November/December 2016 Retrofitting Non-Isolated Inverters in Legacy Arrays

O p t im a l D e s i gn, I n s tal l ati on & Perfor m anc e so la r pr ofe ssi onal . c om

Soiling Assessment
in Large-Scale PV Systems
1,500 V PV Plant
Architectures
Optimizing Costs and
Performance in Next-
Generation Solar Farms

Central Inverter
Specifications
Utility-Scale Inverters
for Centralized PV
Installations

Projects
Enerparc
Nova West Solar
COMPLIMENTARY ISSUE
COURTESY OF

Recurrent Energy
RE Tranquillity
Fresno County, CA f
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Contents November/December 2016 Issue 9.6

20
Fe a tu re s

20 Soiling Assessment in Large-Scale

PV Arrays
Owners, developers, bankers and O&M providers all
want to know when it makes sense to clean a PV array
to recapture revenue that it would otherwise lose due
to soiled modules. It is difficult to assess soiling and
to determine when to wash an array because doing so
requires a multi-variable equation. This means that
50 Central Inverters for
there is no single right answer when it comes to the Utility-Scale PV Plants
economics of washing. This article shares some of our SolarPro’s 2016 utility-scale central inverter speci-
analyses and observations on array soiling drawn from fication dataset provides PV plant designers with a
many years of operational experience. high-level comparison of the electrical and mechan-
BY SANJAY SHRESTHA AND MAT TAYLOR ical specifications for inverter models that are well
suited for centralized, large-scale solar applications.
Most of the included solutions are listed to the
50 UL 1741 standard. In addition, 19 currently available
models from six manufacturers are listed for deploy-
ment in 1,500 Vdc systems, which is becoming the
new standard for many utility-scale projects.
COMPILED BY JOE SCHWARTZ

34 1,500 Vdc Utilization Voltages in

Ground-Mount Applications
By all accounts, the PV power plant of the near
future is here today and poised for widespread
adoption in 2017. In this article, we provide a brief
overview of the history of 1,500 Vdc PV systems.
After providing an update on applicable codes and
standards, we consider the state of the supply chain
and detail the benefits and tradeoffs associated with
1,500 V designs. Finally, we identify some potential

34
challenges associated with early field deployments.
BY DAVID BREARLEY

4 S O L ARPRO | November/December 2016

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*Energy boost values are estimates and are not a guarantee of performance. Actual boost performance will vary for your specific installation based on the actual
albedo, selected racking system, system design parameters and soiling over time.
Contents 2 November/December 2016 Issue 9.6

D e p a r t m ent s
FRONT END
8 Contributors Experience + Expertise

10 The Wire Industry Currents

10
14 QA Quality Assurance BACK END
Retrofitting Non-Isolated Inverters in Legacy Arrays
60 Projects System Profiles
Enerparc, Holdrege Solar Center
Nova West Solar, Beam Residence

60 62 Advertiser Index

f ON THE COVER Recurrent Energy developed the

200 MWac RE Tranquillity solar facility in Fresno County,
California. The installation is an example of low-impact
solar development. Sited on approximately 1,900 acres
of nonirrigable land with existing transmission lines on-
site, the PV plant avoids prime farmland and habitat for

14
sensitive species. The project created over 450 peak
construction jobs, more than half of which employed
residents within 50 miles of the site.
Photo: Courtesy Recurrent Energy

6 S O L ARPRO | November/December 2016

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Contributors Experience + Expertise
®

Publisher/Editor Joe Schwartz

David Brearley is the senior technical
Managing Editor Kathryn Houser
editor for PV systems at SolarPro. His
solar education began at the San Juan Senior Technical Editor/PV Systems David Brearley
College Renewable Energy Program Technical Editor/PV Systems Ryan Mayfield
in Farmington, New Mexico. Brearley
became NABCEP certified in 2004. After Engineering Editor/PV Systems Blake Gleason, PE
working for a national distributor, he tran- Creative Services Midnight Oil Design
sitioned to commercial and residential PV
Copy Editors/Proofreaders Kim Saccio-Kent,
system integration in Austin, Texas. 
Gail Nelson-Bonebrake
Bill Brooks, PE, is the principal of Brooks Advertising Directors Kim Bowker, Connie Said
Engineering and has more than 25 years
Data Manager Doug Puffer
of experience designing, installing and
evaluating grid-connected PV systems.
He has written several technical manu- Proud supporter of:
als for the industry that are widely used
throughout the US and beyond. Brooks is
an active participant on many national and
international codes and standards panels.

Sanjay Shrestha is the lead PV perfor-

mance engineer in the SOLV Group.  He
is responsible for performance analytics
covering a 2,500 MW portfolio with more
than 100 PV assets. Shrestha is the group
leader of the team that develops sophis- g C O N TAC T U S
ticated analytical tools within the SOLV
Subscriptions Advertising
monitoring platform to support O&M, EPC View subscription offers at: For advertising opportunities, visit:
and commissioning services. solarprofessional.com/subscribe solarprofessional.com/advertise

Send subscription questions to: Western States Sales Office

Joe Schwartz is the CEO of Home [email protected] Connie Said, Advertising Director
Power. He serves as the publisher [email protected]
Update your account information at: Direct: 541.326.5773
and editor of SolarPro and the execu- solarprofessional.com/myaccount
tive editor of Home Power. Schwartz Eastern States Sales Office
Letters to the Editor Kim Bowker, Advertising Director
worked as a PV, wind and hydro [email protected]
Email your comments and suggestions to:
systems integrator prior to enter- [email protected] Direct: 541.858.1791
ing technical publishing. He holds a
Industry PR Marketing
Limited Renewable Energy Technician Send news and equipment releases to: Promotional opportunities and offers:
license in the state of Oregon. [email protected] [email protected]

Copyright © 2016 Home Power, Inc. Contents may not be reprinted or otherwise reproduced
Mat Taylor has worked in the solar indus- without written permission. SolarPro is a registered trademark of Home Power, Inc.
try for 25 years and has been directly While SolarPro strives to publish only safe and accurate content, we assume no responsibility
involved in more than 2,000 megawatts of or liability for the use of this information.

solar PV projects at all stages and scales in Interior paper is made from 85%–100% recycled material, including 20%–30%
postconsumer waste.
the EPC and O&M spaces. Taylor special-
National Electrical Code®, NFPA 70® and NEC® are registered trademarks of the National Fire
izes in applied PV performance and analy-
Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts.
sis of operating plants.

SolarPro | PO Box 68 | Ashland, OR 97520 | US

8 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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the Wire Industry Currents

Yaskawa Introduces
1,500 V Source-Circuit
Combiners
[Lawrence, MA] Yaskawa–
Solectria Solar has expanded
its DISCOM string combiner line
with the addition of the 1,500 Vdc
DISCOM 1500 source-circuit com-
biner. The 1,500 Vdc combiners are
available in 8–24 fused positions
and offer a wide range of fuse val-
ues allowing up to 36 source-circuit
inputs. The standard enclosure is

Enphase Launches NEMA 4–rated powder-coated steel.

A fiberglass NEMA 4X enclosure

Sixth-Generation option and factory-installed Multi-Contact MC4 or Amphenol Helios

H4 PV connectors are also available. The DISCOM 1500 includes

Microinverter
connection plates for compression terminals (two per output up to
6,000-kcmil or one per output up to 750-kcmil) and a 90° terminal
rating. DC disconnects rated for 250 A, 325 A and 400 A are avail-

System able. The DISCOM 1500 is ETL certified to UL 1741 and carries a
standard 5-year warranty.
Yaskawa–Solectria Solar / 978.683.9700 / solectria.com
[Petaluma, CA] Enphase has announced its next-
generation integrated solar, storage and energy
management offering, the Enphase Home Energy
Solution with IQ. The system features the company’s
sixth-generation Enphase IQ Microinverter. The Unirac Unveils
Enphase IQ 6+ Micro supports 60- and 72-cell mod-
ules up to 400 Wdc, and the Enphase IQ 6 Micro is Microrail System
compatible with modules up to 330 Wdc. The new
microinverter design includes a double-insulated, [Albuquerque, NM] Unirac’s recently released Sunframe Microrail
noncorroding polymeric enclosure. Enphase IQ 6 (SFM) for arrays installed on pitched rooftops features a structural
microinverters comply with fixed power factor, volt- front trim rail, adjustable-height posts, preassembled parts and
age and frequency ride-through requirements, and integrated electrical bonding. Integrators can install the SFM system
meet current and known future requirements for using a single tool, and the mount’s design allows for removal of
distributed solar on utility networks, including Rule individual modules to conduct maintenance.
21 in California and Hawaiian Electric Company The racking solution supports both portrait
Rule 14H. Enphase projects that the IQ 6 and landscape module orientations. Compact
Microinverter System will be available in North packaging and streamlined product SKUs
America in the first quarter of 2017. Enphase will lower product procurement and
also integrate the sixth-generation microinverters warehousing costs. The Sunframe
into Enphase Energized AC Modules with IQ from LG Microrail system is listed to UL 2703
and SolarWorld, with expected availability in the US and backed by a 10-year product warranty.
and Canada in the second quarter of 2017. Unirac / 505.242.6411 / unirac.com
Enphase Energy / 877.797.4743 / enphase.com

10 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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 the Wire
SMA Launches 1,500 V
Central Inverter
[Rocklin, CA] SMA America’s Utility Power System is a flexible,
pre-engineered solution for centralized utility-scale PV plants.
The system’s Sunny Central inverter is available in three power
classes: 1,850 kVA and 2,200 kVA for 1,000 Vdc systems, and
2,475 kVA for 1,500 Vdc projects. The Utility Power System’s
Medium Voltage Block includes transformer options suitable
for medium-voltage
grids from 6.6 kV to
35 kV. SMA’s Power Plant

Tigo Energy Controller, designed to

ensure utility feed-in

Introduces compliance and opti-

mum plant operation,

1,500 V MLPE rounds out the Utility

Power System’s major
components. The
1,500 V Sunny Central
[Los Gatos, CA] Tigo Energy has extended
2500-EV-US inverter is
its modular TS4 platform design to support
certified to UL 1741 and
1,500 Vdc PV systems. The TS4 system base
also complies with the
provides a single plug-and-play interface for
new UL 62109 standard,
electronic covers that offers a range of functions
which addresses the
including long source circuits, optimization,
unique aspects of apply-
safety, monitoring and basic bypass diode func-
ing power conversion technologies in PV applications. The
tionality. Tigo Energy offers its TS4 platform as
2500-EV-US inverter lowers CAPEX costs by reducing the size of
an add-on product and a factory-integrated Jbox
an installation’s dc cabling, the number of source-circuit combin-
solution available from module manufacturers
ers and medium-voltage equipment required for a given project.
including ET Solar, Jinko Solar, Sunpreme and
SMA America / 916.625.0870 / sma-america.com
Trina Solar. The TS4 platform is CSA listed to
UL 1741.
Tigo Energy / 408.402.0802 / tigoenergy.com

SolarEdge Announces Integrated

Automatic Rapid Shutdown
[Fremont, CA] SolarEdge is facilitating compliance with NEC 2014 and NEC 2017 rapid-shut-
down requirements by integrating automatic rapid shutdown into its highest-power commercial
inverters. Automatic rapid shutdown is designed to activate when the ac supply to the inverters
is no longer present. For larger installations with string inverters located in various locations on a
commercial rooftop, this helps first responders know that with one action, they can reduce the
entire commercial array to a safe low-voltage state. SolarEdge is currently shipping its 3-phase
277/480 Vac SE33.3K-USR inverters and 3-phase 208 Vac SE14.4K-USR inverters with inte-
grated automatic rapid shutdown. These inverters do not replace the standard SE14.4K-US and
SE33.3K-US models that allow installation with or without a kit for manual rapid shutdown.
SolarEdge / 510.498.3200 / solaredge.com

12 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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QA Quality Assurance

Retrofitting Non-Isolated Inverters in

Legacy Arrays

T
he aging fleet of fuse-grounded need to install a non-isolated inverter issues surrounding PV system ground-
string inverters presents a in place of a failed transformer-isolated ing in accordance with the NEC. Prior
potential challenge for service model. This new inverter is much more to approximately 2012, most PV sys-
providers since the industry has largely attractive than old stock, since it carries tems in the US included transformers
transitioned to non-isolated inverters. a valid manufacturer’s warranty and to isolate the grounded ac grid from
Prior to 2012, the vast majority of inter- offers enhanced safety features, such the grounded dc conductors. These
active inverters fielded in North America as dc arc-fault detection and superior isolation transformers are expensive,
utilized a traditional fuse-grounded ground-fault protection. However, inefficient and heavy. To eliminate the
isolation transformer–based topology. some AHJs could interpret the National isolation transformer and still connect
Since then, non-isolated string invert- Electrical Code in ways that effectively a PV system to the grounded utility
ers have become the de facto industry disallow this inverter upgrade. grid, inverter manufacturers must
standard in residential and commercial In this article, I examine relevant remove the system grounding bond on
applications. This evolution is because Code requirements, including revisions the dc side, as shown in Figure 1.
transformerless inverters offer improved introduced in NEC 2017, and provide Technically, a PV system that has
performance—in terms of both cost and recommendations about how solar had the isolation transformer removed
efficiency—and improved safety relative companies and AHJs can move forward is classified as non-isolated. However,
to older transformer-based models. on this issue. Replacing legacy fuse- many PV practitioners refer to these
As fuse-grounded inverters reach grounded PV inverters with currently systems as ungrounded since the
the end of their warranty term, which available non-isolated inverters not ground bond to the dc conductors is
is typically between 5 and 10 years, only is consistent with the most recent intentionally removed. This terminol-
end-of-life failures occur with increas- Code revisions, but also is allowed ogy use is unfortunate, as it is inac-
ing frequency. The challenge for service under previous editions. curate to describe non-isolated PV
personnel is that direct replacement systems interconnected to grounded ac
models are not available for any Brief History of PV System services as ungrounded. Because most
inverter that is more than 5 years old, Grounding utility services in the US are grounded,
unless you uncover new old stock via The basic concern about retrofitting and most non-isolated PV inverters
a secondary market such as eBay. As non-isolated inverters in legacy PV require installation on a grounded
a result, service personnel generally arrays arises from the conceptual ac service, typical non-isolated PV

+
+ Vs
Vs -
- +
+
Vin
Vin - +
-
+ Vs
Vs -
-

Transformer-isolated inverter Non-isolated inverter

Figure 1 The transformer-isolated inverter on the left provides galvanic isolation between the dc and ac electrical systems; the
non-isolated inverter on the right is bonded to earth via the ac electrical system under normal operating conditions. Under the
ground-fault conditions shown here, the non-isolated inverter vastly improves fault sensitivity and fault energy levels.

14 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
systems in the US are grounded via is to retrofit a non-isolated
the ac service when operational; these
The fault energy required to clear a inverter, which is the pre-
systems are ungrounded only when ferred approach.
nonoperational.
ground fault is 3,000 times greater Transformer-isolated option.
This ungrounded-when-non- Inverter manufacturers have
operational state is no different from
in a legacy residential inverter system generally phased out the
what occurs in a fuse-grounded PV production of transformer-
system when the ground-fault fuse
than in a system with a non-isolated isolated inverters in favor
blows. According to NEC Section of safer and cheaper non-
690.5(B)(2) and interactive inverter
string inverter. isolated models. However,
certification standards, a PV system you can occasionally find
with a blown ground-fault fuse must safety hazard, as its ground-fault new old stock or lightly used
“cease to supply power to output cir- detector is 50 times more sensitive replacement inverters on eBay or in the
cuits.” After a ground fault is detected than that of the fuse-grounded system. dusty corner of someone’s warehouse.
and interrupted in this manner, fuse- Unfortunately, any inverter that is
grounded PV systems are ungrounded Legacy vs. New Single-Phase more that 5 years old will not have dc
and nonoperational. By comparison, Inverters arc-fault detection, which is a standard
PV systems with non-isolated invert- As legacy transformer-isolated invert- feature on new non-isolated string
ers enter this ungrounded-when- ers fail, O&M providers have two inverters since undetected dc arc faults
nonoperational state every night after options for getting the PV system present a potential fire hazard.
disconnecting from the utility grid. back on line. The first option is to find In addition, the older inverter has
Most importantly, the non-isolated a transformer-isolated inverter that a very simple ground-fault protection
system does not present a fault or works with the array. The second option system that uses a 1 A fuse, located in

Drive One. | ironridge.com/ufo

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 15
 QA
the grounded conductor-to-ground Fuse grounded ≠
bond, to detect and interrupt dc solidly grounded
ground faults. A ground fault with Legacy transformer-
1,500 mA of current will clear (open) isolated inverters
this 1 A fuse in about one minute. By have an in-line fuse,
comparison, the ground-fault detec- as shown here, in the
tor in a non-isolated string inverter grounded conductor-
will trip at 30 mA of ground current in to-ground bond.
less than one second. Based on these Technically, this does
detection levels and clearing times, not meet the solidly
the fault energy required to clear a grounded definition in
ground fault is 3,000 times greater in Article 100 of the NEC.
a legacy residential inverter system
than in a system with a non-isolated
S h a wn S c h re in e r

string inverter.
Non-isolated inverter option. Newer
non-isolated inverters clearly provide
a far safer PV system. However, differ-
ing opinions about system grounding
classifications and requirements Non-Isolated ≠ Ungrounded When you connect a non-isolated
may complicate this option. Since In 2005, the Code-Making Panel (CMP) inverter to a grounded ac service, the
I regularly work with AHJs, I have responsible for Article 690 introduced system is grounded whenever the
posed the following question to them Section 690.35, “Ungrounded PV inverter is operating. Therefore, the
many times: “If an existing PV sys- Power Systems.” A close reading of proper application of the NEC does
tem experiences an inverter failure the language makes it clear that these not require implementing 690.35
and a contractor pulls a permit that ungrounded PV system requirements (A) through (G) for non-isolated PV
includes replacing the failed inverter, do not apply to systems deployed with systems connected to grounded ac ser-
would you accept the installation of non-isolated inverters: “Photovoltaic vices. Until recently, most engineers did
a safer inverter even though some power systems shall be allowed to not recognize this ac service–ground
engineers consider the repaired operate with ungrounded PV source connection as a PV system ground.
system ungrounded rather than and output circuits where the system As a result, PV systems deployed
solidly grounded?” complies with 690.35(A) through (G)” with non-isolated inverters are
I get a fairly consistent response [emphasis added]. widely misidentified as ungrounded
to this question. If the new PV system
Non-isolated vs.
is safer, most AHJs will approve the
ungrounded Non-isolated
proposed installation based on the fol-
inverters, such as this
lowing language in NEC Section 90.4:
7.6 kW model from
“By special permission, the authority
SolarEdge, are connected
having jurisdiction may waive specific
to ground via the ac
requirements in this Code or permit
electrical system during
alternative methods where it is assured
operation. By contrast,
that equivalent objectives can be
truly ungrounded invert-
achieved by establishing and maintain-
ers, which are rarely used
ing effective safety.”
outside of utility-scale
Via this allowance, even AHJs who
applications in Europe,
believe that non-isolated inverters
Co u r t es y F re ed o m S o l ar

employ a continuous
are subject to ungrounded PV system
ground resistance tester to
requirements can approve the use of
ensure that resistance to
non-isolated inverters for retrofit pur-
earth remains high, mean-
poses. It is also possible to show that
ing that they have literally
ungrounded requirements simply do
no connection to ground.
not apply in this scenario.

16 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
PV systems. This is a misnomer. effectively rules out the use of USE-2 in accordance with 250.4(A).” Since
Ungrounded systems operate without conductors in these systems. non-isolated inverter systems fit this
a connection to earth; non-isolated This latter requirement had the description, they are technically not
inverter systems are connected to effect of slowing the adoption of non- subject to the ungrounded PV system
earth when operating, but floating in isolated inverters in the US. While requirements in 690.35. Therefore, it is
reference to earth when not operating. nearly all PV modules sold today have fully acceptable to retrofit non-isolated
Unfortunately, this misnomer is also PV Wire cable whips, this was not inverters in legacy PV arrays, even
ubiquitous. For several years, most solar always the case. Prior to 2013, very few those deployed using standard wiring
professionals and AHJs have diligently, PV modules were manufactured with methods for grounded PV systems.
if mistakenly, applied 690.35(A) through PV Wire cables. Since older PV modules Since this was not clear to many AHJs
(G) to non-isolated inverter systems. are unlikely to have PV Wire cables, and solar practitioners, Code-Making
Ungrounded system require- some jurisdictions have questioned Panel 4 (CMP 4) addressed this as part
ments. The practical requirements whether they should allow retrofit of the 2017 cycle of revisions.
for ungrounded PV systems are installations of non-isolated inverters System grounding in NEC 2017.
well known to solar practitioners. in legacy PV arrays. The most recent edition of the NEC
Subsection 690.35(A) requires discon- Alternative means of compliance. The resolves the confusion regarding
necting means in both poles of the NEC has long addressed alternative grounded versus ungrounded system
array for ungrounded PV source and methods of system grounding for PV grounding designations. CMP 4 intro-
output circuits; 690.35(B) likewise power sources. Since the mid-1990s, duced a term used in Europe—func-
requires overcurrent protection in Section 690.41 has allowed for the use tional grounded PV system—which NEC
both poles of the array. Meanwhile, of solidly grounded systems as well 690.2 defines as having “an electrical
690.35(D) mandates the use of PV Wire as systems that “use other methods reference to ground that is not solidly
for exposed single conductors, which that accomplish equivalent protection grounded.” An informational note

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 QA
Modules with either USE-2 or Type PV Wire interconnect cables

Disconnecting means
opens both poles
of PV power circuit

PV output circuit to
transformer-isolated or
non-isolated inverter

PV +
PV –
Overcurrent protection in one pole of PV power circuit only
(note that it does not matter which pole has OCPD)

Figure 2 This line drawing illustrates the unified installation standards for functional grounded PV systems. Note that NEC 2017
allows for both USE-2 and PV Wire single-conductor cable, regardless of inverter topology.

clarifies that both PV systems with The USE-2/RHW-2 cable installed Where existing USE-2/RHW-2 con-
fuse-grounded inverters and those with within these arrays is perfectly good ductors are identified in this manner,
non-isolated inverters meet the defini- and is safe for the operating life of service personnel can simply remove or
tion of a functional grounded PV system. the PV system. NEC 2017, the most cover the white marking. In the event
In addition to adding this new system recently adopted Code edition, sup- that existing conductors have white
grounding definition, CMP 4 eliminated ports this practice. insulation, I recommend re-identifying
Section 690.35, “Ungrounded PV Power 2. If the existing array has white wires these white conductors by some suit-
Systems,” in its entirety. for the previously grounded conductors, able means rather than removing and
These changes mean that all PV sys- simply re-identify these as ungrounded reinstalling new conductors, based on
tems are subject to the same installation conductors. Whereas one pole of legacy the precedence that 200.6(A)(6) sets
requirements under NEC 2017, regard- transformer-isolated PV arrays is con- for the re-identification of small PV
less of inverter topology. As detailed nected to ground via a fuse, both poles system conductors.
in Figure 2, these unified installation of non-isolated PV arrays are balanced 3. Installing a dc disconnect that opens
standards are as follows: overcurrent on either side of the ac ground reference. both positive and negative poles of the PV
protection is required in one leg of a PV This means that a PV array operating array will bring the existing system into
circuit only [690.9(C)]; disconnecting at 300 Vdc has a voltage to ground of full compliance with NEC 2017. While not
means are required in both legs of a PV 150 Vdc for both the positive and the required in existing installations, the
circuit [690.15]; and both USE-2 and negative poles. In other words, neither safest and best approach is to replace
PV Wire are allowed as single-conductor conductor is at ground potential even the dc disconnect on each inverter
cable in a PV array [690.31(C)]. though the circuit is referenced to with one that opens both the positive
ground through the grounded ac service and negative poles of the PV array. You
Recommended Practices transformer. Since neither pole of the can easily rewire even the standard
Based on this understanding of existing array is intentionally grounded, service Square D HU361 disconnect used on
Code requirements and factoring in the personnel should re-identify any dc many thousands of systems to open
relevant changes introduced in NEC conductors with a white marking or both positive and negative conductors.
2017, I recommend the following prac- insulation, since these wires will no This practice makes the inverter much
tices when retrofitting non-isolated longer be at ground potential. safer to service in the event of a ground
inverters in place of legacy transformer- Prior to the introduction of non- fault. Fortunately, most replacement
isolated inverters. isolated inverters, installers com- inverters on the market today have an
1. There is no need to replace existing monly used white markings to identify integral dc disconnect that opens both
USE-2/RWH-2 cables with PV Wire. PV intentionally grounded conductors in a poles. It is very easy and straightfor-
systems installed more than 3 years PV array. This practice was intended to ward, therefore, to upgrade an existing
ago are unlikely to have PV Wire cable meet NEC Section 200.6, which includes PV array for full compliance with the
whips or source-circuit conductors. It a special allowance for re-identifying newest edition of the NEC.
is not possible to retrofit these mod- grounded single conductors in PV syst- —Bill Brooks / Brooks Engineering /
ules with PV Wire, nor is it necessary. ems with a white marking [200.6(A)(6)]. Vacaville, CA / brooksolar.com

18 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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C ou r te sy S OLV

Soiling Assessment in Larg

How much revenue is a soiled PV
array losing, and at what point does it By Sanjay Shrestha and Mat Taylor
make sense to wash the array?

O
wners, developers, bankers and O&M providers all interesting discoveries and some dead ends. We have based
want to know when it makes sense to clean a PV most of our research on utility-scale PV plants with high dc-
array to recapture revenue that it would otherwise to-ac ratios in sunny, arid locations. These plants are subject
lose due to soiled modules. On the one hand, an to a unique set of circumstances: They spend a lot of time at
overly soiled array represents a loss of money. On full power, have relatively steady soiling rates and are rarely
the other, a premature cleaning represents a waste of money. exposed to enough rain to significantly clean the modules.
While you must consider many variables to reach a definitive
washing decision, the economics of module washing are not
complex: If having a clean array saves more money than it Energy Recapture
costs to wash the array, then washing it probably makes sense. It is difficult to assess soiling and to determine when to
This article shares some of our analyses and observations wash an array because doing so requires a multi-variable
on array soiling drawn from many years of operational experi- equation. Every analysis is unique, based on a host of
ence. We have had successes and failures, which have led to project-specific mitigating factors such as technology

20 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
 energy for a given time period compared
to the energy that could have been har-
vested over the same time period with a
fully clean array. This term describes the
energy that is available for recapture,
which correlates directly to unrealized
revenue. To differentiate between these
two concepts, we need to quantify the
amount of time that a PV power plant
spends at or near full power.
Power limiting in PV arrays. It is common
practice to deploy PV systems with a high
array-to-inverter power ratio in an attempt
to capture more energy and revenue. As a
result of these high dc-to-ac loading ratios,
many inverters spend a lot of time operat-
ing at full power, which forces the array off
its maximum power point.
Extended periods of power limiting
result in a characteristic flat-topped power
curve, which people commonly refer to as
power clipping. The more time a PV system
operates at full power, the less concern is
warranted over soiling. Soiling abatement
is effective only if you can recapture the
lost energy, which requires unused inverter
capacity. The returns are diminished in PV
systems with chronically clipped power
profiles, because an inverter operating at
full power cannot increase its output power
based on an incremental increase in irra-

e-Scale PV Arrays
diance. If soiling is viewed as an effective
reduction in plane-of-array (POA) irradi-
ance, then a 5% increase in irradiance can
overcome a 5% soiling level. For example,
if a given inverter hits maximum output at
a POA irradiance of 800 W/m2 under clean
choices, racking configuration, inverter loading, PPA rates, array conditions, then it follows that power
time-of-day profiles, interconnection agreements and so clipping will start at 840 W/m2 in the 5% soiled case. Above 840
forth. This means that there is no single right answer when W/m2, the percent soiling literally becomes a moot point.
it comes to the economics of washing. The methods for Figure 1 (p. 22) illustrates this point by comparing seasonal
soiling analysis are as varied as the business model behind POA irradiance and plant production curves for the same
the PV plant, so each solution uses a unique combination PV system. The flat-topped curves on the left, labeled “Day 1
of people, tools and number crunching. What all effective (August),” illustrate how the plant operates at full power for
soiling analyses have in common, however, is that they dis- extended periods of time under high POA irradiance typical of
tinguish between percent soiling and percent energy loss due summer. The curves on the right, labeled “Day 2 (November),”
to soiling. While the former is easier to quantify, it may not illustrate how the array operates below full power all day long
correlate to unrealized revenue. under partially overcast conditions in the autumn. To com-
For the purposes of this article, we define percent soiling pare the percent energy loss due to soiling for Day 1 versus
as the reduction of expected output power between soiled Day 2, we first have to filter out the time spent at full power, as
dc source circuits (modules, strings, arrays) compared to the no energy is available for recapture during these hours.
same source circuits under clean conditions. In field terms, Table 1 (p. 22) presents these filtered results. Compared
percent soiling describes the ratio of dirty to clean IV-curve to baseline values for a clean array, the percent soiling is
traces, extrapolated to nameplate power under standard roughly the same on Day 1 and Day 2 (3.7% versus 3.6%).
test conditions (STC). Meanwhile, we define percent energy However, we can recapture energy only during hours when
loss due to soiling as the difference between the metered the PV plant is not power limiting. This leads to a slightly

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 21
 Soiling Assessment

110 1,200 Figure 1 This figure shows

% output based on point of interconnection limit

100 1,100 PV plant output (red) and

90 1,000 irradiance (blue) for a typical

Plane-of-array irradiance (W/m2)

80
900 sunny day in August versus
800 a partially cloudy day in
70
700 November. Though the inci-
60
600 dent energy is higher on
50
500 Day 1, Table 1 indicates that
40
400 more energy is available for
30
300
recapture on Day 2.
20 200
10 100

0 0
Day 1 (August) Day 2 (November)

counterintuitive result: Even though the incident energy on that compare the actual output of a naturally soiled PV refer-
Day 1 is nearly twice that on Day 2 (10.4 kWh/m2 versus 5.3 ence module to the expected output of a clean PV reference
kWh/m2), the percent energy lost and the net energy lost due device. Some soiling sensors use short-circuit current (Isc) as
to soiling are greater on Day 2. This means that Day 2 pres- the basis of comparison; others incorporate a microinverter
ents the better opportunity for revenue recapture via wash- and compare maximum power point values (Vmp, Imp, Pmp);
ing, even though the available solar resource value is lower. some devices use a hybrid technique that compensates for tem-
The challenge associated with soiling assessment is perature and normalizes results to STC. All of these approaches
that we need to extrapolate this analysis to the near opera- yield a high-quality data stream that you can easily use to assess
tional future for a PV power plant. The estimate concern- the soiling level of the modules in the test rig.
ing the future mix of clear, cloudy or overcast days is what IV-curve tracers. To get the best possible in situ soiling mea-
determines the economics of module washing. A host of surements, put a good IV-curve tracer in the hands of a com-
models and methods are available to predict and back- petent technician. Curve tracing is slow but definitive. You can
calculate the energy available for recapture, including compare PV source-circuit curve traces to STC or use a dirty
hourly energy models, exceedance probability calculations versus clean approach. As long as technicians capture a repre-
and regression analyses. Regardless of the methodology sentative set of IV-curve traces under roughly the same condi-
used, you must account for inverter power limiting and tions, the results of the study will be accurate and useful. While
have an accurate estimate of percent soiling. it is quick and easy to analyze these IV-curve data, it is incum-
bent on the technicians to choose representative strings to test
Direct Soiling Measurements in the field.
The best way to estimate percent soiling is to measure it Other devices. Another option that works well is to use
directly: Test the array, wash it, and test it again. While the instruments that measure short-circuit C O N T I N U E D O N P A G E 2 4
process is time-consuming, there is
no disputing the results. Soiling sen-
sors and IV-curve tracers are proven
Operational Data Comparison
tools for getting an accurate answer
Ratio of Net
to the question “How dirty are my Energy Energy energy Percent Percent energy
modules?” It is also possible to use Incident Metered produced produced produced at soiling energy lost due
other devices, such as short-circuit energy energy at MPPT at full power MPPT vs. (versus loss due to soiling
(kWh/m2) (MWh) (MWh) (MWh) full power baseline) to soiling (MWh)
testers, to get a general estimate of
Day 1
soiling levels. Just keep in mind that 10.4 193.1 66.5 126.6 65.5% 3.7 1.3 2.6
(August)
additional data analysis and filter-
Day 2
ing is required to extrapolate from 5.3 126.5 126.5 0 0.0% 3.6 3.5 4.8
(November)
percent soiling to percent energy loss
due to soiling. Table 1 These values, derived from 5-minute interval operational data, illustrate that
Soiling sensors. Soiling sensors are more energy is available for recapture via array washing on days when the PV plant is
essentially stand-alone evaluation tools not operating at full power for extended periods of time.

22 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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 Soiling Assessment

current or operating current, or that can extrapolate mea-

sured data to a baseline condition—such as PVUSA Test
Conditions (PTC) or STC—to estimate percent soiling. Since
these devices are not explicitly intended to perform soiling
measurements, the correlation process is left to you. However,
the process does not need to be complex. A simple multimeter
with a current loop sensor is sufficient to get a general idea of
soiling conditions. If necessary, you can assess soiling with a
Fluke meter, a few gallons of water and a squeegee.

C ou r te sy Ato no me tr i c s
SOILING TRANSFER FUNCTION
Soiling stations, IV-curve traces and other assessments that
compare “before” (dirty) and “after” (clean) conditions give
an excellent indication of the soiling conditions on a specific
set of modules or test array. The trick is to take data from
these devices and extrapolate it twice: once to generalize Soiling sensor One way to quantify the site-specific effects
the entire plant’s soiling condition, and once more to infer of soiling in PV power plants is to use a soiling measurement
how much the measured soiling will affect energy produc- system such as this one from Atonometrics.
tion or performance. We call this the soiling transfer func-
tion. Direct soiling measurement is a great start, but it is a does not correlate directly to energy lost due to soiling when
rare instance where the estimated percent soiling value will PV plants spend a lot of time operating at maximum power.
reflect an equal (or even proportional) percent decrease in To complete the soiling transfer function from percent
production. As illustrated in Table 1 (p. 22), percent soiling soiling to percent energy loss due to soiling, you need to

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24 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
filter the operational data strategically. The data filtering Establishing a clean plant baseline is more of a process
process can be as simple as removing power clipping points, than an event. The logical opportunity to obtain a baseline
which has the effect of constraining the evaluation to peri- for an entire plant is at the time of initial back-feed, testing
ods of MPPT operation. You can also apply additional filters and commissioning. If you want to get two detailed answers
to remove spurious data points that may muddy the results, at once, you can perform a full-plant baseline characteriza-
such as measurements associated with low POA irradiance, tion in parallel with performance testing, which is ideal.
unstable irradiance or excessive wind speeds. Once you have However, you can establish a baseline at any system level,
obtained field measurements and filtered the operational over any duration of time and under any operating condi-
data, you just need something with which to compare these tions. Nothing is lost if you are unable to characterize some
to estimate percent energy loss due to soiling. parts and pieces at commissioning. You can always revisit
and recalibrate these parts later and make sure that they fit
PLANT BASELINE the general performance trend once they are up and run-
The best way to estimate the impact of soiling is to compare ning. As long as you restore malfunctioning blocks to opera-
operational data to plant performance under clean condi- tion and characterize their performance using the same
tions, which we refer to as the plant baseline. Obtaining measurement methods, the baseline will be accurate and
a performance baseline is a process of characterizing useful despite its piecemeal assembly.
the electrical performance of source circuits, combiners, There are various means of applying the baseline. The
inverters or an entire plant and isolating these data for fre- simplest form—comparing dirty versus clean perfor-
quent comparison. The goal of establishing a baseline is to mance—is effective for both long- and short-term analyses.
understand how the system or subsystem performs under By characterizing the plant according to its big pieces, such
known operating conditions when the array is free of faults as inverters, skids or ac collection circuits, you can compare
and unsoiled. Generally speaking, a rough plant baseline is these results to one another, normalize dirty results against
good enough. the clean baseline and make informed decisions about soil

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 25
 Soiling Assessment

110

100
Percent output from baseline

90

80
Slope is the daily soiling
rate or soil buildup rate
70

Plant performance went back to

60
100% of baseline after washing

Rain (mm)
50

0 5 10 15
40
Figure 2 ThisFebruary
figure shows plant-level
March performance
April in relation
May to the plant baseline over
June an 8-monthAugust
July period of time. Note that
September
soil buildup is roughly linear until the array is cleaned, which restores full performance.

abatement. You can express the baseline in whatever terms configuration differences. Soiling analysis has to quantify or
best suit your goals, such as specific yield (kWh/kW) or transcend these factors to reach a reasonable conclusion.
energy output in relation to POA irradiance. The latter is To illustrate the challenge: A POA irradiance sensor might
useful if you need to tie actual performance back to expected have an accuracy of ±1.0%; ac power measurement transduc-
performance based on an energy model. ers are typically accurate within ±0.2%; dc transducers are
Since assumptions, data resolution and as-built conditions rarely better than ±1.0% accurate; secondary measurements,
constrain energy models, we strongly recommend that you use such as temperature and wind speed, have ±2% accuracies at
operational data rather than modeled plant behavior as the basis best. These measurement errors typically compound rather
of comparison. Whereas an energy model describes how the than cancel one other. Compounded, these uncertainties sug-
plant is supposed to behave, measured data describe how gest that isolating a few percentage points of performance
the plant actually behaves. In broad terms, energy modeling loss using gear with measurement errors of a few percent can
software applies soiling assumptions as an effective monthly produce dubious results.
reduction in POA irradiance and essentially stops there. The net result is that a thorough soiling analysis could
One-month averages for soiling levels can shore up produc- very well estimate that modules are 4.5% soiled, plus or
tion and revenue models, but they have little to say about minus 2%. Given these uncertainties, module washing may
soiling events, differential energy impacts or soiling rates in or may not be cost effective. While no one likes this type of
general. As a result, the input/output resolution for an energy answer, it is often the case that soiling analysis results have a
model is far less precise than it is for most operational datasets. high degree of uncertainty.

ACCURACY
End use and accuracy drive the baseline characterization Practical Application
method. Production losses can be very subtle, typically only We recommend a relatively simple five-step approach for
a few percentage points, before they become noticeable, so isolating the effects of soiling on energy production based
accuracy is vitally important to tying production losses spe- on measured data from operating PV plants. The method-
cifically to soiling. ology uses a comparison to a baseline as a means of assess-
The simplest characterization method is to catalog plant ing the production that the array might have achieved if
production at the meter as well as measured irradiance in it had been completely clean and operating perfectly. The
the plane of array. Since this obviously ignores thermal dif- specific implementation of this methodology depends on
ferences within the array, for increased accuracy you may plant type, capacity and the monitoring solution. However,
need to apply a temperature compensation to account for you can apply this method at almost any plant level using
deviations from weather station conditions. You also need to similar techniques.
remove or ignore performance issues that are not related to Step 1: Catalog all IV-curve traces and other string-
soiling, such as module degradation, equipment failures and level commissioning tests to establish C O N T I N U E D O N P A G E 2 8

26 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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 Soiling Assessment

source-circuit behavior with respect to nameplate power. Plant level. Figure 2 (p. 26) shows an example of a long-
This step provides a consistent reference dataset that you duration soiling analysis. We cataloged these data over an
can revisit when using periodic string testing for perfor- 8-month period, and they capture a few isolated rain events
mance assessments. as well as a complete array cleaning. We have filtered t he
Step 2: When commissioning the array and conducting datasets from each for clipping and reported them as per-
energy performance tests, establish plant-level and inverter- cent of baseline. Although these daily values have quite a
level baselines using high-resolution data. These baselines bit of variance and error, the soiling accumulation trend
should isolate trend data for clipping and nonclipping pro- is undeniable. While the rain events mitigated soiling only
duction as a function of POA irradiance and should be nor- marginally, the wash effectively r ehabilitated t he a rrays t o
malized to dc capacity by inverter. You can complete this step full potential.
in pieces, if need be, updating the baselines as more data- With any macro-level assessment, especially on larger
sets become available. The key is to characterize a clean, fullyplants, you must level out or ignore some asymmetries and
operational plant. performance issues with strategic math. The end result is an
accurate model of how the plant turns photons
at the modules into energy at the meter. You can
“On utility-scale solar power plants, a change in the parse this type of baseline into subsections, per-
soiling loss of a couple percent per year can easily haps by combiner, inverter, skid or ac collection
mean a couple million in the price we pay for the circuit. Regardless of the scale, the concept is the
same and provides an adequate assessment of per-
project. It would be great to get enough on-site formance in an ongoing manner. You can employ
empirical data from soiling measurement stations and repeat this dirty versus clean comparison to
to get a P50 soiling loss estimate for big projects.” baseline under any circumstance and recalibrate
the whole process after a full array cleaning.
—Jon Previtali, VP environmental finance, Wells Fargo Inverter level. Inverter-level assessments are a
subset of whole-plant characterization but with
higher data resolution. The key to this level of anal-
Step 3: Track plant performance using trend data from ysis is to establish a unique baseline for each inverter under
the time of (clean) commissioning through operations. clean and fully operational conditions. Inverter-level com-
Using the same filters employed to establish the baseline, parisons are useful for identifying the impacts of differential
determine approximate soiling levels while the plant oper- soiling across the whole plant.
ates (as time, data and weather allow). For example, Table 2 compares inverter-level data,
Step 4: If you suspect excessive soiling, perform a series reported as “percent inverter-specific energy compared to
of string-level field measurements before and after washing, baseline,” for a large-scale PV plant with differential soil-
and compare these results to the commissioning data. Next, ing. Most, but not all, of the arrays at this site are subject to
compare these measured results to the soiling estimates rapid soiling from an adjacent road and farm field. By track-
generated from trend data with the appropriate clipping ing inverter-level data, we can isolate soiling by location or
filters applied. Establish the correlation between the mea- overall contribution to lost energy. In this particular case,
sured and modeled results for future use. the soiling was profound enough to trigger a full wash cycle.
Step 5: When field measurements and data analysis align— If the differential soiling analysis had indicated that soiling
and when the comparison to baseline indicates that energy affected less of the plant overall, we could have focused our
recapture will be cost effective—then it is time to schedule a maintenance activities more selectively, perhaps electing to
wash. Over time, take advantage of these full-array washing wash only arrays associated with specific inverters.
opportunities to recalibrate the baseline, the energy model Combiner level. We can further increase data granularity and
and so forth. resolution by evaluating dc input current at the subarray level,
which effectively facilitates combiner-level assessments. While
EXAMPLE ANALYSES this approach makes it easy to diagnose the effects of differen-
The following examples illustrate how you can use baseline tial soiling on an individual inverter, the real beauty of combiner
comparisons to isolate soiling conditions. We have taken analysis is that it provides a built-in method of validation. If all
all examples from utility-scale plants with multiple central of the subarray inputs are showing the same thing, as in Figure
inverters in sunny, arid locations. We have summarized and 3 (p. 30), our confidence in soiling assessments improves. The
annotated each case to show how you can apply the same increased granularity also makes it easier to track incremental
methodology at various scales. changes from the baseline. C O N T I N U E D O N PA G E 3 0

28 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
Differential Soiling Analysis
Percent specific energy per inverter as compared to baseline

Day Inv 1 Inv 2 Inv 3 Inv 4 Inv 5 Inv 6 Inv 7 Inv 8 Inv 9 Inv 10 Inv 11 Inv 12 Inv 13 Inv 14 Inv 15 Inv 16 Notes

8/22 88.4 96.4 84.8 85.6 94.9 86.8 87.8 87.7 89.3 90.5 90.3 88.8 88.4 89.3 92.0 93.1 Measured
data before
8/23 88.2 97.3 85.3 86.1 95.6 86.9 87.1 86.4 89.0 90.5 90.4 88.9 88.5 89.6 91.5 91.6 the wash

8/24 87.7 101.2 100.4 100.0 99.9 88.8 86.7 85.6 88.3 90.0 89.8 88.4 100.8 100.8 90.9 91.9
Measured
8/25 99.0 100.0 99.1 99.2 98.8 98.4 98.9 87.7 87.3 88.8 88.7 87.2 99.9 99.7 90.0 90.9 data during
the wash
8/26 100.9 102.3 101.8 101.6 101.4 100.7 100.9 98.0 99.4 100.2 93.4 92.5 101.9 101.7 97.9 101.4

8/27 100.8 101.6 101.6 101.5 101.1 100.7 100.8 100.8 100.5 101.1 101.5 100.8 101.8 101.6 101.2 102.5 Measured
data after
8/28 99.3 100.0 100.2 100.4 99.6 99.4 99.5 99.5 99.4 100.0 100.3 99.8 100.7 100.5 100.2 101.6 the wash

Table 2 This table details the daily performance of each inverter in a large-scale PV system relative to its baseline before, dur-
ing and after a full wash cycle. After washing, each inverter achieves its performance baseline. However, the baseline for some
individual inverters—most notably Inverter 16—may need recalibration.

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solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 29
 Soiling Assessment

100

Percent combiner box (CB) output

80

String level. Because it pro-

vides the highest-resolution 60

data possible, string-level

analysis is the alpha and the
omega—the first step and 40

Soiled CB
Clean CB
Baseline
the final step—of an effec-
tive performance assessment.
20
Since most large-scale PV
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16
B-

B-

B-

B-

B-

B-

B-

B-

B-
systems do not have string-

B-

B-

B-

B-

B-

B-

B-
C

C
level monitoring, cataloging Figure 3 This figure shows subarray performance in relation to combiner-level baselines
source-circuit performance before and after a cleaning. While the return to baseline after washing is inexact, the increase
generally requires field tests. in production is measurable, which is what matters most.
Though string-level testing
demands high-quality tools and competent technicians, the our washing decisions. This process of continuous improve-
data produced are effective for establishing a baseline or ment is essential to effective soiling assessment.
calibrating the energy metrics and assumptions used at all
other levels of analysis. SPECIAL CASES
You can use these string-level data to calibrate indepen- Dust storms, intermittent construction activity, unusually
dent soiling sensors. You can also apply string-level dirty ver- heavy traffic and sporadic agricultural activity are exam-
sus clean results, such as those shown in Figure 4, to historical ples of event-based soiling. When soiling gets very bad—or
data or to a before-and-after cleaning analysis. In this figure, when it gets a lot worse in a hurry due to a soiling event—
the raw trace data, based on in situ irradiance, are shown in strange things start to happen in terms of plant behavior.
green; the curves in red correct these field measurements to Module soiling can reach a point where the fundamental
STC; the blue curves, meanwhile, show the ideal I-V curve for electrical characteristics of the dc array change dramati-
the source circuit at STC. These dirty versus clean traces pro- cally, so much so that it sometimes forces inverters out of
vide a good indication of the energy available for recapture maximum power point tracking. These results are most
at the string level, which we can extrapolate to larger perfor- common in neglected PV plants where extreme soiling
mance blocks. causes blocking diodes in the modules to engage, which
An ideal use for field measurements is to calibrate soil- can completely confuse the inverter.
ing analyses in relation to operational data. This process Really bad soiling almost precludes analysis. The electri-
involves comparing IV-curves to soiling station data and cal behavior of a PV plant becomes less predictable and per-
other soiling metrics. To the extent that we can draw corre- formance suffers, but it can be difficult to quantify how bad
lations, we can triangulate these datasets and better inform the problem is and how much energy the C O N T I N U E D O N P A G E 3 2

9 9
Ideal STC Ideal STC
8 ISC Raw = 8.58 A 8 ISC Raw = 8.71 A
ISC STC = 8.49 A STC ISC STC = 8.87 A STC
7 ISC NOM = 8.99 A ISC NOM = 8.99 A
7
IMPP Raw = 8.18 A IMPP Raw = 8.13 A
6 IMPP STC = 8.19 A 6 IMPP STC = 8.39 A
Current (A)

Raw
Current (A)

IMPP NOM = 8.52 A IMPP NOM = 8.52 A Raw

5 5
UOC Raw = 789 V UOC Raw = 783 V
UOC STC = 906 V UOC STC = 913 V
4 UOC NOM = 916 V 4 UOC NOM = 916 V

3 UMPP Raw = 612 V 3 UMPP Raw = 609 V

UMPP STC = 720 V UMPP STC = 730 V
2 UMPP NOM = 728 V UMPP NOM = 728 V
2
P Raw = 5008 W P Raw = 4953 W
1 P STC = 5897 W 1 P STC = 6125 W
P NOM = 6200 W P NOM = 6200 W
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
Figure 4 These I-V curve traces are for the same source circuit under dirty (left) versus clean (right) conditions. From an energy
recapture perspective, we are particularly interested in the gap between the red and blue curves at the maximum power point,
which is considerably larger under dirty conditions.

30 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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 Soiling Assessment

soiling measurements and the unpredictability of

the results.
Case 1. After measuring overall soiling of a PV
plant at around 4%, the owner scheduled wash-
ing. Before the wash, a short-duration rain event
occurred, so the owner asked us to investigate
to see whether the rain had cleaned the modules
enough to justify delaying the capital expense of a
Co ur te sy SO LV

full wash. By our calculations, the rain event actu-

ally increased soiling to more than 5%, calling the
entire chain of decisions, as well as our analytical
Abjectly soiled arrays Dust storms or agricultural activities can result
approach, into question.
Case 2. In an attempt to quantify soiling, we con-
in soiling so severe that the basic electrical characteristics of the array
become unpredictable. In the case pictured here, an O&M technician
ducted a series of before-and-after IV-curve traces
reported that the tracker tables “looked like raised bed planters.”
across a plant. Our strategic plan called for washing
selected strings of modules across a representative
plant is losing. Such conditions combine significant energy set of arrays on assorted inverters to quantify a measurable
shortfall with chaotic behavior. While we can measure the difference. The curve traces showed less than 1% soiling on
lost energy, we cannot directly discern the reasons for the loss. some strings and more than 7% on others, with a relatively
This complicates the process of troubleshooting any problems even distribution between these extremes. We recommended
not related to soiling. a full cleaning, and the net performance results after washing
Soiling events are a constant source of panic. Everyone showed a similar distribution of results. However, the over-
wants to know how bad the problem is, but making even a all performance increase was only about 33% of the expected
rough estimate takes at least a day. Rather than rushing to get result, netting a 1.9% increase in production. We had a hard
a washing crew in place based on incomplete information, the time trusting the results, the analysis approach and the wisdom
best approach to soiling events is to send technicians to the of our recommendation to wash.
site to assess the problem via dirty versus clean testing. These Case 3. Cleaners fully washed a plant at night to prevent pro-
strategic test results will quickly provide the answers needed duction losses, which is a reasonable approach. The next morn-
and frequently trigger a wash cycle. ing, while the modules were still cool and wet, the farmer on
Soiling events can also be localized, a situation we call the upwind side of the plant starting tilling fields, which spread
asymmetrical soiling. This occurs when some arrays get a lot a thick dust cloud onto an otherwise clean array. In this case,
dirtier than others. Exterior arrays next to dirt roads or agri- unforeseen farmwork forced another wash cycle.
cultural activity are the most common culprits. Differential These case studies illustrate that attempts to isolate the
soiling across the whole plant skews bulk numbers, especially effects of soiling can be elusive. Soiling effects are design
when you take the soiling assessment measurements from a dependent; geographically varied; simultaneously localized
relatively clean or dirty array. and vastly different between arrays; dependent on geometry,
Since soil detection is intended to generalize soiling con- orientation and array racking configuration; and variable
ditions, you cannot trust the numbers it yields when you are based on the weather or off-site activities. In addition, rain
adapting a general model to an asymmetrical problem. We does not necessarily clean modules very well, if at all. These
call this phenomenon forced mismatch, meaning that uneven factors are not necessarily bad news. Rather, they are limiting
soil deposition creates an imbalanced electrical condition. assumptions that you need to categorize, isolate, quantify and
Here again, the best response is to send out a crew to assess remove from the analysis to begin a valid assessment. Once
the situation, and then back up the findings by comparing fil- you accept that soiling is a chaotic phenomenon, you can
tered operational data to a clean baseline. Asymmetrical soil- begin to see patterns and to learn from the more predictable
ing may make selective module washing a viable option. parts of the problem.

ANOMALOUS RESULTS g C O N TAC T

The next case studies represent rigorous analyses using Sanjay Shrestha / SOLV Performance Team / San Diego, CA /
high-resolution data applied to fully operational plants [email protected] / swinertonrenewable.com/solv
that all ended up with dubious results. Some may call these Mat Taylor / SOLV Performance Team (retired) / San Diego, CA /
war stories; we call them analytical head-scratchers. [email protected] / swinertonrenewable.com/solv
We present them here to illustrate the chaotic nature of

32 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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C ou r te sy Re c u r re n t E n e r gy

1,500 Vdc Utilization

in Ground-Mount Ap
By David Brearley

Next-generation
BY
all accounts, the PV power plant
of the near future is here today and
poised for widespread adoption in
solar farms are 2017. In this article, I provide a brief
overview of the history of 1,500 Vdc
PV systems. After providing an update on applicable codes
utilizing 1,500 V plant and standards, I consider the state of the supply chain and
detail the benefits and tradeoffs associated with 1,500 V

architectures to drive
designs. Finally, I identify some potential challenges associ-
ated with early field deployments.

down BOS costs BRIEF HISTORY OF 1,500 VDC SYSTEMS

EPCs in Europe pioneered 1,500 V plant architectures, just
as they were first to market with 1,000 V PV systems. Belec-

and improve system tric, for example, is an international solar project developer
headquartered in Germany, with a long history of innova-
tion and market firsts such as the construction of the first

performance. thin-film PV system in Europe (2001). According to a com-

pany press release, in June 2012 Belectric constructed and

34 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
n Voltages

C ou r te sy Be le c tr ic
pplications
Pioneering projects In 2012, Belectric connected the
first 1,500 Vdc PV system (top) to the grid. Three years later,
they completed the world’s first 1,500 Vdc roof-mounted
project (bottom).

commissioned the world’s first utility-interactive 1,500 Vdc first 1,500 Vdc AC Power Block at the 52 MW Macho Springs
solar power plant. Power Conversion, a Berlin-based Solar Facility in Deming, New Mexico, in the spring of 2014.
division of GE Energy, supplied the liquid-cooled inverters After monitoring and comparing the performance of this
used to connect the 1,500 Vdc system to the utility grid. 3.6 MWdc array alongside that of 34 other 1,000 Vdc array
Though the Belectric press release does not mention blocks, First Solar decided to prove the efficacy of the concept
the manufacturer’s module technology, context and timing further with even larger AC Power Blocks. Later the same year,
suggests this was likely a pilot project featuring Nanosolar’s First Solar deployed two additional 1,500 Vdc array blocks at the
Utility Panel, as this was the first PV module certified to Barilla Solar Farm in Texas, pushing the power block capacity
1,500 Vdc. Nanosolar famously hyped its now-defunct to 5 MWdc/4 MWac. Based on the results of these pilot projects,
CIGS thin-film product as the technology of choice to First Solar proceeded to shift the vast majority of its projects to
dethrone First Solar. Today, Nanosolar has gone the way of 1,500 V plant architectures in just two years.
Solyndra, and First Solar remains the world’s leading thin- When you consider the broader development and deploy-
film module manufacturer, in part due to its aggressive and ment of 1,500 Vdc systems, the rest of the utility-scale solar
successful development of 1,500 V thin-film modules and pre- industry is not far behind First Solar’s lead. At the risk of
engineered power plant solutions. oversimplification, 2015 was most notable for the widespread
In conjunction with GE Power Conversion, First Solar began release of 1,500 Vdc–rated components—modules, inverters,
publicly touting the benefits of 1,500 Vdc solar arrays in early combiners, fuses and so forth—certified to UL standards. In
2014. According to a technical brief published later that year 2016, a second wave of large-scale project developers, includ-
in PV-Tech Power (see Resources), First Solar commissioned its ing Recurrent Energy, began selectively deploying 1,500 Vdc

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 35
 1,500 V PV Systems

PV systems as a way of testing the waters and

building a knowledge base for the widespread
adoption of 1,500 Vdc systems in 2017.
According to 1,500-Volt PV Systems and
Components 2016–2020 (see Resources), a GTM
Research report, 1,500 Vdc systems will account
for 4.6 GW of global utility-scale solar installa-
tions in 2016. Though GTM Research analysts
estimate that the US market will account for
roughly 60% of the 1,500 Vdc field deployments
worldwide in 2016, they expect that demand in
the rest of the world will dwarf that in North
America from 2017 forward. In other words,

C ou r te sy F ir st S ol a r
once early adopters have proven the technol-
ogy benefits in the field, analysts expect to see
a steady transition from 1,000 Vdc to 1,500 Vdc.
My own informal market survey, conducted
at Solar Power International (SPI) 2016 in Las
Vegas, reinforces these projections. For exam-
UL Certified First Solar’s Series 5 thin-film modules are UL certified at
ple, Stephen Giguere, solar division engineer-
1,500 Vdc. They also ship as a panelized assembly, with three laminates
ing director at Power Electronics, notes: “The
adhered to a pair of steel rails and prewired in series, to expedite installation
big shift is still one more buying cycle out.
and reduce BOS costs.
Customers booked a lot of the orders we are
fulfilling now while there was still uncertainty
about the future of the ITC [Investment Tax Credit]. Going As a vertically integrated module manufacturer and
forward, however, all of the large systems in our queue are solar project developer, First Solar was uniquely positioned
designed around 1,500 V products.” to answer this question in the affirmative. By certifying its
Brad Dore at SMA America concurs: “Currently, the over- Series 4 modules to IEC standards at 1,500 Vdc, the company
whelming majority of new orders US customers are placing was able to prove its next-generation solar farm concept in
for PV plants expected to be built next year will utilize 1,500 V the US. Because demand for utility-scale solar is particularly
technology. Globally, the transition from 1,000 V to 1,500 V is strong in the US, this design evolution put pressure on UL
happening a little slower, but we expect the same value propo- to harmonize its product safety standards with those of the
sition to win out elsewhere as it is here.” IEC to allow for UL certification of modules and inverters at
1,500 Vdc.
AHJ ACCEPTANCE In October 2014, the authors of the technical brief on
Paralleling the earlier shift from 600 Vdc to 1,000 Vdc PV sys- First Solar’s next-generation PV plant noted: “The regula-
tems, the first 1,500 Vdc field deployments in the US utilized tory challenges in many places, particularly outside of North
equipment certified to international rather than UL stan- America, are lower due to existing IEC standards, which
dards, as allowed at power generation facilities governed by address 1,500 Vdc design and safety. Greater challenges are
the National Electrical Safety Code. Since that time, changes faced in the US, where the lack of established standards that
to product safety standards and the National Electrical Code address 1,500 Vdc applications often make it challenging to
have made it even easier for AHJs to approve and inspect obtain plant construction permits from local authorities
1,500 Vdc PV power plants. having jurisdiction.”
Product safety standards. The International Electro- In practice, the barriers to deploying 1,500 Vdc systems in the
technical Commission (IEC), the standards-making entity US had already begun to fall. In the summer of 2014, UL adopted
that has jurisdiction over Europe as well as many countries ANSI/UL 62109-1 as the national safety standard for PV invert-
around the world, defines 1,500 Vdc as the upper limit for ers, enabling certification to 1,500 Vdc. Just a few months later,
low-voltage electrical systems. As a result, there was no in 2015, UL published requirements for the evaluation and cer-
technical reason why equipment vendors could not cer- tification of 1,500 Vdc PV modules. According to a post on the
tify PV system components at 1,500 Vdc to IEC standards. UL newsroom: “The requirements examine the construction of
The barrier to doing so was simply market based: Did the the PV module, junction box, cables and connectors as per the
demand justify the investment? standard UL 1703 and address potential C O N T I N U E D O N P A G E 3 8

36 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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 1,500 V PV Systems

electrical hazards associated with the increased voltage. As a voltage of 1,500 volts or less, shall not be required to comply with
result, getting approval to design and deploy 1500 V systems is Parts II and III of Article 490.”
now easier, enabling the pursuit of new opportunities.” The CMP has provided 1,500 Vdc systems with a clear path
Though some efforts to harmonize UL and IEC product to market in free-field applications, while closing the door on
safety standards are ongoing, equipment vendors have suc- higher-voltage systems in commercial rooftop applications.
cessfully certified modules and inverters to UL standards at In 2015, for example, Belectric was able to deploy the world’s
1,500 Vdc since 2015. first 1,500 Vdc rooftop system in Berlin, Germany. NEC 2017
National Electrical Code. Around this same time, Code- specifically rules out this type of development in the US by
making efforts were under way to expand and clarify the PV limiting nonresidential rooftop systems to 1,000 Vdc.
system voltage limits in the NEC as part of the 2017 cycle of Compared to the drawn-out process required to transi-
revisions. Though attempts to raise the threshold between tion the US market from 600 Vdc to 1,000 Vdc system archi-
low- and high-voltage electrical systems, as defined in Article tectures, industry stakeholders effectively fast-tracked the
490, from 1,000 V to 1,500 V or 2,000 V ultimately proved unsuc- changes to codes and standards needed to allow 1,500 Vdc
cessful, NEC 2017 does include additional guidance regarding UL-listed products and NEC-compliant systems. This under-
maximum voltage limits for commercial roof-mounted sys- scores the fact that 1,500 Vdc systems have much in common
tems and ground-mounted solar farms. with 1,000 Vdc or 600 Vdc systems. This is not a revolution in
Specifically, the Code-Making Panel (CMP) revised Section PV power plant design so much as it is a natural evolution.
690.7 as follows (emphasis added): “PV system dc circuits on Ryan LeBlanc, senior application engineer for SMA
or in one- and two-family dwellings shall be permitted to have America, elaborates: “The transition from 1,000 Vdc to
a maximum voltage of 600 volts or less. PV system dc circuits 1,500 Vdc systems is going to be a lot easier than getting from
on or in other types of buildings shall be permitted to have 600 Vdc to 1,000 Vdc was. In this case, AHJs and EPCs have
a maximum voltage of 1,000 volts or less. Where not located a precedent to follow. All we really need is higher voltage–
on or in buildings, listed dc PV equipment, rated at a maximum rated equipment, which is readily available. At the system

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 allow for more modules
and greater power capac-
ity per source circuit.
Co ur te sy Sung ro w U SA

Fewer source circuits in

turn permit systems to
use fewer overcurrent-
protection devices and,
at least on paper, fewer
source-circuit combiners.
Inverter blocks Power conversion in a 1,500 Vdc solar farm is typically accomplished using Perhaps most import-
high-capacity power stations, ranging between 2 MVA and 4 MVA. Sungrow's SG3000HV-MV antly, higher voltage levels
(left), for example, is rated at 3 MVA and connects to a 10 kV–35 kV medium-voltage collection make it possible to trans-
system. Sungrow is also one of the companies working on 3-phase 1,500 Vdc string inverters, mit more power using the
such as this 125 kVA unit (right), which it debuted at SPI 2016 in Las Vegas. same conductor or collec-
tion system. As an added
level, the savings aren’t as significant as they are when going bonus, plant and inverter efficiency improve in accordance
from 600 Vdc to 1,000 Vdc, but there are incremental savings with Ohm’s law, which states in part that doubling voltage will
associated with a shift to 1,500 Vdc.” reduce conduction losses (I 2
R) by one-quarter for the same
power level.
VALUE PROPOSITION AND SUPPLY CHAIN The caveat, of course, is that there are standard volt-
The basic value proposition for increasing PV utilization volt- age levels for electrical equipment. Generally speaking,
ages is that—all else being equal—doing so will reduce wire going from 600 Vdc to 1,000 Vdc PV systems did not trigger
and BOS costs. At the string level, higher utilization voltages a meaningful change at the component or subcomponent

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solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 39
 1,500 V PV Systems

level. Prior to 2012, for example, modules intended for the use thicker encapsulation materials to withstand the higher
US market were tested and certified at 600 Vdc because voltage. Since the edge seal is particularly vulnerable to leak-
this was the standard low-voltage limit defined in the NEC. age currents, some module manufacturers eliminate the
Manufacturers likely sold exactly the same module in the module frame, which means that the glass needs to provide
European market with a 1,000 Vdc certification. As a result, this structural rigidity; others increase the distance between
PV modules did not really change when the NEC started the cells and the frame, which results in a slightly larger and
allowing 1,000 Vdc system architectures. Instead, Nationally less efficient module. Each of these approaches results in a
Recognized Testing Laboratories in the US simply started 1,500 Vdc module that is slightly more expensive than an
to conduct tests at the same voltage levels as their counter- equivalent 1,000 Vdc model.
parts in Europe and the rest of the world. The fact that First Solar is the market leader in the transi-
The same is not true of the shift to 1,500 Vdc. The com- tion to 1,500 Vdc PV power plants is undoubtedly a function
ponents and subcomponents that make up a 1,500 Vdc of the unique electrical characteristics of its thin-film solar
PV power plant are often different from and more expensive modules. Compared to typical crystalline silicon (c-Si) mod-
than those used for a 1,000 Vdc plant. In some cases the dif- ules, First Solar’s cadmium telluride modules have higher-
ferences are subtle; in others they are obvious. voltage characteristics. As a result, designers can connect only
Modules. You need look no further than the PV modules about half as many First Solar modules in series per source
themselves for an illustration of these diminished returns. circuit. In 1,000 Vdc applications, for example, 20-module
Module manufacturers invariably have to charge a small source circuits of roughly 6,000 watts each are possible with
premium—on the order of $0.01 to $0.02 per watt—for c-Si technologies in some climates; the equivalent building
1,500 Vdc modules compared to 1,000 Vdc models. While ini- block with First Solar Series 4 modules might be 10-module
tially low production volumes likely accounted for some por- source circuits at 1,150 watts each. This means First Solar’s
tion of this price premium, the environmental packaging for power plants are especially sensitive to BOS costs. As a side
the 1,500 Vdc module is inherently more expensive, precisely benefit, First Solar also discovered that the performance of its
because it has to withstand a higher electrical potential. modules improved, in terms of efficiency and power level, at
Consider, as an example, the product design strategies higher utilization voltages.
that module manufacturers use to improve resistance to Since First Solar introduced its 1,500 Vdc–certified thin-
potential-induced degradation (PID) at higher operational film modules in 2014, other c-Si module manufacturers have
voltages. One approach is to use a glass-on-glass package in followed suit. Today, many industry-leading manufacturers—
place of the typical glass-on-plastic package. To stick with a including Canadian Solar, Hanwha Q CELLS, Jinko Solar,
glass-on-plastic package, manufacturers invariably need to SolarWorld, Trina Solar and Yingli—offer 1,500 Vdc UL-certified
modules. The list of companies
offering IEC-certified 1,500 Vdc
modules is even longer.
Inverters. Incentivized in
part by its strategic partner-
ship with First Solar, GE was
the first inverter manufacturer
to introduce an IEC-certified
1,500 Vdc inverter. According
to a company newsletter (see
Resources), GE Power Elec-
tronics initially developed its
LV5 series inverter for off-
shore wind applications and
later realized that the technol-
ogy could also benefit solar
farm operators. The availabil-
1,000 Vdc power blocks 1,500 Vdc power blocks ity of new power electronics
allowed GE’s product engi-
Figure 1 By designing its next-generation solar farms around GE’s 4 MVA–rated LV5 neering team to increase both
Series solar inverter, First Solar was able to increase its ac power block capacity from inverter input voltage and out-
2 MWdc (left) to 5 MWdc (right) and reduce the number of power stations by 60%. put power C O N T I N U E D O N P A G E 4 2

40 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
 1,500 V PV Systems

by 50%, and these inverter-level improvements provide

additional value at the plant level.
Comparison of 1,000 V versus 1,500 V Designs
According to Vlatko Vlatkovic, chief engineering officer System voltage 1,000 Vdc 1,500 Vdc
at GE Power Conversion: “The new design allows us to send Project capacity 10 MWac 10 MWac
much more power through the same amount of copper and Inverter loading ratio 1.25 1.25
get big economies of scale. You won’t need as many fans, fil- Module capacity 330 Wdc 330 Wdc
ters, concrete pads and other components for the farm infra-
Number of modules 37,880 37,880
structure. You can change the farm’s architecture.”
Modules per string 20 30
The most notable change in plant architecture is that PV
plant building blocks get larger. Higher operating voltages Number of strings 1,894 1,263
not only improve inverter power density but also decrease Average number of strings per combiner 24 24
wire losses within the dc collection system and allow lon- Required number of combiners 79 53
ger transmission distances. GE estimates that its larger Increase in string length — 50%
inverter block reduces capital expenditures on a 200 MW Reduction in number of strings — 33%
farm by approximately $5.8M while also decreasing operat-
Reduction in number of combiners — 33%
ing expenditures by 30%.
The technical brief on First Solar drives this point home Table 1 On the one hand, a 50% increase in system voltage
by comparing 20 MW plant layouts at 1,000 Vdc and 1,500 nets a 33% reduction in the number of source-circuit combin-
Vdc. As shown in Figure 1 (p. 40), the higher utilization volt- ers; on the other, 1,500 Vdc combiners presently cost 40%–
age reduces the number of power stations by 60%, from ten 50% more than 1,000 Vdc models. (Note that these illustrative
2 MWdc blocks to four 5 MWdc blocks. As a secondary ben- string lengths assume a mild minimum design temperature;
efit, the layout reduces the amount of land area dedicated to many climates in the US allow only 19- or 29-module strings,
inverter pads and access roads. depending on system voltage.)

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42 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
 In spite of these power density
improvements, the inverter itself is little
changed. The authors of the First Solar
brief note: “By and large, 1,500 Vdc invert-
ers have the same fundamental inverter
topology as 1,000 Vdc inverters—with
power semiconductors and dc power-

Co ur te sy E a to n
circuit components appropriately rated for
the higher dc voltage. These components
are covered by the existing IEC standards
and readily available as they are similar
to those components used in wind con- Higher voltage and higher cost These 1,500 Vdc–rated Bussmann series PV
verters and industrial drives. 1,500 Vdc fuses from Eaton are more than 70% longer (65 mm versus 38 mm) than the
inverters have the same ac grid interface equivalent 1,000 Vdc models.
circuits, controls, protection and grid
management features as 1,000 Vdc inverters.” our 1,000 Vdc model, it’s not the same inverter. You have to
Like GE, Eaton provides high-voltage inverters for wind upgrade all of the voltage-rated components. Though some
farms that it is adapting for use in 1,500 Vdc solar applica- of the internal components may cost more, you can get more
tions. According to Chris Thompson, the company’s business power out of the inverter, so the net effect is beneficial. In gen-
unit manager for its global solar and storage product lines: eral, volts are cheap whereas amps are expensive.”
“Eaton has been supplying high-voltage inverters for storage LeBlanc at SMA America concurs: “Inverters are funda-
and wind for a long time and will likely release a 1,500 Vdc mentally current-limited devices, and a lot of money goes
solar inverter in 2017. While the package will be similar to into those current-carrying components. If you drive up the

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 1,500 V PV Systems

voltage from 1,000 Vdc to 1,500 Vdc, the busbars get smaller building distributed PV plants (<20 MW). On larger projects,
and the inverter gets less expensive on a dollars-per-watt 1,500 Vdc string inverters could also prove useful as a way to
basis. In effect, you can get more watts out of the same box.” develop marginal land or property boundaries, areas not well
“SMA has seen a rapid migration from 1,000 V to 1,500 V suited for large, uniform power blocks.
systems in US utility applications because the value is com- Combiners. BOS vendors were relatively early to market
pelling,” adds SMA America’s Dore. “Developers, owners and with 1,500 Vdc UL-certified combiners. For example, Shoals
EPCs all benefit from the resulting BOS savings. To capitalize Technologies Group introduced a 1,500 Vdc version of its
on this market demand while mitigating the risk associated SlimLine Combiner Box in the summer of 2015. Since then,
with field certification, SMA recently became the first com- AMtec Solar, Bentek, Eaton and SolarBOS have all announced
pany to certify a 1,500 Vdc inverter, the Sunny Central 2500- similar product releases.
EV-US, to the new UL 62109 standard.” At first glance, combiners seem like a great opportunity
Many other vendors are following this lead. The list of for reducing costs. As illustrated in Table 1 (p. 42), increasing
inverter manufacturers with 1,500 Vdc UL-certified cen- the voltage by 50% means that you can increase string lengths
tral inverters includes ABB, Ingeteam, Power Electronics, proportionally, which results in a 33% reduction in the num-
Sungrow and TMEIC. Some of these companies are also devel- ber of source circuits. If you hold steady the number of inputs
oping 1,500 Vdc–rated string inverters. per combiner, you need only about 67% as many combiners at
At SPI 2016, for example, Sungrow unveiled a 1,500 Vdc 1,500 Vdc as at 1,000 Vdc. Unfortunately, this type of analysis
3-phase string inverter with a nameplate capacity of 125 kW; tends to oversimplify the situation.
in terms of form factor, this new inverter is roughly the same Dustin Watson, vice president of sales at SolarBOS, explains:
size as the company’s 60 kW–rated 1,000 Vdc model. Though “At the moment, EPCs should expect to pay a 50% premium for
the NEC limits commercial roof-mounted PV systems to 1,500 Vdc string combiners compared to 1,000 Vdc versions. We
1,000 Vdc, system designers may find 1,500 V string invert- do expect this premium to come down over time, as we have
ers useful in commercial ground-mount applications or for already seen significant cost reductions C O N T I N U E D O N P A G E 4 6

匀漀昀琀眀愀爀攀 唀瀀搀愀琀攀℀

 琀栀攀 愀戀椀氀椀琀礀 琀漀
一攀眀 䘀攀愀琀甀爀攀猀 椀渀挀氀甀搀攀⼀琀椀氀琀
爀椀攀渀 猀 眀椀琀栀椀渀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 爀攀瀀漀爀琀⸀
琀愀琀椀漀渀猀
  ∠  倀爀漀瘀椀搀攀 洀甀氀琀椀瀀氀攀 愀爀爀愀礀 漀最攀 栀椀猀琀漀爀礀 愀氀漀渀最猀椀搀攀 猀礀猀琀攀洀 漀甀琀瀀甀琀⸀
  ∠  匀攀攀 挀氀椀攀渀琀ᤠ猀 攀渀攀爀最礀 甀猀愀  渀攀眀 搀椀猀愀戀氀攀 洀漀搀甀氀攀 氀愀礀漀甀
琀⸀
  ∠  䌀爀攀愀琀攀 昀愀猀琀 爀攀瀀漀爀 琀猀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 漀昀 洀漀甀渀琀攀搀 猀礀猀琀攀洀猀⸀    
爀 最爀 漀甀渀 搀 漀 爀 爀漀
  ∠  䴀愀欀攀 爀攀瀀漀爀 琀猀 昀漀 眀 猀椀琀攀 椀洀愀最攀 昀攀愀琀甀爀攀⸀
  ∠  伀瘀攀爀氀愀礀 瀀愀渀攀氀猀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 渀攀

倀嘀 匀琀甀搀椀漀 ㈀

44 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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 1,500 V PV Systems

box fits into a 24" x 24" x 8" enclosure, you need a 30" x 24" x 8"
enclosure to handle the same number of circuits at 1,500 Vdc.
While the cost premium is about 40%, this will come down as
demand goes up.”
The alternative to using larger combiners is to aggre-
gate fewer circuits per combiner. “To a certain extent,
there is a convenience factor to dc block sizing,” elaborates
Coel Schumacher, chief technical officer at SolarBOS. “If
you are used to aggregating 400 or 500 modules per com-
biner at 1,000 Vdc, you may want to do the same thing at
1,500 Vdc, perhaps for monitoring and O&M purposes. So a
customer who is accustomed to ordering 24-input 1,000 Vdc
combiners might opt for 16-input combiners at 1,500 Vdc.
That way the number of combiners stays about the same, as
does the size of the combiner box and the number of mod-
ules aggregated per combiner.”
Collection systems. By all accounts, the real cost savings
associated with 1,500 Vdc plant architectures comes from
material and labor savings associated with the dc collection
system and to a lesser extent the ac collection system. Though
PV connector companies such as Multi-Contact had to certify
their products for higher operating voltages to meet market
C ou r te sy S ola r BOS

demand, wire and cable suppliers already offered 2,000 V–

rated single conductor solar cable, in both copper and alumi-
num. Since EPC firms can use the same cables, conduits and
trenches for both 1,000 Vdc and 1,500 Vdc systems, any mate-
Bigger package Increasing the array operating voltage
rial and labor reductions due to the higher operating voltage
requires physically bigger fuses and disconnects, which
are pure cost savings. GTM Research estimates that savings
ultimately increases the size of the combiner box enclosure
could be as high as $0.03 per watt within the dc collection sys-
relative to an equivalent 1,000 Vdc model.
tem and $0.005 per watt within the ac collection system.

on 1,500 V–rated components since the beginning of the year. POTENTIAL CHALLENGES
We anticipate additional cost decreases in 2017 as more of our However substantial the rewards associated with increasing
customers begin to adopt 1,500 Vdc designs and new compo- PV plant voltage from 1,000 Vdc to 1,500 Vdc, there is clearly
nents enter the market. This is comparable to what happened no free lunch. EPC firms have to spend money to save money.
a few years ago when the markets transitioned from 600 Vdc to Moreover, higher operating voltages carry some technology
1,000 Vdc.” risks, most notably PID. Early adopters could also run into
Though the premium for 1,500 Vdc combiners will undoubt- challenges associated with dc arc-flash hazard levels and dc
edly come down and is offset somewhat by labor savings, arc-fault protection requirements.
Thompson at Eaton cautions: “Even with volume, these are PID. Industry veterans will recall that instances of voltage-
always going to be more expensive components. Pound for driven performance degradation increased after the wide-
pound, dc arcs are probably four times harder to break than ac spread adoption of 1,000 Vdc plant architectures. In the wake
arcs, because there isn’t a zero crossing. To increase the voltage of these problems, industry stakeholders developed new per-
rating for PV fuses by 50%, you need a different and more expen- formance tests and enhanced module certifications relatively
sive fuse element; as a result, the physical package for the fuse quickly. Though module manufacturers and testing laborato-
and the fuseholder gets bigger and more expensive. The same ries have extrapolated these tests to qualify module resistance
is true for the dc disconnect; it gets bigger and more expensive. to PID at 1,500 Vdc, it remains to be seen how effective these
Now you need bigger and more expensive combiner-box enclo- laboratory tests prove in terms of identifying actual field fail-
sures, which means you can pack fewer combiners per pallet or ure mechanisms.
truck. These little things ripple through the cost of the system.” Thompson, who qualified inverters for First Solar before
Tom Willis, director of sales at AMtec Industries, provides joining Eaton in 2010, notes that even modest PID effects can
an example: “Whereas a typical 24-string 1,000 Vdc combiner offset any plant-level savings associated C O N T I N U E D O N P A G E 4 8

46 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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Visit www.abb.com/solarinverters/uno to learn more.
 1,500 V PV Systems

course, once you increase the array operating voltage by 50%,

the calculated hazard levels go up even further. This could have
the effect of making it more difficult for personnel to install,
commission and maintain 1,500 Vdc PV systems—perhaps
unnecessarily requiring arc-flash suits.”
Arc-fault protection. The goal of dc arc-fault detection and
interruption is to prevent fire damage due to arcing faults in
PV systems or components. The CMP first introduced dc arc-
fault protection requirements to the NEC as part of the 2011
C ou r te sy M a x I sa a c s/6 9 0 E l e c tr i c

cycle of revisions by adding a new section, 690.11, “Arc Fault

Circuit Protection (Direct Current).” It has modified these
requirements with each successive Code edition.
Under NEC 2011, for example, dc arc-fault protection
requirements apply specifically to PV systems on build-
ings. As part of the 2014 cycle of revisions, the CMP revised
Section 690.11 so that it applies to all PV systems operating
at 80 V or greater, regardless of whether the system is on a
Electrical testing and safety When increasing array operat- building or ground mounted. Though these basic require-
ing voltages, companies should review safety plans as well as ments are unchanged under NEC 2017, the CMP added a
personal protective equipment and electrical test equipment new article—691, “Large-Scale PV Electric Power Production
ratings. While the availability of 1,500 Vdc digital multimeters Facility”—that potentially exempts PV power plants with a
and I-V curve tracers should improve in 2017, most of the capacity of 5 MW or greater from the requirements in Article
products available today have a voltage limit of 1,000 Vdc. 690. For example, 691.10 states: “PV systems that do not com-
ply with the [dc arc-fault protection] requirements of 690.11
with higher operational voltages. He predicts: “I bet we see shall include details of fire mitigation plans to address dc arc
some companies having premature degradation and warranty faults in the documentation required in 691.6.”
issues 5 years from now; it will be vendor specific and perhaps The potential challenge here is that dc arc-fault protection
regionally specific. Though investors are comfortable with the requirements clearly do not apply to 1,500 Vdc solar farms
risks, PID is a very complex phenomenon. Installations in hot, deployed under NEC 2011. While the requirements appear
humid climates, of course, are the most vulnerable, but ground- to apply under NEC 2014, no 1,500 Vdc arc-fault protection
ing is also a factor. It will be years before we understand the full equipment exists, leaving room for interpretation. Some AHJs
implications of increasing operating voltages by 50%.” may decide to waive these requirements, as is their preroga-
Arc-flash hazard. The goal of an arc-flash hazard analysis is tive under 690.4; others could object to 1,500 Vdc plant archi-
to protect workers from dangerous conditions associated with tecture, since it is possible to meet 690.11 at 1,000 Vdc. The
electrical arcs, such as intense releases of heat and pressure. most recent Code edition suggests a possible middle ground,
Unfortunately, the arc-flash hazard levels on the dc side of a PV which is to have an independent engineer design an alterna-
system are not well understood. Traditional arc-flash hazard tive method of compliance.
calculations are applicable to ac rather than dc circuits; more-
over, a PV power source is inherently current limited. g C O N TAC T
In the absence of empirical data that quantify actual dc
David Brearley / SolarPro / Ashland, OR /
arc-flash hazards in PV systems, engineers working on large-
[email protected] / solarprofessional.com
scale solar farms often rely on conservative calculation meth-
odologies and assumptions. Some system and application RESOURCES
engineers believe that this approach misrepresents the dc GTM Research, 1,500-Volt PV Systems and Components 2016–2020:
arc-flash hazards to personnel by making them appear worse Costs, Vendors, and Forecasts, January 2016, greentechmedia.com
than they may be in reality. Kellner, Tomas, “Something New under the Sun: GE’s Industrial-Grade
“From time to time, we see the aftereffects of dc arcing Inverter Takes Solar Power to a New High,” GE Reports, September 2015,
inside a SolarBOS combiner,” notes Schumacher, “and these gereports.com
are clearly not explosive arc-blast events. We see damage due Morjaria, Mahesh, et al., “The Next-Generation Utility-Scale PV plant,”
to molten metal, for example, but no evidence of vaporized PV-Tech Power, Feb. 2015 , pv-tech.org
metals, such as you would expect to see with an ac arc flash. Of

48 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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C ou r te sy M ille r Bros. S ola r a n d So l v i da D e si g n + E ng i ne e r i ng

Central Inverters
for Utility-Scale
PV Plants
Compiled by Joe Schwartz

50 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
SolarPro’s 2016 utility-scale central inverter speci- g C O N TACT
fication dataset provides PV plant designers with a high-level Joe Schwartz / SolarPro / Ashland, OR /
comparison of the electrical and mechanical specifications for [email protected] / solarprofessional.com
inverter models that are well suited for centralized, large solar Manufacturers
applications. The products included in the following table have ABB / 877.261.1374 / abb.com/solarinverters
an ac output capacity of 250 kW at 50°C or greater, and their
Eaton / 855.386.7657 / eaton.com/solar
makers currently offer and support them in the US market (with
Ingeteam / 855.821.7190 / ingeteam.com
a few exceptions).
While many US solar developers now consider decentralized KACO new energy / 210.446.4238 / kaco-newenergy.com

designs that utilize high-capacity 3-phase string inverters for Power Electronics / 602.354.4890 / power-electronics.com

projects up to 10 MW or even larger, central inverter platforms Schneider Electric / 888.778.2733 / sesolar.com
are still currently the standard for most utility-scale projects SMA America / 916.625.0870 / sma-america.com
over 10 MW in the US. As a result, we continue to see the rapid
Sungrow USA / 510.656.1259 / en.sungrowpower.com
advancement of central inverters and platforms that integrate
TMEIC / 540.283.2000 / tmeic.com
them into blocks that can process 2 MW or more of PV power.
The aggregated specifications presented here cover 58 cen- Yaskawa–Solectria Solar / 978.683.9700 / solectria.com

tral inverter models from 10 manufacturers. Most of the included

solutions are listed to the UL 1741 standard. In addition, 19 cur-
rently available models from six manufacturers (ABB, Ingeteam,
Power Electronics, SMA America, Sungrow and TMEIC) are listed
for deployment in 1,500 Vdc systems, which is becoming the new
standard for many utility-scale PV plants.

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 51
 Utility-Scale Inverter Specifications

Central Inverters for Utility-Scale PV Plants

Input data (dc)
Rated continuous
power at 50°C Maximum Voc MPPT range
Manufacturer Model (kW) (Vdc) (Vdc)
ABB Ultra-1500-HD-TL-OUTD-US 1,560 1,000 645–850

ABB PVS980-58-1818kVA-I 1,818 1,500 850–1,500

ABB PVS980-58-1909kVA-I 1,909 1,500 893–1,500

ABB PVS980-58-2000kVA-I 2,000 1,500 935–1,500

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 1670 kW 1,660 1,000 550–1,000

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 2000 kW 2,000 1,000 550–1,000

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 2000+ kW 2,000 1,000 605–1,000

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 2200 kW 2,200 1,000 605–1,000

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 2750 kW 2 2,750 1,500 825–1,300

Ingeteam PowerMax 1170TL U B450 975 1,500 660–1,300

Ingeteam PowerMax 1400TL U B540 1,169 1,500 786–1,300

Ingeteam PowerMax 1500TL U B578 1,251 1,500 840–1,300

Ingeteam PowerMax 1560TL U B600 1,299 1,500 870–1,300

Ingeteam PowerMax 1600TL U B615 1,332 1,500 889–1,300

Ingeteam PowerMax 1640TL U B630 1,364 1,500 915–1,300

Ingeteam PowerMax 610TL U B220 560.9 1,050 480–820

Ingeteam PowerMax 830TL U B300 764.9 1,050 440–820

Ingeteam PowerMax 1000TL U B360 917.8 1,050 524–820

Ingeteam PowerMax 1110TL U B400 1,019.8 1,050 580–820

Ingeteam PowerMax 1165TL U B420 1,070.8 1,050 610–820

KACO new energy blueplanet 750 TL3 OD 750 1,100 550–830

KACO new energy blueplanet 875 TL3 OD 875 1,100 550–830

KACO new energy blueplanet 1000 TL3 OD 1,000 1,100 550–830

KACO new energy blueplanet 2200 TL3 OD 2,000 1,000 550–830

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS1275CU15 5 1,150 1,500 976–1,250

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS1700CU15 5 1,530 1,500 976–1,250

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS2125CU15 5 1,910 1,500 976–1,250

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS2550CU15 5 2,250 1,500 976–1,250

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS3000CU15 5

3,000 1,500 976–1,250

52 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
 Footnote Key
1
Per MPP tracker 6
440 Vac version; specs vary for 420 Vac and 400 Vac versions
² Preliminary specifications 7
-31°F low-temperature option
3
Estimated 8
Passive cooling up to 50% load at 50°C
4
-40°F low-temperature option DNR = did not report
5
690 Vac version; specs vary for 645, 600 and 565 Vac versions

Output data (ac) Performance Mechanical

Maximum dc Nominal Nominal Peak CEC-weighted Nighttime Operating Dimensions
input current output voltage output current efficiency efficiency standby loss temp. range HxWxD
(Adc) 1 (Vac) (Aac) (%) (%) (W) (°F) (in.)
2,800 690 1,300 98.4 98 180 -4–140 108 x 191 x 45

DNR 600 1,750 98.8 98.5 225 -4–140 93.1 x 125.1 x 59.9

DNR 630 1,750 98.8 98.5 225 -4–140 93.1 x 125.1 x 59.9

DNR 660 1,750 98.8 98.5 225 -4–140 93.1 x 125.1 x 59.9

3,100 356 2,707 98.6 98 6 100 -4–122 4 92.3 x 130.8 x 61.1

3,700 384 3,000 98.7 3 98.5 3 335 -4–122 4 92.3 x 130.8 x 61.1

3,700 423 3,000 98.7 3 98.5 3 335 3 -4–122 4 92.3 x 130.8 x 61.1

3,700 423 3,000 98.7 3 98.5 3 335 3 -4–122 4 92.3 x 130.8 x 61.1

3,700 580 3,000 98.7 3 98.5 3 335 3 -4–122 4 92.3 x 130.8 x 61.1

2,000 450 1,500 98.9 98.5 60 -4–131 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 540 1,500 98.9 98.5 60 -4–131 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 578 1,500 98.9 98.5 60 -4–131 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 600 1,500 98.9 98.5 60 -4–131 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 615 1,500 98.9 98.5 60 -4–131 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 630 1,500 98.9 98.5 60 -4–131 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 220 1,600 98.9 98.5 60 -4–149 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 300 1,600 98.9 98.5 60 -4–149 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 360 1,600 98.9 98.5 60 -4–149 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 400 1,600 98.9 98.5 60 -4–149 89 x 111 x 35

2,000 420 1,600 98.9 98.5 60 -4–149 89 x 111 x 35

1,433 370 1,560 98.5 DNR 150 -4–122 83.5 x 122.4 x 39.4

1,671 370 1,560 98.5 DNR 150 -4–122 83.5 x 122.4 x 39.4

1,910 370 1,560 98.5 DNR 150 -4–122 83.5 x 122.4 x 39.4

3,818 270 3,468 98.8 DNR 150 -4–122 84.6 x 133.9 x 55.1

1,600 690 1,285 98.5 98 150 -31–140 86.5 x 119.6 x 37.2

2,140 690 1,710 98.7 98.5 200 -31–140 86.5 x 147.6 x 37.2

2,675 690 2,140 98.7 98.5 250 -31–140 86.5 x 175.7 x 37.2

3,210 690 2,570 98.7 98.5 300 -31–140 86.5 x 231.8 x 37.2

3,745 690 3,000 98.7 98.5 350 -31–140 86.5 x 231.9 x 37.2

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 53
 Utility-Scale Inverter Specifications

Central Inverters for Utility-Scale PV Plants

Mechanical Listing Warranty

Cooling Weight UL 1741 Standard Extended

Manufacturer Model Enclosure method (lbs.) compliant (yr.) (yr.)
ABB Ultra-1500-HD-TL-OUTD-US NEMA 3R liquid 8,818 yes 5 10, 15, 20

ABB PVS980-58-1818kVA-I NEMA 4X hybrid 8,488 yes 5 10, 15, 20

ABB PVS980-58-1909kVA-I NEMA 4X hybrid 8,488 yes 5 10, 15, 20

ABB PVS980-58-2000kVA-I NEMA 4X hybrid 8,488 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 1670 kW NEMA 3R liquid/air 12,700 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 2000 kW NEMA 3R liquid/air 12,700 pending 5 10, 15, 20

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 2000+ kW NEMA 3R liquid/air 12,700 pending 5 10, 15, 20

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 2200 kW NEMA 3R liquid/air 12,700 pending 5 10, 15, 20

Eaton Power Xpert Solar 2750 kW 2 NEMA 3R liquid/air 12,700 pending 5 10, 15, 20

Ingeteam PowerMax 1170TL U B450 NEMA 3R air 3,770 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 1400TL U B540 NEMA 3R air 3,770 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 1500TL U B578 NEMA 3R air 3,770 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 1560TL U B600 NEMA 3R air 3,770 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 1600TL U B615 NEMA 3R air 3,770 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 1640TL U B630 NEMA 3R air 3,770 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 610TL U B220 NEMA 3R air 3,440 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 830TL U B300 NEMA 3R air 3,440 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 1000TL U B360 NEMA 3R air 3,440 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 1110TL U B400 NEMA 3R air 3,440 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

Ingeteam PowerMax 1165TL U B420 NEMA 3R air 3,440 yes 5 10, 15, 20, 25

KACO new energy blueplanet 750 TL3 OD NEMA 3R air 3,923 no 5 10, 15, 20

KACO new energy blueplanet 875 TL3 OD NEMA 3R air 3,923 no 5 10, 15, 20

KACO new energy blueplanet 1000 TL3 OD NEMA 3R air 3,923 no 5 10, 15, 20

KACO new energy blueplanet 2200 TL3 OD NEMA 3R air 11,023 no 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS1275CU15 5 NEMA 3R air 5,809 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS1700CU15 5

NEMA 3R air 7,253 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS2125CU15 5 NEMA 3R air 8,697 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS2550CU15 5

NEMA 3R air 10,141 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US V1500 FS3000CU15 5 NEMA 3R air 11,585 yes 5 10, 15, 20

C O N T I N U E D O N PA G E 5 6

54 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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 Utility-Scale Inverter Specifications

Central Inverters for Utility-Scale PV Plants

Input data (dc)
Rated continuous
power at 50°C Maximum Voc MPPT range
Manufacturer Model (kW) (Vdc) (Vdc)
Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1112CU 6 1,000 1,000 642–820

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1331CU 6 1,190 1,000 642–820

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1550CU 6

1,390 1,000 642–820

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1770CU 6 1,590 1,000 642–820

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1991CU 6 1,790 1,000 642–820

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS2200CU 6 1,980 1,000 642–820

Schneider Electric XC 540-NA 540 1,000 440–800

Schneider Electric XC 630-NA 630 1,000 510–800

Schneider Electric XC 680-NA 680 1,000 550–800

Schneider Electric XC 733-NA 733 1,000 591–800

SMA America Sunny Central 1850-US 1,666 1,000 570–950

SMA America Sunny Central 2200-US 2,000 1,000 570–950

SMA America Sunny Central 2500-EV-US 2,250 1,500 850–1,425

Sungrow USA SG750MX 825 1,000 500–820

Sungrow USA SG800MX 880 1,000 545–820

Sungrow USA SG1000MX 1,000 1,000 550–950

Sungrow USA SG1250HV 1,250 1,500 800–1,300

Sungrow USA SG1500HV 1,500 1,500 900–1,300

TMEIC Solar Ware 250 250 1,000 450–850

TMEIC Solar Ware 500 500 1,000 450–950

TMEIC Solar Ware 630 630 1,000 550–950

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 833 kW 833 1,000 605–950

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 1667 kW 1,667 1,000 605–950

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 1833 kW 1,833 1,000 605–950

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 2500 kW 2,500 1,500 800–1,300

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 2700 kW 2,700 1,500 800–1,300

Yaskawa–Solectria Solar SGI 500XT 500 600 300–500

Yaskawa–Solectria Solar SGI 500XTM 500 1,000 545–820

Yaskawa–Solectria Solar SGI 750XTM 750 1,000 545–820

56 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
 Footnote Key
1
Per MPP tracker 6
440 Vac version; specs vary for 420 Vac and 400 Vac versions
² Preliminary specifications 7
-31°F low-temperature option
3
Estimated 8
Passive cooling up to 50% load at 50°C
4
-40°F low-temperature option DNR = did not report
5
690 Vac version; specs vary for 645, 600 and 565 Vac versions

Output data (ac) Performance Mechanical

Maximum dc Nominal Nominal Peak CEC-weighted Nighttime Operating Dimensions
input current output voltage output current efficiency efficiency standby loss temp. range HxWxD
(Adc)1 (Vac) (Aac) (%) (%) (W) (°F) (in.)
1,750 440 1,600 98.6 98 200 -22–122 94.5 x 153.5 x 40.1

2,100 440 1,920 98.6 98 240 -22–122 94.5 x 153.5 x 40.1

2,450 440 2,240 98.6 98 280 -22–122 94.5 x 192.9 x 40.1

2,800 440 2,560 98.6 98 320 -22–122 94.5 x 192.9 x 40.1

3,150 440 2,880 98.6 98 360 -22–122 94.5 x 232.3 x 40.1

3,500 440 3,200 98.6 98 400 -22–122 94.5 x 232.3 x 40.1

1,280 300 1,040 98.4 97 210 -4–122 7 89.5 x 126.5 x 33.6

1,280 350 1,040 98.5 97.5 210 -4–122 7 89.5 x 126.5 x 33.6

1,280 380 1,040 98.7 97.5 210 -4–122 7 89.5 x 126.5 x 33.6

1,280 407 1,040 98.8 97.5 210 -4–122 7 89.5 x 126.5 x 33.6

3,960 385 2,498 98.6 98 300 -13–140 91.3 x 109.4 x 62.5

3,960 385 3,300 98.6 98 300 -13–140 91.3 x 109.4 x 62.5

2,700 550 2,624 98.6 98 370 -13–140 91.3 x 109.4 x 62.5

1,600 315 1,512 98.7 98.5 100 -13–140 85.2 x 102.3 x 39.4

1,600 342 1,512 98.7 98.5 100 -13–140 85.2 x 102.3 x 39.4

2,000 385 1,500 98.8 98.5 20 -22–140 85 x 102 x 42.3

1,754 550 1,443 99 DNR 20 -22–149 75.4 x 71.1 x 32.9

1,754 600 1,443 99 DNR 20 -22–149 75.4 x 71.1 x 32.9

611 300 481 98.2 98 75 -4–122 74.8 x 47.2 x 35.4

1,333 300 962 98.5 98 75 -4–122 81.7 x 74.8 x 27.6

1,402 380 957 98.6 98 75 -4–122 81.7 x 74.8 x 27.6

DNR 418 1,265 99 98.5 DNR -4–131 92 x 118 x 46

2,826 418 2,533 99 98.5 DNR -4–131 92 x 197 x 46

DNR 418 2,762 99 98.5 DNR -4–131 92 x 197 x 46

DNR 550 2,624 98.8 98.5 DNR -4–131 92 x 197 x 46

DNR 550 2,624 98.8 98.5 DNR -4–131 92 x 197 x 46

1,750 208 1,387 98.1 98 41 -40–122 82 x 109 x 41

965 380 760 98.3 98 89 -40–122 82 x 109 x 41

1,445 380 1,140 98.3 98 123 -40–122 82 x 109 x 41

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 57
 Utility-Scale Inverter Specifications

Central Inverters for Utility-Scale PV Plants

Mechanical Listing Warranty

Cooling Weight UL 1741 Standard Extended

Manufacturer Model Enclosure method (lbs.) compliant (yr.) (yr.)
Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1112CU 6
NEMA 3R air 7,804 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1331CU 6 NEMA 3R air 8,487 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1550CU 6 NEMA 3R air 10,119 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1770CU 6 NEMA 3R air 10,802 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS1991CU 6 NEMA 3R air 12,434 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Power Electronics HEC-US PLUS FS2200CU 6 NEMA 3R air 13,117 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Schneider Electric XC 540-NA NEMA 3R air 4,938 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Schneider Electric XC 630-NA NEMA 3R air 4,938 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Schneider Electric XC 680-NA NEMA 3R air 4,938 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Schneider Electric XC 733-NA NEMA 3R air 4,938 yes 5 10, 15, 20

SMA America Sunny Central 1850-US NEMA 3R air 8,819 yes 5 10, 15, 20

SMA America Sunny Central 2200-US NEMA 3R air 8,819 yes 5 10, 15, 20

SMA America Sunny Central 2500-EV-US NEMA 3R air 8,819 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Sungrow USA SG750MX NEMA 3R air 5,952 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Sungrow USA SG800MX NEMA 3R air 5,952 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Sungrow USA SG1000MX NEMA 3R air 4,519 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Sungrow USA SG1250HV NEMA 3R air 3,638 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Sungrow USA SG1500HV NEMA 3R air 3,638 yes 5 10, 15, 20

TMEIC Solar Ware 250 indoor air 2,205 yes 5 10, 15, 20

TMEIC Solar Ware 500 indoor air 2,866 yes 5 10, 15, 20

TMEIC Solar Ware 630 indoor air 2,866 yes 5 10, 15, 20

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 833 kW NEMA 3R air 8 7,940 yes 5 10, 15, 20

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 1667 kW NEMA 3R air 8

11,500 yes 5 10, 15, 20

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 1833 kW NEMA 3R air 8 11,500 yes 5 10, 15, 20

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 2500 kW NEMA 3R air 8 13,228 yes 5 10, 15, 20

TMEIC Solar Ware Samurai 2700 kW NEMA 3R air 8 13,228 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Yaskawa–Solectria Solar SGI 500XT NEMA 3R air 3,410 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Yaskawa–Solectria Solar SGI 500XTM NEMA 3R air 3,080 yes 5 10, 15, 20

Yaskawa–Solectria Solar SGI 750XTM NEMA 3R air 3,570 yes 5 10, 15, 20

58 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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 Projects System Profiles

Enerparc
Holdrege Solar Center
C ou r te sy E n e r pa rc (4)

Overview
DESIGNER: Paul Corteza, project
L ocated 5 miles outside Lincoln,
Nebraska, the 4.68 MWdc Holdrege
Solar Center is the largest solar instal-
field support. The Holdrege Solar Center is
an example of effective collaboration that
maximizes on-site productivity.
engineer, Enerparc, enerparc.com
lation in the state and a multimegawatt Early planning efforts mitigated many
LEAD INSTALLER: Ben Searl,
construction manager, New Energy
deployment of Solar FlexRack’s TDP on-site challenges, but some conditions
Structures Company, nesco-us.com
Turnkey Tracker system. The project team could not be avoided, such as the dramatic
includes Enerparc, an international
DATE COMMISSIONED: June 2016
solar development company with
INSTALLATION TIME FRAME:
its US operations based in Oakland,
88 days
California. Enerparc has developed
LOCATION: Holdrege, NE, 40.4°N more than 1.6 GW of PV capacity
SOLAR RESOURCE: 5.3 kWh/m2/day worldwide and performs O&M for
ASHRAE DESIGN TEMPS: 95°F 2% 1.1 GW of PV assets. With 30 years
average high, -7.6°F extreme minimum of experience as a general contrac-
ARRAY CAPACITY: 4.68 MWdc tor for large-scale projects, Golden,
ANNUAL AC PRODUCTION:
Colorado–based New Energy
7,900 MWh Structures Company (NESCO) led
the on-site construction. In addi-
tion to supplying trackers for the
project, Solar FlexRack, a division
of Northern States Metals, assisted
the team with project-specific
engineering, analysis, planning and

60 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
spring weather swings typical of the Equipment Specifications
prairie state. Construction crews MODULES: 15,333 Heliene 72P 305,
dealt with high winds, seasonal 305 W STC, +4.99/-0 W, 8.29 Imp,
rain, thunderstorms and extreme 37.06 Vmp, 8.73 Isc, 45.51 Voc
heat. While Nebraska ranks 48th INVERTERS: 15 kV medium voltage
nationally in installed PV capac- substation interconnection, 3-phase
ity, Enerparc reported that it was 277/480 Vac collection system; 60
still able to hire almost 40% of the Sungrow SG60KU-M, 60 kW, 1,000
Holdrege Solar Center’s construc- Vdc maximum input, 300–950 Vdc
tion crew locally. The PV plant is MPPT range
located on an active agricultural ARRAY: 19 modules per source circuit
site with a center pivot irriga- (5,795 W, 8.29 Imp, 704.1 Vmp, 8.73
tion system. The project’s scope Isc, 864.7 Voc), 14 source circuits per
included relocating and reconfiguring the Turnkey single-axis horizontal trackers, inverter, typical (81.1 kW, 116.1 Imp,
704.1 Vmp, 122.2 Isc, 864.7 Voc), 4.68
irrigation infrastructure in advance of the and 60 Sungrow 60 kWac 3-phase string
MWdc array total
solar installation to allow agriculture to inverters provide power conditioning.
continue in the areas outside the PV array. Installers aggregated the outputs of the ARRAY INSTALLATION: Tracked
array, 269 Solar FlexRack TDP Turnkey
The project utilizes approximately 25% of individual string inverters at low-voltage
single-axis horizontal trackers, ±45°
the site for PV generation. The remaining ac panelboards and switchboards.
tracking rotation range
75% is used for agricultural activities. Transformers allow the collected ac
SYSTEM MONITORING: Locus
Site-specific challenges included sources to interconnect with the site’s
Energy supplied and commissioned
the rolling topography, which required 15 kV medium-voltage substation. The
DAS hardware, software and perfor-
a combination of civil engineering and electrical design includes integrated mance analytics, including inverter-
earthwork to support a foundation design relays that ensure PV output operabil- direct monitoring and revenue-grade
compatible with the tolerances of the ity within utility-required generation metering
independent-row tracker system. Layout parameters, as well as programming for
challenges included avoidance of adjacent protective settings.
wetlands, terrace systems and areas with “We selected Solar FlexRack TDP Trackers
steep topography. The Solar FlexRack ser- based on our previous successful experi-
vice team worked closely with the installa- ence with Solar FlexRack, and especially
tion team well in advance of construction because of the great turnkey services
to minimize the impact of these on-site packaged with the product, ensuring a
project variables. smooth installation. Once again, we were
NESCO deployed 15,333 Heliene not disappointed.”
PV modules on 269 Solar FlexRack TDP —Florent Abadie, CEO, Enerparc

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 61
Advertiser Index
Company Page Company Page
ABB 47 Phocos 38
AEE Solar 1 Pika Energy 33
Allied Moulded 24 PV Labels 43
Array Technologies 23 Quick Mount PV 31
CAB Solar 17 RBI Solar 27
Chint Power Systems IFC Roof Tech 9
Fronius 45 Socomec 42
GameChange Solar 11 Solar Pathfinder 44
Ginlong Solis 41 SolarEdge 13
Home Power subscription 55 SolarPro subscription 59
Industrial Control Direct IBC SolarWorld 5
IronRidge 15 Solmetric 39
LG 2,3 Standing Seam Roof Anchor 25
MidNite Solar 44 SunLink 49
Midwest Renewable Energy Assoc. (MREA) 62 Ten K Solar 19
OMCO Solar 29 Trojan Battery 7
OutBack Power 37 Yaskawa–Solectria Solar BC

n g s F r o m :
Greeti
The
L A
SO INGR
TRAIN MY
ACA D E I - NORMAL
, IL - TWIN
CITIES, MN
UKEE, W
DUBUQUE,
IA - MILWA
f e steway!”
s i o n a l G a
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“The Solar P
Register at: www.MidwestRenew.org/sta

62 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
 Projects
Nova West Solar
Beam Residence

C ou r te sy N ova We st S ola r
Overview
DESIGNER: TJ Shelton, operations
F resno, California–based Nova West
Solar designed, planned and installed
a 10.7 kWdc ground-mount PV system at
design requirements. Recent fire codes
mandate 3-foot setbacks on rooftop PV
arrays, necessitating ground mounting
manager, Nova West Solar, the Beam residence in Clovis, California. of the new array. The existing electrical
novawestsolar.com
A 5-acre grove of actively farmed navel panel also presented a hurdle. Nova West
LEAD INSTALLER: Frank Ramirez, oranges surrounds the home. In 2008, Solar landed the single-phase 240 Vac
installation lead, Nova West Solar the Beams had a PV system installed on output of the SolarEdge 11.4 kW inverter
DATE COMMISSIONED: June 29, 2016 the roof of their residence. The original at a new 60 A breaker in an existing 200 A
INSTALLATION TIME FRAME: 5 days system did not offset the customer’s subpanel. To keep the maximum avail-
LOCATION: Clovis, CA home and business electricity usage, able current below 120% of the panel’s
SOLAR RESOURCE: 5.7 kWh/m2/day
which prompted the Beams to contact bus rating, the installer replaced its 200 A
Nova West Solar to install an additional main breaker with a 175 A main breaker.
ASHRAE DESIGN TEMPERATURES:
array. Combined, the solar arrays offset Nova West Solar’s design for the
102.2°F 2% average high, 28.4°F
extreme minimum
100% of the Beam’s annual electrical system couples 33 high-efficiency 96-cell
load. The new PV system will save more Panasonic HIT modules with an 11.4 kW
ARRAY CAPACITY: 10.7 kWdc
than $221,000 over the system’s life cycle SolarEdge string inverter. A SolarEdge
ANNUAL AC PRODUCTION: 17.36 MWh
and has a 4.5-year simple payback on the P400 dc optimizer (33 total) monitors
family’s investment. and optimizes the output of each individ-
The project presented several ual module. Together, the modules and
obstacles, and allowing for future expan- the power conversion platform maximize
sion of the system created additional energy production and minimize the

solarprofessional.com | S O L A R P R O 63
 Projects

C ou r te sy N ova We st S ola r (3)

Equipment Specifications array’s physical footprint. The
result is a system that reduces
MODULES: 33 Panasonic
VBHN325SA16, 325 W STC, +10/-0%
the area required for the array
5.65 Imp, 57.6 Vmp, 6.03 Isc, 69.6 by approximately 20% com-
Voc, 96 cell pared to an installation using
INVERTERS: Single-phase 120/240
standard modules and power
Vac service, one SolarEdge electronics. For the Beams, this
SE11400A-US, 11.4 kW, 500 Vdc max- meant they needed to remove
imum input voltage, 350 Vdc nominal fewer citrus trees to make space
input voltage at 240 Vac; 33 SolarEdge for the PV array. SolarEdge’s
P400 Power Optimizers, 400 W rated module-level optimizer system
input, 8 Vdc–80 Vdc MPPT range, 80 minimizes the impact of mod-
Vdc maximum input ule soiling and shading from
ARRAY: 11 modules per source circuit the adjacent orange trees and
(3,575 W), three source circuits, 10.725 allows for the easy addition of
kWdc array total at 350 Vdc nominal modules down the line, should the family rate. The costs associated with diagnosing
(module-level current controlled by require additional power to run their module failures and subsequent replace-
power optimizers)
home and business. ment and warranty claims can add up
ARRAY INSTALLATION: Ground-mount “The combination of Panasonic HIT quickly and tie up valuable person hours
IronRidge XR1000 rails, 2.5-inch modules and SolarEdge’s dc optimizers and other resources needed to handle
schedule 40 galvanized pipe substruc-
and inverter is a match made in heaven. callbacks. High-quality modules and
ture, 180° azimuth, 19° tilt
Panasonic’s high-efficiency module design module-level monitoring minimize long-
SYSTEM MONITORING: SolarEdge maximizes energy production, and the term financial exposure.”
module-level monitoring
modules have an incredibly low failure — TJ Shelton, Nova West Solar

64 S O L A R PR O | November/December 2016
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