
holes drilled in the piston ring grooves.
• A ventilated oil control rings with small slots machined around the
• ring. These slots enable excess oil to return to the engine sump
through small holes drilled in the piston ring groove.
 PISTON RINGS CONT…………..
• An oil scraper ring regulates the amount of oil that passes between
the piston skirt and the cylinder wall.
• An oil scraper ring, sometimes called an oil wiper ring, usually has a
beveled face and is installed in a ring groove at the bottom of the
piston skirt.
An oil scraper ring installed with its beveled edge away from the cylinder head forces oil upward
along the cylinder wall when the piston moves upward. However, if the beveled edge faces the
cylinder head, the ring scrapes oil toward the crankcase when the piston moves down.
PISTON PINS
 PISTON PINS
• A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod.
• Piston pins are tubular, and are machined from a case-hardened,
nickel-steel alloy forging.
• Piston pins can be stationary, semifloating, or fullfloating.
• Stationary piston pins are secured to the piston by a setscrew that
prevents rotation.
• Semifloating piston pins are loosely attached to the connecting rod
by clamping around a reduced diameter section of the pin.
• Full-floating piston pins rotate freely in both the connecting rod and
the piston; these pins are used in most modern aircraft engines
 PISTON PINS CONT……
• A full-floating piston pin must be held in place laterally to prevent it
from rubbing and scoring the cylinder walls. Three devices that are
used to hold a piston pin in place are circlets, spring rings, and metal
plugs.
• Both circlets and spring rings are used primarily on earlier piston
engines.
• Piston-pin plug made of soft aluminum inserted into the open ends
of the piston pins to provide a good bearing surface against the
cylinder walls.
CYLINDERS
 CYLINDERS
• The cylinder is the combustion chamber where the burning and
expansion of gases takes place to produce engine power.
• A cylinder houses the piston and connecting rod assembly along with
the valves and spark plugs.
• A cylinder must be strong enough to withstand the internal pressures
developed during engine operation yet be lightweight to minimize
engine weight.
• The materials used in the construction of a cylinder must have good
heat-conducting properties for efficient cooling.
 CYLINDER CONT…………
• A typical air-cooled engine cylinder consists of a cylinder head, barrel,
mounting flange, skirt, cooling fins, and valve assembly.
• In modern engines, individual cylinders are cast as a component,
separate from the crankcase, and the heads are permanently
attached during the manufacturing process.
The cylinder assembly, the piston
assembly, connecting rods,
crankshaft, and crankcase
constitute the power section of a
reciprocating engine.
 CYLINDER BARRELS
• The material used to construct a cylinder barrel must be as light as
possible, yet have the proper characteristics for operating at high
temperatures and pressures. Furthermore, a cylinder barrel must
possess good bearing characteristics and high tensile strength.
• The most commonly used material that meets these requirements is
a high-strength steel alloy such as chromium-molybdenum steel or
nickel chromium-molybdenum steel.
• Cylinder barrels are machined from a forged blank, with a skirt that
projects into the crankcase and a mounting flange that is used to
attach the cylinder to the crankcase.
 CYLINDER BARRELS cont………..
• The exterior of a cylinder barrel consists of several thin cooling fins that are
machined into the exterior cylinder wall and a set of threads that are cut at
the top of the barrel so that it can be screwed into the cylinder head.
• The inside of a cylinder, or cylinder bore, is usually machined smooth to a
uniform, initial dimension, and then honed to a final dimension.
• Some cylinder bores are machined with a slight taper, so that the diameter
of the top of the barrel is slightly smaller than the diameter at the cylinder
skirt. This is called a choke bore cylinder and is designed to compensate for
the uneven expansion caused by the higher operating temperatures and
larger mass near the cylinder head.
• The amount of choke is usually between .003 and .005 inches.
 In most reciprocating engines, the
greater mass of the cylinder head
retains heat and expands, causing the
upper portion of the cylinder to
expand more than the lower portion.
However, with a choke-bored cylinder,
the diameter at the top of the cylinder
is less than the diameter at the bottom
of the cylinder which helps
compensate for the uneven expansion
 CYLINDER BARRELS cont………..
• Therefore, in an effort to minimize cylinder barrel wear and increase
barrel life, most cylinder walls are hardened. The two most common
methods used to provide a hard wearing surface are nitriding and
chrome plating.
• Nitriding is a form of case hardening that changes the surface
strength of steel by infusing the metal with a hardening agent.
Cylinder barrel is first ground to the required size and smoothness
and then placed in a special furnace filled with ammonia gas. The
furnace heats a cylinder barrel to approximately 1,000 degrees
Fahrenheit. At this temperature, the ammonia gas breaks down into
nitrogen and hydrogen.
 CYLINDER BARRELS cont………..
• The steel in the cylinder barrel contains a small percentage of
aluminum, which combines with the nitrogen to form a layer of hard,
wear-resistant aluminum nitrides.
• The depth of a nitrided surface depends on the length of time that
the cylinder is exposed to the ammonia gas but a typical thickness is
approximately 0.020 inch.
• Because nitriding is neither plating nor coating, it changes a cylinder
bore by only two to four ten thousandths of an inch. This dimensional
change requires a cylinder to be honed to an accurate, micro-smooth
finish after the nitriding process complete.
 CYLINDER BARRELS cont………..
• Most manufacturers identify a nitride cylinder by applying a band of
blue paint around the cylinder base, or to certain cooling fins.
• A disadvantage of nitrided cylinders is that they do not hold oil for
extended periods. This increases a cylinder's susceptibility to
corrosion. If an engine with nitrided cylinders is out of service for an
extended period, the cylinder walls should be coated with sticky
preservative oil.
 CYLINDER BARRELS cont………..
• Chrome-plating refers to a method of hardening a cylinder by
applying a thin coating of chromium to the inside of the cylinder
barrels.
• Chromium is a hard, natural element with a high melting point, high
heat conductivity, and a very low coefficient of friction.
• The process used to chrome-plate a cylinder is known as
electroplating.
 CYLINDER BARRELS cont………..
• Chrome-plated cylinders have many advantages over both plain steel
and nitrided cylinders.
• Chromed cylinders are less susceptible to rust or corrosion because of
chromium's natural corrosion resistance. Another benefit of
chromeplating is that after a cylinder wears beyond its usable limits, it
can be chrome-plated back to its original size.
• To identify a cylinder that has been chrome-plated, a band of orange
paint is sometimes applied around the cylinder base or to some of
the cooling fins.
 CYLINDER BARRELS cont………..
• A problem associated with chrome-plating is that, in its natural state,
chromium is so smooth that it does not retain enough oil to lubricate
the piston rings. To overcome this, a reverse current is applied to the
cylinder after the chromium has been applied. This procedure is often
referred to as chrome channeling.
• Engines with chrome-plated cylinders tend to consume slightly more
oil than engines with nitrided or steel cylinders because the plating
channels retain more oil than the piston rings can effectively
scavenge.
• Another plating is silicon carbide/CermiCrome® /Nu-Chrome® and
nickel silicon carbide/CermiNil™/Nickel+Carbide™/or Nikasil®
Microcracks formed in chrome
plating retain oil to aid in
cylinder lubrication. This image
is an enlarged photomicrograph
of the cylinder wall.
CYLINDER FINISHES
 CYLINDER FINISHES
• Engine manufacturers applied special paints to the exterior of
cylinder barrels to protect the cylinder from corrosion.
• Textron-Lycoming cylinders are typically painted with gray enamel
that appears burned when exposed to excessive heat.
• Teledyne Continental cylinders are treated with a gold paint that turns
pink after an overheat event.
CYLINDER HEADS
 CYLINDER HEADS
• The cylinder head covers the cylinder barrel to form the enclosed
chamber for combustion. In addition, cylinder heads contain intake
and exhaust valve ports, spark plugs, and valve actuating
mechanisms.
• Air-cooled cylinder heads are generally made of forged or die-cast
aluminum alloy because it conducts heat well, is lightweight, and is
durable.
• The inner shape of a cylinder head can be flat, semispherical, or
peaked. The semispherical type is most widely used because it is
stronger and provides for rapid and thorough scavenging of exhaust
gases.
 CYLINDER HEADS Cont………..
• Cooling fins are cast or machined onto the outside of a cylinder head
to transfer heat to the surrounding air.
• Each cylinder head has two spark plugs for increased performance
and for system redundancy.
• On older engines, spark plug openings consisting of bronze or steel
bushings were shrunk and screwed into the cylinder head. However,
most modern engines use stainless steel Heli-Coil® inserts. These
inserts can be easily replaced if the threads become damaged.
 CYLINDER HEADS Cont………..
• Intake and exhaust ports are machined into each cylinder head to
enable the fuel/air mixture to enter the cylinder and the exhaust
gases to exit. Gaskets are often used to seal between the cylinder and
the intake and exhaust manifolds.
• A synthetic rubber seal is typically used for attaching the intake
manifold.
• A metal gasket is typically used for the exhaust manifold.
• Each manifold is held in place by a nut secured to mounting studs or
bolts threaded into the cylinder head.
Threaded studs for attaching intake and
exhaust manifolds typically remain in the
cylinder.
VALVES
 VALVES
• Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and out of a cylinder by
opening and closing at the appropriate time during the Otto cycle.
• Each cylinder has at least one intake valve and one exhaust valve. The
intake valve controls the amount of fuel/air mixture that enters
through the intake port, and the exhaust valve lets the exhaust gases
exit the cylinder through the exhaust port.
• The valves used in aircraft engine cylinders are subject to high
temperatures, corrosion, and extreme operating stresses.
• Intake valves operate at lower temperatures than exhaust valves and
are typically made of chrome, nickel, or tungsten steel.
 VALVES Cont………….
• Exhaust valves operate under much higher temperatures, they are
usually made of materials with greater heat resistance such as
Inconel® silicon-chromium or cobalt-chromium alloys.
• The most common type of valve used in aircraft engines is the poppet
valve, which 'pops' open and closed during normal operation.
• Poppet valves are classified according to their head shape. The four
basic designs are flat-headed, semitulip, tulip, and mushroom.
The basic components of a poppet valve
include the valve head, valve face, valve
neck, valve stem, and valve tip.
 VALVES Cont………….
• The flat-head valve is typically used only as an intake valve in aircraft
engines.
• Mushroom valves have convex heads and are not commonly found
on aircraft engines.
• The valve face creates a seal at its respective port.
• The valve and corresponding seat are typically ground to an angle of
between 30 and 60 degrees to form a tight seal. In some engines, the
intake valve face is ground to 30 degrees and the exhaust valve is
ground to 45 degrees.
 VALVES Cont………….
• Valve faces are often made more durable by welding Stellite®, an
alloy of cobalt and chromium, to the valve face. After the Stellite is
applied, the face is ground to the correct angle.
• Stellite resists high temperatures and corrosion and withstands the
shock and wear associated with valve operation.
• The valve stem keeps the valve head properly aligned as it opens and
closes. Most valve stems are surface hardened to resist wear. The tip
of a valve stem is also hardened to withstand both wear and
hammering. In some cases, a rotator cap is placed over the valve tip
to increase service life.
 VALVES Cont………….
• A machined groove near the valve stem tip receives a split key, or
keeper key, that keeps the valve-spring retaining washers in place and
holds the valve in the cylinder head.
• On some radial engines, the valve stems have an additional groove
below the split key groove. This second groove is used to hold a safety
circlet or spring ring, preventing the valve from falling into the
cylinder in the event the valve tip breaks off.
• To help dissipate heat, some exhaust valve stems are hollowed out
and then partially filled with metallic sodium. The sodium melts at
approximately 208 degrees Fahrenheit.
The groove near the tip of a valve stem allows a split retainer key to hold spring
tension on a valve as well as keep the valve from falling into the cylinder
 VALVES Cont………….
• In some cases, sodium-filled valves can reduce valve operating
temperature by as much as 400 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Sodium is a dangerous material that burns violently when exposed to
air. Because of this, sodium-filled valves should never be cut, broken,
or handled in a manner that would expose the sodium to air.
• As a rule, Teledyne Continental engines do not use sodium filled
valves, while many Textron-Lycoming engines do.
Some valves are filled with metallic sodium
to reduce their operating temperatures.
During operation, the sodium melts and
transfers heat to the stem, which conducts
it to the cylinder head.
VALVE SEATING COMPONENTS
VALVE SEATING COMPONENTS
• A valve's face must seat firmly against the cylinder head. To
accomplish this, several individual components work together,
including valve seats, valve guides, valve springs, and valve spring
retainers.
• A valve seat is a circular ring of hardened metal that provides a
uniform sealing surface for the valve face.
• A typical valve seat is made of either bronze or steel and machined to
an oversize fit.
• To install a valve seat, the cylinder head is heated and the valve seat is
chilled and then pressed into the head with a special tool called a
mandrel.
 VALVE SEATING COMPONENTS CONT…..
• After it is installed, the valve seat is precisely ground to provide a
sealing surface for the valve face.
• Typically, the valve seat is ground to the same angle as the valve face.
However, there are some instances where a valve face may be ground
to an angle that is from one-quarter to one full degree shallower than
the valve seat.
• The angular difference produces an interference fit that helps to
ensure a more positive seating.
The valve seat insert provides a
sealing surface for the valve face
while the valve guide supports the
valve and keeps it aligned with the
seat. Valve springs close the valve
and are held in place by a valve
retainer and a split valve key.
 VALVE SEATING COMPONENTS CONT…..
• A valve guide is a cylindrical sleeve that provides support to the valve
stern and keeps the valve face aligned with the valve seat. Valve
guides are made from a variety of materials such as steel, tin-bronze,
or aluminum-bronze and are installed in the cylinder head with a
shrink fit in the same manner as valve seats.
• Valve springs are helical-coiled springs that are installed in the
cylinder head to provide the force that holds the valve face firmly
against the valve seat.
• Most aircraft engines use two or more valve springs of different sizes
and diameters to prevent a phenomenon called valve float or valve
surge.
• Valve float occurs when a valve spring vibrates at its resonant
frequency. When this occurs, a spring loses its ability to hold a valve
closed.
• By installing two or more springs of differing sizes, one spring is
always free to close the valve, and reduce the possibility of failure due
to a spring breaking from excessive temperature or metal fatigue.
• The valve springs are held in place by a valve spring retainer and a
split valve key.
VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS
 VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS
• A typical valve operating mechanism includes an internally driven
camshaft or cam ring that pushes against a valve lifter.
• The valve lifter, or tappet, transmits the force from the cam to a push
rod, which in turn, actuates a rocker arm to overcome the valve
spring tension and open the valve.
The typical valve operating
mechanism includes a camshaft (or
cam ring), a tappet (or lifter), a push
rod, and a rocker arm.
VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
OPPOSED ENGINES
• On an opposed engine, valve operation is controlled with a camshaft.
A typical camshaft consists of a round shaft with a series of cams, or
lobes. These transform the rotational motion of the camshaft to the
linear motion needed to actuate a valve.
• The shape of a cam determines the distance that a valve is lifted off
its seat and the length of time that the valve is open.
• The force used to rotate a camshaft comes from the crankshaft
through a set of gears.
The raised lobe on a camshaft transforms the rotary motion of the camshaft
to linear motion.
 VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
• The camshaft rotates at one-half of the crankshaft speed.
• In a four-stroke engine, each cylinder fires once for every two
crankshaft rotations. Therefore, each valve should open and close
only once for every two rotations of the crankshaft.
• As the camshaft rotates, the lobe raises the valve lifter. A valve lifter,
or tappet, transmits the lifting force of the cam to the push rod. Valve
lifters in opposed engines can be solid or hydraulic.
• A solid lifter is a solid metal cylinder that directly transfers the lifting
force from the camshaft to the push rod.
In the typical opposed engine, the
camshaft timing gear has twice as
many teeth as the crankshaft gear.
The camshaft rotates at one-half of
the crankshaft's speed.
VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
• Hydraulic lifters use oil pressure to cushion normal impact and
remove play within the valve operating mechanism.
• A typical hydraulic lifter consists of a cam follower face, a lifter body, a
hydraulic plunger and spring, a check valve, and a push rod socket.
• The cam follower face is the smooth, hardened surface of the lifter
that contacts the lobe.
• When the follower face is on the back side of a lobe, the hydraulic
plunger spring forces the hydraulic plunger outward so that the push
rod socket presses firmly against the push rod.
A typical hydraulic lifter consists of a push rod socket, a hydraulic plunger and spring, a check valve, a lifter body, and
a cam follower face.
Some hydraulic lifters uses a disk-type check valve instead of a ball-type.
 VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
• As the hydraulic plunger moves outward, a ball check valve moves off
its seat to let oil flow from the oil supply chamber to the oil pressure
chamber.
• Trapped oil acts as a cushion that dampens the abrupt pressure
applied to the push rod.
• The lifting force of the lobe is transmitted through a lifter and a push
rod.
• On most aircraft reciprocating engines, the push rods are enclosed by
a thin metal shroud, or tube, that runs from the cylinder head to the
crankcase. In many cases, these tubes also provide a return path for
the oil that is pumped up to the cylinder head.
 VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
• A typical push rod is a hollow steel or aluminum-alloy tube with
polished ends, and have holes drilled in each end to let oil flow from
the valve lifter to the valve components in the cylinder head.
• A rocker arm is a pivoting lever in the cylinder head that changes the
lifting movement of the push rod into the downward motion needed
to open a valve.
• Typical rocker arm is made of forged steel and has a cup-shaped
socket to hold the push rod end and a polished surface that pushes
against the valve tip.
One end of this rocker arm is cup-
shaped to hold a push rod, while the
other end is machined smooth to
push against the tip of a valve stem.
When rotated by the push rod, the
rocker arm pivots on its center
bushing to depresses a valve.
 rocker arm bosses.

Bronze bushing

A rocker arm is supported by a shaft

suspended between a set of rocker
arm bosses.
 VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
RADIAL ENGINES
• Radial engine uses cam rings, instead of camshaft.
• The number of rings is the same as the number of cylinder rows.
• A cam ring is a circular piece of steel with a series of raised lobes on
its outer edge.
• A cam ring for a typical seven-cylinder engine has three or four lobes
while a cam ring in a nine-cylinder engine has four or five lobes.
• The lobes in a radial engine is constructed with a cam ramp on each
side of the lobe.
 VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
• Cam ramp reduces the initial shock of an abruptly rising lobe.
• The smooth area between the lobes is called the cam track.
• On a single row radial engine a single cam ring with two cam tracks is
used. One track operates the intake valve while the second track
operates the exhaust valve.
• The cam ring is mounted concentrically with the crankshaft and is
driven by the crankshaft through a series of gears.
• The rotational speed of a cam ring varies due to size and gearing
 VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
• To determine the rotation speed of a given cam ring, you must know
the number of lobes on the cam ring.
• If a table is not available, determine cam ring speed by using the
formula:
• Cam Ring Speed = ____l _____
Number of Lobes x 2
• Externally driven cam rings turn in the same direction as the
crankshaft, while internally driven rings turn opposite from
crankshaft rotation.
This chart identifies cam ring speed for various radial engine configurations.
VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS cont…..
• In place of a cam follower face, a radial engine uses cam rollers. A
cam roller consists of a small wheel that rolls along the cam track.
• Radial engine rocker arms have adjusting screws and lock screws that
enable you to adjust the push rod-to-rocker arm clearance.
• Many radial engine rocker arms are equipped with rollers on their
valve ends to reduce friction, eliminate side loading on the valve
stem, and reduce tip deformation.
The valve operating mechanism for a radial engine
performs the same functions as one on an opposed
engine.
 VALVE CLEARANCE ADJUSTMENT
• Valve clearance describes the space between the tip of the valve
stem and the rocker arm face.
• During normal engine operating temperatures, the cylinder
assemblies expand and force the cylinder head, along with its valve
operating components, further away from the crankcase. However,
due to their relatively small mass, the push rods expand less. As a
result, the clearance between the rocker arm and valve stem
increases.
• Cold clearance is set when the engine is cold. Due to the expansion
properties, this clearance is typically less than the hot or running
clearance, which is set when the engine is hot.
VALVE CLEARANCE ADJUSTMENT cont…..
• Engines that require valve adjustments have adjustment screws and
locknuts mounted in their rocker arms at the push rod fitting.
• Engines that use hydraulic lifters do not require valve adjustments
because they automatically maintain a zero running valve clearance
during normal operation. For this reason, hydraulic lifters are often
called zero clearance, or zero lash lifters.
• However, hydraulic lifters must operate within a specific clearance
range when the hydraulic lifter is not filled with oil, or "dry.“
• To perform a dry-lifter clearance check, the lifter body must first have
all residual oil removed.
 VALVE CLEARANCE ADJUSTMENT cont…..
• After the oil is drained, check the valve operating mechanism for the
proper rocker arm face-to-valve tip clearance using the same
procedure employed on engines with solid lifters.
• Some large radial engines incorporate a floating cam ring that
requires a special procedure when adjusting valve clearance. To
obtain the correct adjustment, the cam ring must be seated to
eliminate cam bearing clearance. This usually involves depressing two
valves to seat the cam ring, which then enables you to accurately
measure a third valve.
CYLINDER NUMBERING
 CYLINDER NUMBERING
• Regardless of how an engine is mounted in an aircraft, the propeller
shaft end is always referred to as the front of an engine, and the
accessory end is always the rear of an engine.
• Furthermore, when referring to either the right or left side of an
engine, always assume you are viewing the engine from the rear, or
accessory, end.
• Similarly, crankshaft rotation is always referenced from the rear of an
engine and is specified as either clockwise or counterclockwise.
 CYLINDER NUMBERING Cont………
• To identify a specific cylinder, all engine cylinders are numbered.
However, opposed engines do not use a standard numbering system.
• Continental begins its cylinder numbering with the rearward cylinder
while Lycoming begins with the forward cylinder. Both companies
place the odd numbered cylinders on the right and the even
numbered cylinders on the left.
• In general, single-row radial engine cylinders are numbered
consecutively in a clockwise pattern starting with the top cylinder.
• The difference with double-row radial engines is that all of the rear
cylinders are odd-numbered and front cylinders are even-numbered.
 Cylinder numbering varies by manufacturer;
always refer to the appropriate service
information to determine how the cylinders
of a specific engine are numbered.
 CYLINDER NUMBERING Cont………
• The top cylinder of the rear row is the number one cylinder, while the
number two cylinder is the first cylinder in the front row clockwise
from the number one cylinder. The number three cylinder is the next
cylinder clockwise from the number two cylinder but is in the rear
row. Some radial engines designed in eastern European countries
reverse this pattern.
Looking from the accessory end forward, all single-row
radial engines are numbered consecutively beginning at
the top cylinder and progressing clockwise. On twin row
radials, however, the front row of cylinders are all even
numbered while the rear row of cylinders are odd
numbered
PROPELLER REDUCTION GEARS
 PROPELLER REDUCTION GEARS
• A propeller needs to be operated at a specific speed to achieve
maximum efficiency. Because of this Some high-powered engines use
a propeller reduction gear system to produce their maximum rated
power output while maintaining a slower propeller speed.
• Reduction gear systems currently installed on aircraft engines use
spur gears, planetary gears, or a combination of the two.
The ratio of the gear teeth in a gear
reduction system with two externally-driven
spur gears determines the amount of
reduction. For example, if a drive gear has 25
teeth and the driven gear has 50 teeth, a
ratio of 1:2 exists and the propeller turns at
one half the crankshaft speed
A gear reduction system with one internal-tooth gear and one external-tooth gear
turns the propeller and crankshaft in the same direction and is more closely aligned
than a reduction system with two external-tooth gears.
 PROPELLER REDUCTION GEARS Cont……..
• Whenever a reduction gear does not keep the propeller shaft
perfectly aligned with the crankshaft, additional vibration is induced
into an engine. To help minimize this vibration. some engines use a
quill shaft between the crankshaft and propeller shaft.
• A quill shaft is a hardened steel shaft that is splined on both ends and
installed between two gears, or shafts, to absorb torsional vibration.
• One end of the quill shaft fits into the front end of the crankshaft, and
the opposite end is inserted into the front end of the propeller drive
shaft.
 A quill shaft minimizes torsional
vibration between a propeller shaft
and the crankshaft.
 PROPELLER REDUCTION GEARS Cont……..
• In a planetary reduction gear system the propeller shaft is attached
to a housing that contains several small gears called planetary gears.
• The planetary gears rotate between a sun gear and a ring gear
(sometimes called a bell gear). The crankshaft drives either the sun
gear or the ring gear depending on the individual installation.
• The planetary gear reduction system keeps the propeller shaft aligned
with the crankshaft, transmits power with a minimum of weight and
space, and keeps the propeller’s direction of rotation the same as the
engine.
 PROPELLER REDUCTION GEARS Cont……..
• To determine the reduction rate that a particular gearing
arrangement achieves by this formula:
Teeth On Ring Gear + Teeth On Sun Gear
• Gear Ratio =
Teeth On Ring Gear
For example, if there are 72 teeth on the ring gear and 36 teeth on the
sun gear, the propeller turns at a ratio of 1.5 to 1 or as a whole
numbers 3 to 2. In other words, the crankshaft must turn three
revolutions for every two revolutions of the propeller shaft.
PROPELLER SHAFTS
 PROPELLER SHAFTS
• All aircraft reciprocating engines have a propeller shaft, including
tapered, splined, and flanged shafts.
• Tapered propeller shafts were used on most of the early, low-
powered engines. On a tapered propeller shaft, the shaft diameter
tapers toward the end of the shaft.
• To prevent a propeller hub from rotating on a tapered shaft, one or
more key slots are milled into the shaft.
• The end of the shaft is threaded to receive a propeller retaining nut.
A tapered propeller shaft changes in diameter along its length and uses a
metal key to keep a propeller from rotating.
 PROPELLER SHAFTS Cont……..
• Most high powered radial engines use splined propeller shafts.
• A spline is a rectangular groove that is machined into the propeller
shaft.
• Most splined shafts have a master spline that is approximately twice
the size of any other spline. This master spline assures that a
propeller is attached to a propeller shaft a specific way so that
vibration is kept to a minimum.
All splined propeller shafts are identified by an SAE number. For
example, SAE 50 identifies a splined shaft that meets SAE design
specifications for a 50 size shaft. The SAE number does not refer to
the number of splines.
 PROPELLER SHAFTS Cont……..
• Modern horizontally opposed aircraft engines use a flanged propeller
shaft. The crankshaft is forged with a flat flange on its end. A
propeller is bolted directly to the flange.

• To provide additional support for the propeller, most flanged

propeller shafts incorporate a short shaft forward of the flange and a
series of studs around the flange circumference.
Before' you remove a propeller from a flanged shaft, temporarily mark
the propeller hub and flange. This makes it easier to position the
propeller when you reattach it.
ENGINE IDENTIFICATION
 ENGINE IDENTIFICATION
• For simplicity, most manufacturers use the same identification
system.
• In most cases, an engine identification code consists of a letter or
series of letters followed by a number and model designation.
• The first letters indicate an engine's cylinder arrangement and basic
configuration.
• The numbers in an engine identification code indicate an engine's
piston displacement in cubic inches. For example, an 0-320 indicates a
horizontally opposed engine with a displacement of 320 cubic inches.
0 - Horizontally opposed engine
R - Radial engine
I - In-line engine
V - V-type engine
T - Turbocharged
I - Fuel injected
S - Supercharged
G - Geared nose section (propeller
reduction
gearing)
L - Left-hand rotation (for multi-engine
installations)
H - Horizontal mounting (for helicopters)
V - Vertical mounting (for helicopters)
A - Modified for aerobatics
 ENGINE IDENTIFICATION cont……….
• Some engine identification codes include a letter designation after
the displacement to indicate a model change or modification to a
basic engine.
• LI0-360-C. This code designates an engine that has left hand rotation,
is fuel-injected and horizontally opposed, displaces 360 cubic inches,
and is a C model.
• GTSI0-520-F engine is an F model version of a geared, turbo -
supercharged, fuel injected, horizontally opposed engine that
displaces 520 cubic inches.