Reverse Osmosis

TRAINING CURRICULUM
Many industries require high purity quality water for various needs, which demand
sophisticated equipment and chemistries. They use Reverse Osmosis for water
treatment and purification. Membranes and filters play a key role to remove impurities
from water.

It is important for you to gain understanding on the RO process, membrane

performance, and filtration types. You should also understand the performance
issues posed by frequent use of membranes and the techniques to prevent them.
It is interesting to learn how filtration happens through filters and chemicals.

Let’s get ready to gain understanding on the basics of RO and it best practices.

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 Module 1
Introduction to RO Systems

Understanding RO
Many industries require water of very high purity. These increasing water quality
requirements demand increasingly sophisticated equipment and chemistries. Here
are some key industries in which RO systems are used across the world to filter
water to make sure it meets these high quality standards.

Key industries in which Reverse Osmosis (RO) systems are used:

Food and Beverage Power Manufacturing

Chemical Primary Refining

Paper Services
Processing Metals/Mining

Water is filtered to meet specific quality standards.

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Needs of Water Purification
Water is purified for various needs. Based on the quality of raw water it might be
necessary to purify the water to use it in boilers and cooling towers or manufacturing
processes. Sometimes wastewater must be filtered to meet strict regulatory
standards. Recycling water in a facility, particularly waste streams, often requires
treatment such as Reverse Osmosis to make the water suitable again for use within
the various processes and utility systems.

Water is purified for various needs such as:

Boilers Cooling Towers Manufacturing

Processes

Wastewater Discharge Recycling

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Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis
To understand reverse osmosis, we first need to take a step back and recall what
we know about Osmosis.

Osmosis Reverse Osmosis

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Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis
Osmosis is a naturally occurring process, found in both plants and animals.

Osmosis occurs when water passes through the tiny pores of a thin semi-permeable
membrane from one side of the membrane barrier to the other.

In Osmosis, the water from the less concentrated solution spontaneously flows
through the membrane to the more concentrated solution on the other side.

Osmosis is a naturally occurring process found in both plants and animals.

It occurs when water passes through the tiny pores of a semi-permeable membrane
from one side of the membrane barrier to the other.

Water from the less concentrated solution flows through the membrane to the more
concentrated solution on the other side.

Less
Concentrated
Solution
More
Concentrated
Solution

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Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis
As you might guess, reverse osmosis runs contrary to nature, and produces the
opposite effect of osmosis. Unlike osmosis, reverse osmosis does not occur
spontaneously.

In RO, the water from the more concentrated solution flows through the membrane
to the less concentrated solution on the other side, leaving the dissolved solids and
substances behind.

It requires the application of external pressure greater that the naturally occurring
osmotic pressure of the solution. The actual amount of pressure required depends
on the concentration of the solution. The higher the concentration, the higher the
transmembrane pressure must be for reverse osmosis to occur.

When this additional pressure is applied, water flows toward the side with lower
concentration, leaving the salts and dissolved substances behind.

RO is one of the most effective processes for water treatment and purification in
most industries and applications.

Reverse Osmosis is a water

purification technology that produces
the opposite effect of Osmosis.
Water from the more concentrated
solution flows through the membrane
to the less concentrated solution on
the other side.
RO requires the application of external
pressure greater that the osmotic
pressure of the solution.
The amount of pressure applied
determines the rate at which water
flows through the membrane.

RO is one of the most effective processes for water treatment

and purification in most industries and applications.
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Role of Membranes in RO
Reverse osmosis uses a semi-permeable membrane to remove ions, molecules,
and larger particles from water.

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Performance of RO Membranes
This chart compares the pore size and performance of RO membranes, with
membranes used for other processes.

The reason RO membranes can block most of the dissolved substances and allow
only water to permeate the membrane is their extremely small pore size. On
average, RO membranes reject 95 to 99 percent of solutes.

The water that passes through the RO membrane is referred to as permeate.

Reverse Osmosis membranes remove most dissolved salts and organic

compounds (solutes).

Ions Proteins Viruses Bacteria Sand

10+ Filtration
Micrometers

0.1 Microfiltration

0.01 Ultrafiltration

0.01 Nanofiltration

0.001 REVERSE OSMOSIS

The water that passes through the RO membrane is called the permeate.

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How Reverse Osmosis Works
Let’s now go into the details of how Revers Osmosis works. For use in industrial
applications, membranes are usually designed as cylindrical, interchangeable
cartridges called “elements”. A typical RO system will have several of these
elements arrayed in a particular manner.

Membranes are usually designed as Typical RO systems include several

cylindrical, interchangeable cartridges elements in a specified design.
called “elements”.

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How Reverse Osmosis Works
Let’s now go into the details of how Revers Osmosis works. For use in industrial
applications, membranes are usually designed as cylindrical, interchangeable
cartridges called “elements”. A typical RO system will have several of these
elements arrayed in a particular manner.

Membranes are usually designed as Typical RO systems include several

cylindrical, interchangeable cartridges elements in a specified design.
called “elements”.

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Connected Elements
Effective as they are, a single element can filter only a small fraction of the
feedwater in any given time frame.

Because most industries need to produce large quantities of permeate, a number of

elements are usually connected in series to allow a higher percentage of the
feedwater to be converted into usable permeate.

These elements are placed inside cylindrical pressure vessels.

Typically, each pressure vessel holds six to eight elements.

A number of elements are usually connected in series to allow a higher percentage

of the feedwater to be converted into usable permeate.

Single Element 6 Elements connected in series

Elements connected in series convert more feedwater to permeate.

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Connected Elements
Effective as they are, a single element can filter only a small fraction of the
feedwater in any given time frame.

Because most industries need to produce large quantities of permeate, a number of

elements are usually connected in series to allow a higher percentage of the
feedwater to be converted into usable permeate.

These elements are placed inside cylindrical pressure vessels.

Typically, each pressure vessel holds six to eight elements.

A number of elements are usually connected in series to allow a higher percentage

of the feedwater to be converted into usable permeate.

Single Element 6 Elements connected in series

Elements connected in series convert more feedwater to permeate.

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 Module 2
RO Best Practices

Membrane Performance Issues

Over time, as water continues to flow through the membranes, suspended
compounds, organics, and microbes in the feedwater can cause fouling. Fouling and
scaling are the two major causes of membrane damage.

The two major causes of membrane damage are fouling and scaling.

Fouling Scaling

Fouling occurs when suspended Scaling is caused by dissolved silica

materials are deposited on the and the carbonate or phosphate salts
membrane surface. of calcium, magnesium, iron, or
aluminum precipitating on the
The kind of foulant varies depending membrane.
on the source of the feedwater.

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Fouling
Let’s take a closer look at the some of the most common types of fouling.

The most common types of fouling are:

Organic Fouling Biofouling

Organic Fouling

Organic compounds are

deposited on the membrane
surface, reducing the quantity of
water – the permeate – that
passes through the membrane.

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Fouling
Let’s take a closer look at the some of the most common types of fouling.

The most common types of fouling are:

Organic Fouling Biofouling

Biofouling

Microorganisms grow on the

membrane surface.

If left untreated, they form a

biofilm on the membrane
surface, which can lead to
permanent membrane damage.

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Scaling
As we’ve learned already, scaling is caused by dissolved silica and the carbonate or
phosphate salts of calcium, magnesium, iron, or aluminum precipitating on the
membrane.

When the concentration of scale-forming compounds left behind in the feedwater

exceeds their solubility level, scale can form and deposit on the membrane surface.

This scaling impedes RO system performance and increases operational costs.

Scaling is also a major cause of membrane damage and impaired

membrane performance.

Scaling is caused by dissolved silica

and the carbonate/phosphate salts.

During filtration, the concentration of

scale-forming compounds left behind
in the feedwater increases.

When concentration exceeds their

solubility level, scale can be deposited
on the membrane surface.

Scaling impedes RO system

performance and increases costs.

Common scalants include carbonate or phosphate anions of calcium,

magnesium, iron, and aluminum.

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Guidelines for Feedwater Quality
Reverse Osmosis experts have created clear guidelines for feedwater quality to
prevent fouling and scaling. Keeping feedwater within these limits can significantly
reduce fouling and scaling.

Quality parameters for feedwater:

Parameter Measure Guideline

Suspended Solids Turbidity <1 NTU*

Colloids SDI* <5

Organics TOC ppm* <3

Metals: Fe, Mn, Al ppm <0.05

Hydrogen Sulfide: H2S ppm <0.10

Silica Soluble: SiO2 ppm <200†

Ba, Sr ppm <0.05

Free Chlorine ppm <0.02

Microbes Dip Slides <1000 CFU/ml*

* NTU: Nephelometric Turbidity Units

SDI: Silt Density Index
ppm: parts per million
† In RO concentrate
CFU/ml: Colony-forming units per milliliter

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Consequences of RO Issues
Many industries depend on abundant, affordable, high quality water, and a reverse
osmosis system to deliver it. Possible challenges with the RO unit go far beyond the
obvious ones such as cost, quality, and availability. Many times seemingly small
issues start out like a trickle and then turn into a flood that can disrupt or even shut
down an entire operation.

The consequences of RO issues can be devastating.

Consequences of RO Issues

 Diminished output  Decreased product quality

 Breakdown in production  Decline in yield
 Increased maintenance costs  Wastage of water

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Preventing Performance Issues
The temperature and pH of feedwater can also affect membrane lifespan and
performance.

Usually, membrane performance decreases when feedwater temperature increases,

or when the membrane is operated outside the specified pH range.

In fact, most membrane manufacturers specify the safe range of various factors,
including temperature and pH, for safe operation of their membranes.

Operating outside the manufacturer’s specified ranges

can void membrane warranty.

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Preventing Performance Issues
The temperature and pH of feedwater can also affect membrane lifespan and
performance.

Usually, membrane performance decreases when feedwater temperature increases,

or when the membrane is operated outside the specified pH range.

In fact, most membrane manufacturers specify the safe range of various factors,
including temperature and pH, for safe operation of their membranes.

The differences between PA and CA membranes:

Features Polyamide Membranes Cellulose Acetate Membranes

Composition Made from polyamide Made from cellulose acetate

Chlorine
Tolerance Very low (~ 0.1 ppm) Higher (up to 1 ppm)

Salt Rejection High (~99%) Low (~95%)

Operating pH
Range Wide (3-10)* Narrow (4-6)*

Cleaning pH
Range Wide (1-13)* Narrow (3-7)*

Operating
Pressure psi 150-400 (1-2.8) 200-600 (1.4-4.1)
(MPag) Operating outside the manufacturer’s specified ranges
can void membrane warranty.
*Check with membrane supplier for actual limits

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Additional Pre-treatment
Additional Pre-treatment helps make feedwater suitable for an RO system by
removing or reducing scale-forming compounds, organics, and colloidal solids.
Pre-treatment methods vary depending on the substances that need to be
removed or reduced.

Pre-treatment removes scale-forming compounds,

organics, and colloidal solids.

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 There are six types of filters used for pre-treatment.
Types of Filters Used for Pre-treatment

Sand Filters

Multimedia Filters

Ultrafiltration

Cartridge Filters

Activated Carbon Filters

Ion Exchange Softeners

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 Types of Filters Used for Pre-treatment
There are six types of filters used for pre-treatment.

Sand Filters remove low concentrations

of suspended solids.

Activated Carbon Filters

Ion Exchange Softeners

Multimedia Filters

Cartridge Filters
Ultrafiltration
Sand Filters

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 Types of Filters Used for Pre-treatment
There are six types of filters used for pre-treatment.

Multimedia Filters are effective for high

concentration of suspended solids.

Activated Carbon Filters

Ion Exchange Softeners

They combine different types of filter media.
Multimedia Filters

Cartridge Filters
Ultrafiltration
Sand Filters

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 Types of Filters Used for Pre-treatment
There are six types of filters used for pre-treatment.

Ultrafiltration/Microfiltration is:

 More effective than sand or multimedia filtration

Activated Carbon Filters

Ion Exchange Softeners

 Useful when RO systems need high-quality
Multimedia Filters

Cartridge Filters
Ultrafiltration

feedwater
Sand Filters

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 Types of Filters Used for Pre-treatment
There are six types of filters used for pre-treatment.

Cartridge Filters are used:

 As the last line of protection

Activated Carbon Filters

Ion Exchange Softeners

 Before feedwater flows into an RO system
Multimedia Filters

Cartridge Filters
Ultrafiltration
Sand Filters

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 Types of Filters Used for Pre-treatment
There are six types of filters used for pre-treatment.

Activated Carbon Filters remove:

 Chlorine which can cause irreparable membrane
damage even at very low levels
Activated Carbon Filters

Ion Exchange Softeners

 Some types of organic compounds
Multimedia Filters

Cartridge Filters
Ultrafiltration
Sand Filters

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 Types of Filters Used for Pre-treatment
There are six types of filters used for pre-treatment.

Ion Exchange Softeners remove:

 Hardness from feedwater
Activated Carbon Filters

Ion Exchange Softeners

Multimedia Filters

Cartridge Filters
Ultrafiltration
Sand Filters

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Chemicals to Protect a Reverse Osmosis Unit
A wide range of chemicals, such as biocides, antiscalants, acids, and caustics can
protect a Reverse Osmosis Unit.

Biocides Antiscalants Acids/Caustics

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Chemicals to Protect a Reverse Osmosis Unit
Biocides are chemicals toxic to microorganisms. Nalco Water dosing units feed
biocides continuously or periodically to control biofouling.

The right biocide reduces the need for membrane cleaning and lowers the overall
cost of operation.

. Biocides Antiscalants Acids/Caustics

Biocides are chemicals that kill microorganisms and control biofouling.

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Chemicals to Protect a Reverse Osmosis Unit
Antiscalants are chemicals that inhibit the transformation and precipitation of
crystallized mineral salts that form scale.

Biocides Antiscalants Acids/Caustics

Antiscalants inhibit the transformation and precipitation of crystallized

mineral salts that form scale.

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Chemicals to Protect a Reverse Osmosis Unit
Acids or caustics are added when the pH of feedwater needs to be adjusted.

Biocides Antiscalants Acids/Caustics

Acids or caustics are used to adjust the pH of feedwater.

Acidic are added to adjustBasic

Acids or caustics feedwater pH
Neutral
Acids or caustics are added to adjust feedwater
pH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

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Benefits of Optimizing a RO Unit
Optimizing the performance of the RO units saves a great deal of money, time, and
effort. They use less water and energy. The reliability of their systems improves.
Their membranes perform better and last longer. Maintenance costs go down and
their environmental footprint is reduced.

Use less water and energy

Improve reliability of systems

Reduce maintenance costs

Reduce environmental footprint

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Membrane Cleaning
Even though pre-treatment can reduce fouling, membranes can still get fouled.
When this happens, the membranes must be cleaned using special chemicals to
remove foulants accumulated on the membrane surface or in the membrane
element. The effectiveness of membrane cleaning depends on the type and extent
of the fouling and the temperature, pH, and duration of the cleaning process.

.
Membrane Type

Temperature Acids or Chemical

pH Time

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 Key to Successful Cleaning
The key to successful cleaning is choosing the right cleaning chemical based on the
type and severity of fouling. Choices of cleaning chemicals includes acids, caustics,
reducing agents, oxidants, chelating agents, and surfactants.

Caustics
Reducing Agents
Acids

Chelating Agents

Oxidants

High Low
pH cleaners pH cleaners
Surfactants

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Caution with Cleaning Chemicals
As important as cleaning may be, it’s also important to note that sometimes the
cleaning chemicals themselves can harm membranes. So, always refer to the
membrane manufacturer’s recommendation for the type and concentration of
cleaning chemicals to use.

It is important to know the cleaning pH range tolerated by the membranes used.

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 Raw and Normalized Data
Deciding when membranes need cleaning requires analyzing data on various
parameters. Although collecting data on different parameters for an RO system is
essential, raw data alone can be misleading and should therefor be normalized.

Normalizing data eliminates the effects of variations in pressure, temperature, and

flow rate on membrane performance data, and depicts actual changes in
parameters. Take a look at the same data displayed in the raw form and after
normalization.

Normalizing data:
 Eliminates the effects of variations in pressure, temperature, and flow rate on membrane
performance data
.
 Depicts actual changes in parameters such as fouling rate and salt rejection

Raw Data Normalized Data

Permeate Flow

Permeate Flow

Time Time

Trends in raw data can give misleading information.

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 Membrane Cleaning Conditions
It’s time to clean the membranes when the normalized pressure permeate flow has
dropped by 10 to 15 percent, the pressure drop has increased by 10 to 15 percent,
or permeate quality has decreased to an unacceptable level.

Membrane cleaning should be done when one of the following conditions is detected.

Normalized Differential
Normalized Permeate

Pressure (NDP)
Flow Rate (NPF)

Cleaning occurs at
15% drop NDP returns
to normal

Time
Time

 Cleaning after 10-15% decline maximizes RO performance

 Waiting too long to clean reduces RO performance

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Best Practices of Cleaning Membranes
Because cleaning can be detrimental to membranes, the frequency of cleaning
should be kept as low as possible. Here are some best practices of cleaning
membranes.

Clean RO membranes only when

. needed and not because the calendar
says so.

Clean membranes thoroughly.

Incomplete cleaning:

 Increases cleaning frequency

 Reduces productivity
 Escalates operating costs

Choose the appropriate cleaning

method and cleaning agents to avoid
membrane damage.

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