TOPIC 1: HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

1.1.1 Understand
the features and
Digital Device
functions of  It is a device that consists of a microprocessor (CPU) controlling its activities.
contemporary digital  The microprocessor may be a simple one controlling a single activity to one that control and coordinate complex
devices. activities simultaneously
Features and  Digital Device may be a single unit (device) or a unit that allows multiple devices to be attached to it
functions  The input, output and storage units are referred to as peripheral devices. These are devices that are
 portability externally connected to the processing unit
 performance  Most Digital device can make decision based on the data received and the program controlling it
 storage
 user Examples of digital devices include
interface
 connectivity
 COMPUTERS
 media
◦ This is an electronic devices that is mainly used for data processing
support
 energy ◦ It consists of input, processing and output devices
consumption ◦ It comes in various sizes with differing processing capabilities
 expansion ◦ Increased technology has seen the size of the computer reduce and its processing and storage
capability capabilities increasing.
 Security
features.  EMBEDDED SYSTEM
◦ This is a microprocessor present in a device designed to specifically control the functions of that
Contemporary digital device.
devices:
◦ Most embedded system will have a special operating system installed in them to manage a specific
 computers
activities
 embedded
◦ These system can be found in washing machines, modern fridges, Smart TVs, Industrial equipment
systems
◦ They may offer an option of reprogramming or updating of the software to bring it to the present level
 peripheral
devices or improve the function of the device
 mobile
phones  PERIPHERAL DEVICES
 Storage ◦ This is any device that can be attached to the processing unit of a device
devices. ◦ Peripheral devices can be subdivided into three: Input, Output, and Storage devices.
◦ Some of the peripheral devices can operate on their own without the need of having to connect them
to a computer. For example a camera.

 MOBILE PHONES/SMART PHONES

◦ These are digital devices that are mainly used for communication purposes
◦ With increased technology these devices have replaced hand held computers due to added

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 capabilities
◦ Smartphones have WI-FI capabilities allowing users to connect to the internet
◦ Added features on a phone/smartphones include
▪ Camera
▪ Video /Audio Player and recorder
▪ Playing games
▪ Calendar
▪ Alarm clock
▪ WI-FI
▪ Bluetooth
▪ touchscreen
◦ There are software that can be installed on smartphones making it possible to type, edit and even
print a document from them e.g. WPS application
◦ Because of addition software and capabilities most smartphones require more power than the normal
mobile phones
◦ Most phones require a SIM(Subscriber Identity Module) card to work
◦ Tablets are bigger than the smartphones

 STORAGE DEVICES
◦ Storage devices are used to store information permanently (i.e. until the user deletes the data)
◦ The most widely used storage device was the Hard disk
◦ It consists of circular plates mounted on a central shaft
◦ The disk plates are coated with magnetisable material and rotate where reading or writing the data on
them
◦ Data is written or read using the read write head
◦ Reading does not delete the data while writing deletes the data that was originally there
◦ Due the movement of the disk plates the Hard disk tend to be bigger and consume more power
◦ SSD (solid state storage devices) are taking over from the Hard disk
◦ The SSD lack moving parts and therefore consume less power, they are less bulky and are not
affected by the magnetic field.

 SMART HOME DEVICES

◦ Cameras and Cam Coders
◦ They use light sensors to capture images formed by light passing through the devices lenses
◦ The quality of the image is influenced by the number of pixels in the vertical and horizontal direction.
This is termed as resolution

◦ Television
◦ Displays both still and moving images
◦ Picture quality is influenced by its resolution

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 ◦ HD TVs screen have a larger number of pixels and inbuilt speakers
◦ Smart TVs use apps and can download and read content from the internet

Question: What are 4K and 8K televisions

◦ Sound system
◦ They produce loud rich sound using high quality speakers and amplifier
◦ They play music from optical media of the flash disk
◦ Can be connected to other digital devices to enhance sound such as computer and TV and
Smartphone

◦ Game console
◦ They are mainly used for playing games on TV screens
◦ They use motion sensors to allow players to control the game with gestures and body movement

◦ Other Smart home devices include: light bulbs, locks, climate control

 AUTONOMOUS DEVICES SUCH AS

◦ robot
◦ vacuum cleaners
◦ self-driving vehicles
◦ Auto-pilots.

 MEDICAL / FITNESS DEVICES

◦ Treadmills
◦ heart and respiration monitors
◦ step counters.

 Navigation Aids
◦ They are used to find routes or help people move from one are with ease
◦ They have replaced the maps
◦ The calculate the best route between two or more location
◦ They provide updates to the routs
◦ They are found in cars, delivery vans and ships
◦ They use information from the GPS satellites

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 FEATURES OF DIGITAL DEVICES
 Portability
◦ Ability to move around with the devices.
◦ Most digital devices are very small even being able to fit someone’s pockets
◦ Made possible with increase in technology and militarisation of components

 Performance
◦ Does it carry out its task faster?
◦ This is influenced by the speed of the processor and the RAM
◦ The faster the processor the better. This is because it can process several data items within a short
time
◦ With increased technology a machine can have more than one processor
◦ Memory is used to store data when the computer is work
◦ It also assists in the transfer of data from the storage unit to the processor.
◦ The bigger the Memory the more data it can carry and therefore it reduces the fetch time and thus
makes the machine faster
◦ A bigger memory also means that you can run more than one program at the same time without
compromising on speed

 Storage
◦ Digital devices require an area that they can store the information permanently
◦ Most devices come with inbuilt storage unit
◦ The common storage unit used to be the hard disk but it’s being replaced with the Solid state storage
devices
◦ Transfer speeds of data from solid state devices to the processor are very high and thus mores
computer manufacturers are replacing the hard disks with the SSD.

 User interface
◦ Allows the user and the system to have a meaningful interactions
◦ Types
▪ Command line interface
▪ User has to type in command and press Enter to instruct the computer system
▪ User must be aware of all valid command of the system

▪ Menu driven interface

▪ User provided with options from where to choose from

▪ Voice interface

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 ▪ Requires a user to speak to the system to instruct it
▪ Requires a microphone attached to the system

▪ Graphic user interface

▪ Sometimes referred to as WIMP. Uses small pictures to represent an instruction
▪ User uses a mouse to move a pointer on the screen to select and instruct the system
▪ Use of images makes the interface to be ‘Resource hungry’

▪ Gesture interface
▪ Requires the user to make gestures that are accepted by the system
▪ Mainly used by smart phones

 Connectivity
◦ This is the ability of a devices to be linked with another device for the purpose of sharing data or
communication
◦ Can be done using cables or wireless
◦ Smart phones have a variety of ways of connecting to other devices and the internet.

 Media support
◦ This is about the types of audio and video supported by a device
◦ There are different formats for both audio and video
◦ For some formats to be played a user must have CODEC for that format

 Energy Consumption
◦ All digital devices require energy to work
◦ Devices with moving parts require a lot of energy
◦ Energy consumption will be influenced by the usage, hardware units attached and sometimes the
software being run

 Expansion Compatibilities
◦ This is the ability to add extra hardware to the device
◦ Desktop computers have more space and expansion slots that allow extra devices to be easily added

 Security features
◦ These are features which are meant to keep the device safe from hackers
◦ Security is of two types
◦ Software security- PIN, password lock, screen saver, biometrics
◦ Physical security – security slots which have locks attached to secure the hardware to furniture

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1.1.2 Understand  GPS (Global Positioning system)
the technologies
◦ Global Positioning system was developed for military use by the US army, but later opened up to the
used by digital
civilian
devices:
 Global ◦ It is a network of satellites orbiting the earth – around 27 satellite at a time
Positioning ◦ At any time at least 4 satellites are transmitting information and time at regular interval to the earth
System (GPS) ◦ Signals are intercepted by the GPS receiver which may be your smartphone
 biometrics ◦ The receiver calculates how far away the satellites are, based on how long it takes for the message to
 touchscreen arrive to determine its location
 sensor ◦ This information is then fed to a map that is marked with the coordinates and displays the specific
 memory location of an individual.
 storage ◦ Application: Navigation systems
 battery power
 miniaturisation https://adventure.howstuffworks.com/outdoor-activities/hiking/compass-or-gps3.htm
 processors
 radio-frequency  RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)
identification
(RFID) ◦ It consists of three parts
 near-field  Scanning antenna
communication  Transceiver with decoder – to interpreted the data
(NFC)  Transponder – (RFID tag) – that has been programmed with information
 quick response ◦ The scanning antenna puts out radio-frequency signals in a relatively short range. The RF radiation
(QR) code does two things:
 connectivity 1. It provides a means of communicating with the transponder (the RFID tag)
2. It provides the RFID tag with the energy to communicate (in the case of passive RFID tags).
◦ This is an absolutely key part of the technology; RFID tags do not need to contain batteries, and can
therefore remain usable for very long periods of time (maybe decades).
◦ The scanning antennas can be permanently affixed to a surface; handheld antennas are also available.
◦ When an RFID tag passes through the field of the scanning antenna, it detects the activation signal
from the antenna.
◦ That "wakes up" the RFID chip, and it transmits the information on its microchip to be picked up by
the scanning antenna.
◦ The RFID tag may be of one of two types.
▪ Active RFID tags have their own power source; the advantage of these tags is that the reader can
be much farther away and still get the signal.
▪ Passive RFID tags - they lack the battery and are dependent on the scanning antenna to provide it
with energy. They can therefore be much smaller and have a virtually unlimited life span.
◦ The tag need not be on the surface of the object (and is therefore not subject to wear)
◦ The read time is typically less than 100 milliseconds
◦ Areas of Application

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 ▪ Tracking stock
▪ Passport
▪ Automatic car number place recognition

 Touch screens
◦ The most common type of input/output devices found on mobile phones
◦ Increased technology has seen touchscreen being present in many devices where individual need to
make selection replacing the keypad/keyboard.
◦ The two most commonly used technology to create a touchscreen systems are resistive and
capacitive

1. Resistive
◦ These are the most basic and common touch screens, the ones used at ATMs and supermarkets that
require an electronic signature with that small grey pen.
◦ These screens literally “resist” your touch; if you press hard enough you can feel the screen bend
slightly. This is what makes resistive screens work – two electrically conductive layers bending to
touch one another

Resistive touch screen technology [Image Credit: Chassis Plans]

◦ One of those thin yellow layers is resistive and the other is conductive, separated by a gap of tiny dots
called spacers to keep the two layers apart until you touch it. (A thin, scratch-resistant blue layer on
top completes the package.)
◦ An electrical current runs through those yellow layers at all times, but when your finger hits the screen
the two are pressed together and the electrical current changes at the point of contact.
◦ The software recognizes a change in the current at these coordinates and carries out the function that

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 corresponds with that spot.
◦ Resistive touch screens are durable and consistent, but they’re harder to read because the multiple
layers reflect more ambient light.
◦ They also can only handle one touch at a time – ruling out, for example, the two-finger zoom on an
phones

2. Capacitive
◦ Capacitive screens work with anything that holds an electrical charge – including human skin.
◦ Capacitive touch screens are constructed from materials like copper or indium tin oxide that store
electrical charges in an electrostatic grid of tiny wires, each smaller than a human hair.

Capacitive touch screen technology [Image credit: Electrotest]

◦ There are two main types of capacitive touch screens – surface and projective.
◦ Surface capacitive uses sensors at the corners and a thin evenly distributed film across the surface (as
pictured above)
◦ Projective capacitive uses a grid of rows and columns with a separate chip for sensing,
◦ In both instances, when a finger hits the screen a tiny electrical charge is transferred to the finger to
complete the circuit, creating a voltage drop on that point of the screen. (This is why capacitive
screens don’t work when you wear gloves; cloth does not conduct electricity, unless it is fitted with
conductive thread.)
◦ The software processes the location of this voltage drop and orders the ensuing action.

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  Biometrics
◦ This is the use of human physical characteristics to provide security of a system
◦ It requires scanning the body part and comparing it with the stored data
◦ The part is first scanned several times and analysed and then translated into a code or graph
◦ The next time when a person uses the system, it compares the trait you present to the information on
file.
◦ Then, it either accepts or rejects that you are who you claim to be.
◦ The traits used include
▪ Iris/Retina
▪ Fingerprint
▪ Facial
▪ Veins
◦ Behavioural characters that can be used include:
▪ voice
▪ handwriting
▪ typing rhythm

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 Sensors
◦ These are input devices that measure physical properties
◦ They take readings of an environmental condition being measured. It may be temperature, presence
of individual, weight of a person or item etc.
◦ The data is then sent to the microprocessor
◦ The data signal is analogue in nature and must be converted to digital for the microprocessor to be
able to understand it.
◦ An Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) is connected between the sensor and the microprocessor to
do this
◦ Types of sensors include
▪ Motion
▪ Infra-Red
▪ Moisture
▪ Pressure pad

 Near Field Communication

◦ Near field communication technology builds on RFID advances.
◦ It is a standard for short very short range radio transmissions
◦ It uses a NFC chip which is already installed in some smartphones in the market

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 ◦ A pair of NFC transmitters can communicate at a maximum of just a few centimetres.
◦ Some chips are designed so that the only way they send and receive information is if you've touched
the device you're carrying with the one with which you're going to communicate.
◦ In a shop that uses this technology, the system will let you purchase items just by holding your phone
close to a receiver at a cash register.
◦ This eliminates the need for credit cards.
◦ There are already applications that make this method of payment compelling. In 2011, Google
announced Google Wallet and Google Offers, a pair of products that take advantage of NFC
technology. The basic function of Google Wallet is what we just talked about -- replacing your physical
credit card. But it can also store other information like customer loyalty cards and special offers.

 Memory
◦ All of the components in a computer, such as the Processor, the hard drive and the operating system,
work together as a team, and memory is one of the most essential parts of this team. From the
moment the computer is turned on until the time it is shut it down, the processor is constantly using
memory.
◦ This is how the process works
◦ The computer loads data from read-only memory (ROM) and performs a power-on self-test (POST) to
make sure all the major components are functioning properly. As part of this test, the memory
controller checks all of the memory addresses with a quick read/write operation to ensure that there
are no errors in the memory chips.
◦ The computer loads the basic input/output system (BIOS) from ROM. The BIOS provides the most
basic information about storage devices, boot sequence, security, Plug and Play (auto device
recognition) capability and a few other items.
◦ The computer loads the operating system (OS) from the hard drive into the system's RAM. Generally,
the critical parts of the operating system are maintained in RAM as long as the computer is on.
◦ When you open an application, it is loaded into RAM. To conserve RAM usage, many applications load
only the essential parts of the program initially and then load other pieces as needed.
◦ After an application is loaded, any files that are opened for use in that application are loaded into RAM.
◦ When you save a file and close the application, the file is written to the specified storage device, and
then it and the application are purged from RAM.
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 Storage
◦ Hard disks were invented in the 1950s. They started as large disks up to 20 inches in diameter holding
just a few megabytes. They were originally called "fixed disks" or "Winchesters
◦ Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium
◦ Data is stored onto the disk in the form of files. A file is simply a named collection of bytes.
◦ There are two ways to measure the performance of a hard disk:

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 ◦ Data rate - The data rate is the number of bytes per second that the drive can deliver to the CPU.
Rates between 5 and 40 megabytes per second are common.
◦ Seek time - The seek time is the amount of time between when the CPU requests a file and when the
first byte of the file is sent to the CPU. Times between 10 and 20 milliseconds are common.
◦ The other important parameter is the capacity of the drive, which is the number of bytes it can hold.

 Battery power
◦ Digital devices run on electricity.
◦ Laptops and desktops have small batteries to maintain the real-time clock and, in some cases, CMOS
RAM.
◦ A laptop is portable and can run on batteries alone.
◦ Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad) batteries were the first type of battery commonly used in laptop
computers
◦ They have a life of roughly two hours between charges, but this life decreases with each charge based
on the memory effect.
◦ Gas bubbles form in the cell plates, reducing the total amount of available cell space for recharge. The
only way around this is to discharge the battery completely before recharging it.
◦ The other drawback of NiCad is that if the battery charges too long, it can explode.
◦ Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) batteries last longer between charges than NiCad but overall have a
shorter total lifespan.
◦ They suffer from the memory effect, but to a lesser extent than NiCad batteries.
◦ LiIon batteries are the current standard for laptop computers and smartphones.
◦ They are light and have long life spans.
◦ They do not suffer from the memory effect, can be charged randomly, and won't overheat if
overcharged.
◦ They are also thinner than any other battery available for laptops, making them ideal for the new
ultra-thin notebooks.
◦ LiIon batteries can last for anything from about 950 up to 1200 charges.
◦ Even maintaining wireless Internet connectivity requires some battery power. Many laptop computer
models have power management software to extend the battery life or conserve battery power when
the battery is low.

 Miniaturisation
◦ Miniaturization is the trend to manufacture ever smaller mechanical, optical and electronic products
and devices. Examples include miniaturization of mobile phones, computers and vehicle engine
downsizing.
◦ Miniaturization became a trend in the last fifty years
◦ Today, electronic companies are producing silicon integrated circuits or chips with switching transistors
that have feature size as small as 130 nanometres (nm)

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 ◦ Development is also underway for chips that are merely few nanometres in size through the
nanotechnology initiative
◦ The focus is to make components smaller to increase the number that can be integrated into a single
wafer and this required critical innovations, which include increasing wafer size, the development of
sophisticated metal connections between the chip's circuits, and improvement in the polymers used for
masks (photoresists) in the photolithography processes
◦ These last two are the areas where miniaturization has moved into the nanometre range

 Processors
◦ The microprocessor is the heart of any normal computer and most digital devices
◦ A microprocessor - also known as a CPU or central processing unit - is a complete computation engine
that is fabricated on a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced in 1971.
The 4004 was not very powerful -- all it could do was add and subtract, and it could only do that 4 bits
at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on one chip
◦ Things that one needs to consider when looking at the Microprocessor are
◦ Clock speed
◦ Data Width - is the width of the ALU
◦ The performance of the CPU is measured in MIPS (millions of instructions per second)

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 Quick response (QR) code

◦ 2-D bar codes (sometimes called matrix codes) carry information in two directions: vertically and
horizontally.
◦ Accordingly, 2-D bar codes are capable of holding tens and even hundreds of times as much
information as 1-D bar codes.
◦ Every QR Code contains a finder pattern, an arrangement of squares that help the scanner detect the
size of the QR Code, the direction it's facing and even the angle at which the code is being scanned.
◦ Every QR Code contains an alignment pattern, another pattern of squares devised to help scanners
determine if the 2-D bar code is distorted (perhaps it's placed on a round surface, for instance).
◦ QR Codes also have margins for error, meaning that even if part of the code is smudged or obscured,
the code can often still be scanned.
◦ After scanning the QR code software goes to work analysing the image. By calculating the ratio
between the black and white areas of the code, it can quickly identify which squares are part of the
alignment patterns and which squares contain actual data.
◦ Using the QR Code's built-in patterns and error correction, the software can also compensate for any
distortion or obscured areas of the bar code.

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1.1.3 Understand  Technological Convergence is

the term ‘technical ◦ The tendency for different technological system to evolve towards performing similar tasks.
convergence’ in the ◦ It is when new technologies are created that takes over from past technologies and perform the same
context of digital
task but in a more advance manner
devices.
◦ When different forms of technologies cohabitate in a single device, sharing resources and interacting,
1.1.4 Understand creating new technology and convenience.
the concept of,  An example of technology convergence is smartphones, which combine the functionality of a telephone, a
need for, features camera, a music player, and a digital personal assistant (among other things) into one device. It can also be
and functions of used as a switch/router to share a network connection with others. A tablet computer is another example of
embedded technology convergence. Developed especially for convergence, the tablet computer combines multiple
systems. devices into one device that you can carry anywhere.
 Smartphones nowadays one can access the Internet, capture a video and even use the phone as a router to
1.1.5 Understand
share a network connection
the concept of and
 Television was designed to output audio and video only. Today’s Televisions’ can be used to connect to the
need for firmware.
internet
1.1.6 Understand  Technological convergence has come from far and will still improve
factors that can be
used to assess the Advantages
performance of  Not bound with geographical locations – One can advertise not just on the billboards but on websites which
digital devices: can be watched on a phone
 speed  Easily creating and editing of audio and videos
 capacity
 portability Disadvantages
 bandwidth  When the technology is being introduced it is very expensive
 Power  Cheaper alternative for people to make their own work thus reducing business activities
efficiency.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
 An embedded system is a computer controlled device designed to perform specific tasks.
 The main part of an embedded system is the processor, which is a microcontroller and is programmed to
perform the specific tasks for which the integrated system has been designed.
 It also contains the memory: RAM - to temporarily store the OS and data during execution of the system
and the ROM – to hold the input output routines that are needed for the system at boot time and the OS
 The

Questions:
 Describe in details factors to consider when purchasing a digital device such as a smartphone, Music player?
 What is Firmware?

Chapter 1 13 of 22
1.1.7 Be able to Numbering System
calculate data file
 A digit is a single place that can hold numerical values between 0 and 9 in decimal numbering system.
size and time
 Digits are normally combined together in groups to create larger numbers. E.g. 6,357.
needed to transmit
a file.  Each digit in a number has a place value. This gives the number its real value.
 For example, in the number 6,357, the place value for 7 is “ONES," the place value for 5 is “TENS”, the
1.1.8 Be able to place value for 3 is “THOUSANDS” and the place value for 6 is “TEN THOUSANDS”. This could be express
use and convert explicitly as:
between binary and
denary as defined (6 * 1000) + (3 * 100) + (5 * 10) + (7 * 1) = 6000 + 300 + 50 + 7 = 6357
by the International
Electrotechnical
 From the above expression, the place value of decimal numbers increases in powers of 10.
Commission (IEC).

1.1.9 Be able to Binary Numbering System

select digital  Computers operates using the base-2 number system, also known as the Binary Number System. There
devices to meet the are only two possible numbers in binary numbering system. These are 0 and 1. A single Binary digIT is
needs and called a BIT
requirement of  To represent a character eights bits are combined together. This is called a byte. A single byte is the same
individuals and
as a single character
organisations.

 In binary numbering system place value of a bit increases in powers of two.

 For example, 1001 the place value for each digit is 23 22 21 20
 So to convert a binary number to decimal multiply each digit with its place value

1001 = (1*23) + (0*22) +(0*21) +(1*20)

 To concert binary/Octal/Hexadecimal number to decimal

◦ Indicate the place value of each digit from the most significant digit
◦ Multiply each digit by its place value
◦ Add the products

Number 1 0 0 1
3 2 1 0
Place Value 2 (8) 2 (4) 2 (2) 2 (1)
Multiply each digit with the place value 8*1 4*0 2*0 1*1
Product(Place Value* Digit) 8 0 0 1
Add the sums 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 =910

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  To convert a decimal Number to binary:
◦ Divide the Decimal Number by the Numbering system you want to concert to noting the reminder
◦ Continue dividing until the until the number becomes zero
◦ Write the remainder from bottom upward

 Convert 3510 to Binary(2)

Divisor Number Remainder

2 35 1
2 17 1
2 8 0
2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 1
0
3510 to Binary(2) = 1000112

 The capacity of the storage unit or the size of a file is measured in bytes.

In the real word as the number becomes bigger it becomes easier to use a term to describe it to avoid writing so
many digits. For example 1000gms makes 1 Kilo and 1000 metres makes 1 Kilometre.
Computer engineers noticed that binary 210 (1024) was very nearly equal to the decimal 103 (1000) and,
purely as a matter of convenience, they began referring to 1024 bytes as a kilobyte, 1 048 576 byte as a
Megabyte and so on
As the measures were small the error could be accommodated.
But with bigger values the % error reached more than 10%.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has set up SI for use to minimise the errors
These are

Chapter 1 15 of 22
 Factor Name Symbol Origin Derivation
210 kibi Ki kilobinary: (210)1 kilo: (103)1
220 mebi Mi megabinary: (210)2 mega: (103)2
230 gibi Gi gigabinary: (210)3 giga: (103)3
240 tebi Ti terabinary: (210)4 tera: (103)4
250 pebi Pi petabinary: (210)5 peta: (103)5
260 exbi Ei exabinary: (210)6 exa: (103)6
IEC standard

File size
 The size of a file is measured in bytes.
 A byte is made up 8 bits
 To code a data, we use 8 bits. Therefore 8 bits represents 1 Character

Connection Speed/Bandwidth
 Computer network performance — sometimes called internet speed — is commonly measured in units of bits
per second (bps). This quantity can represent either an actual data rate or a theoretical limit to available
network bandwidth.
 Modern networks support enormous numbers of bits per second. Instead of quoting speeds of 10,000 or
100,000 bps, networks normally express per second performance in terms of kilobits (Kbps), megabits (Mbps),
and gigabits (Gbps), where:
 1 Kbps = 1,000 bits per second
 1 Mbps = 1,000 Kbps
 1 Gbps = 1,000 Mbps

 The higher the number of bits per second you have, the faster the online speed.
 The maximum rate at which data can be received over an internet connection is known as the downstream
bandwidth.
 The maximum rate at which data can be sent is known as the upstream bandwidth.

Chapter 1 16 of 22
 Question
1. Convert the following to binary
a. 12710
b. 9910
c. 1BF16
2. Convert the following to Decimal
a. 10100010102
b. 010100012
c. BF16
3. Calculate the size of a file containing 1,000,000 characters. Express your answer in Kibibytes (KiB) and
Mebibytes (MiB)
4. A file contains 52,000,000,000 characters. What is the size of the file in
a. Gigabytes (GB)
b. Gibibytes (GiB)
5. The file in 2 above is to be transmitted using a link that has a speed of 2Mbps. Calculate the time taken to
transmit the file in hours.

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1.2.1 Understand SOFTWARE
the purpose of:
Each computer needs a software for it to be able to be used
a. systems software
A software is
b. applications
software.  a collection of instructions that can be ‘run’ on a computer. These instructions tell the computer
what to do.
1.2.2 Understand  A list of instructions that control the behaviour of the hardware units
the role of the  A list of instructions that allow a computer to be used to solve a specific problem or do a task.
operating system in
managing: Software is not a physical thing (but it is stored on a physical medium such as a CD-ROM), it is just a ‘bunch of
a. devices codes’ or a list of instructions.
b. processes
c. users
Computer software are classified into two major groups
d. security.
1. System Software and
2. Application Software

System software
This is the main program that allows a computer to start and control various peripherals. System Software are of
two types:

1. Operating System (OS) - The OS control the working of the computer. It also provides resources to the
users.
Each computer must at least have Operating System software installed

2. Utility Program – are programs that add functionality to your computer or help your computer performs
better. These activities include locating and deleting viruses, formatting a storage media, copying of files
and renaming of files

Functions of an Operating System

 It provides a user interface so that we can interact with the computer
 It manages applications that are running on the computer, starting them when the user requests, and
stopping them when they are no longer needed
 It manages files, helping us save our work, organise our files, find files that we have saved and load files
 It manages the computer’s memory, deciding what should be loaded into memory and what should be
removed. It also divides the memory in partition allowing several programs to reside in the memory at the
same time
 It looks after computer security, preventing unauthorised access to the system
 It manages the computer’s input and output hardware such as printers, etc.
Without an operating system, a computer is of little use.

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 Questions
1. List five examples of utility software
2. For the item listed in 1 above describe what they do

Application Software
These are programs that enable a user to use a computer system to accomplish various activities such as typing
letters, calculations and manage data. Here are a few examples of application software and what they do

1. Word processing Software are used to produce letters, reports and memos. They provide a user with features
to manipulate characters
2. Database programs are used to store and retrieve information
3. Spreadsheet applications are used for tasks that involve calculation. They provide a user with formulas to
carry out these calculations
4. Presentation applications are used to create slideshows and presentation. These can be projected onto a wide
screen for the audience to view
5. Desktop Publishing package are used to produce posters, newsletter and magazine. They have features that
allow the user to combine both text and graphics with ease.
6. Graphic programs are used to produce artwork
7. Communication software are used sent and receive mails. They allow messages to be sent from one
computer to another
8. Web Browser – they are used to access the internet and
9. Web Editors are used to create and edit web pages.

Types of software Copyright

1.2.3 Understand
the different sources Proprietary software also known as "Closed Source Software" is non-free computer software for which the
of software and
software's publisher or another person retains intellectual property rights—usually copyright of the source code.
copyright types:
a. free
b. open-source Open source is a term describing a means of developing and distributing software that ensures software is
c. proprietary available for use, modification, and redistribution by anyone. Generally, anyone can download open source
d. creative software for little or no cost, and can use, share, borrow, or change it without restriction. Open source practice
commons. promotes software reliability and quality by supporting independent peer review and rapid evolution of source
code.

Shareware software is distributed at low (or sometimes no) cost, but usually requires payment and registration
for full legal use. Copies are distributed on a trial basis. You are free to test the software, see if it matches your
needs, and decide whether it's a good value.
Shareware is not free software, since authors of shareware programs expect payment from those who intend to
use the programs regularly.

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 Freeware software is distributed at minimal cost, but the authors do not expect payment for their work.
Typically, freeware programs are small utilities or incomplete programs that authors release for their potential
benefit to others, but without support. The author of a freeware program may still retain a copyright on its
contents and stipulate that others not modify the program or charge significant fees for its use or distribution.
1.2.4 Understand Software License Types
licensing options: A software is an intellectual property just like a book or music. It is protected by the law and a user is not
a. single user supposed to distribute, resale for monetary gain or share it with other people who are not authorised without
b. multiple user
the consent of the programmer. Software license allow the buyer of the software to use it as per stated
c. institutional
conditions. Types of software licenses are
d. fixed term
e. indefinite
f. network. Individual/Single User licenses
 Individual (Single-user): This license type allows the program to be installed and used on one CPU which is
not accessed by other users over a network. Types of individual/Single user licenses are:
1. Perpetual license: allows the customer to install and use the software indefinitely. Technical
support is included for a limited term, usually 90 days.
2. Subscription license: Allows the user to use the software for a specified time period. This license
usually includes technical support and access to upgrades and patches released during the term of
the subscription. At the end of the term the user has several options: (1) renew the subscription; or
(2) purchase a perpetual license at a discounted cost; or (3) remove the software from the
computer. Most of the Anti-Virus software fall into this category
3. Freeware license: This license type is offered as freeware by the author and does not require
paying any fee for use.
4. Shareware license: This is a license to use software for a trial period and then, if you continue to
use the software, you must pay a shareware fee or cease using the software.
Individual/Multi-user licensing
 Volume licenses: allows the Licensee to install the software on a certain number of computers. The
licensee usually has to satisfy a minimum purchase requirement and obtains reduced prices in exchange.
When purchasing the licenses, the licensee usually receives one copy of the media and documentation with
the option of purchasing more.
 Site/Enterprise: This license provides access to software at a single location. Typically, these licenses are
individually negotiated with the publisher and vary widely in their provisions.
Network/Multi-user licenses
 Server (Network): Licensed per server – This license type requires that you have a single copy of the
software residing on the file server. With Per Server licensing, a specified number of CALs are associated
with a particular server. The number of devices that can legally access that server simultaneously is limited
in Per Server licensing to the number of CALs purchased for that particular server.
 Per Seat (Machine): Licensed per machine/seat – This license requires that you purchase a license for
each client computer and/or device where access to services is needed. This license is typically used in
conjunction with a network license.
 Per Processor: Under the Per Processor model, you acquire a Processor License for each processor in the

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 server on which the software is running. A Processor License usually includes access for an unlimited
number of users to connect. You do not need to purchase additional server licenses, CALs, or Internet
Connector Licenses.

1.2.5 Understand Anyone who uses software of any kind has encountered prompts to update or upgrade that software.
the purpose of and
how to manage
Software Update
software updates:
a. patch  A software update, which is sometimes called a software patch, is a free download for an application,
b. automatic operating system, or software suite that provides fixes for features that aren't working as intended or adds
c. upgrade minor software enhancements and compatibility.
d. compatibility  Software updates are issued to
issues. o address security issues when they occur
o address minor bugs discovered in the software
o improve the operation of hardware or peripherals,
o add support for new models of equipment.
 These small, incremental updates improve the operation of your software.
 Software updates may be done automatically or manually
 It is done automatically by changing the settings of the software and will occur without the user
intervention

The Importance of Software Updates

1. Updates protect against new-found security risks.
2. They introduce new features in your software.
3. Software updates can improve battery depletion rate or performance speed.
4. They extend your equipment's useable life by allowing its maximum productivity.
5. Updates fix bugs in the software and improve functionality.

Software Upgrade
A software upgrade is a new version of the software that offers a significant change or major improvement over
your current version. In many cases, a software upgrade requires the purchase of the new version of the
software, sometimes at a discounted price if you own an older version of the software.

1.2.6 Be able to 1. Software price verses value - Purchasing more expensive software because it has a long list of extra features isn’t
select software to necessarily the correct move, as many of those features might not even apply to your business or be usable by your
meet the needs and
requirements of
particular system
individuals and 2. Is the software company prepared to fix bugs? Every software has bugs. Be aware of the software company’s
organisations. procedures for fixing those bugs when they arise. Understand how the issues you may potential run into will be

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 addressed. Make sure that the company will address the problems that are unique to your company’s use of the
software, and not just the big problems that most of the software’s users run into.
3. Support hours? The question of support hours should include not only the timeframes during which you can get support,
but how you can do so. Can you get phone support, or is everything done by email or ticketing system? If you will be
using a ticketing system, what is the anticipated response time for a request? It is important that your software
company’s support department is available when you need them.
4. Current known bugs? A luxury for your company in dealing with software is knowing the current known bugs in the
software and the updates scheduled for fixing them. Knowing this information will help you stay on top of the state of
your software and use it more effectively.

Things to consider when selecting a device

1. What's your budget?

2. Will you need to move around with your device?
3. Do you need a big screen?
4. How much information will you store on your device?
5. How much computing power do you want?
6. How much battery life do you need?

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