Aldersgate College Teaching and Assessment of Grammar

College of Arts, Sciences and Education Junelyn G. Villar, LPT

Module 3: Approaches of Teaching and Assessment of Grammar

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the module the students should be able to:
1. Identify the Deductive and Inductive Approach in Grammar;
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the approaches;
3. Apply the rules in grammar practices.

Learning Focus
Lesson 1: The Deductive Approach-Rule Driven Learning
A deductive approach starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by
example in which the rule is applied.
The grammar rule is presented and the learner engages with it through the
study and manipulation of examples.
Advantages of a deductive approach:
 It gets straight to the point, and can be therefore by time-saving. Many
rules especially rules of form can be more simply and quickly explained
than elicited from examples. This will allow more time for practice
application.
 It respects the intelligence and maturity of many especially adult, students
and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in language acquisition.
 It confirms many students' expectations about classroom learning,
particularly for those learners who have an analytical learning style.
 It allows the teacher to deal with language points as they come up, rather
than having to anticipate them and prepare for them in advance.
Disadvantages of a deductive approach:
 Starting the lesson with a grammar presentation may be off-putting for
some students, especially younger ones. They may not have sufficient
metalanguage (i.e. language used to talk about language such as grammar
terminology). Or they may not be able to understand the concepts
involved.
 Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted, transmission-style
classroom; teacher explanation is often at the expense of student
involvement and interaction.
 Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation, such
as demonstration.
Aldersgate College Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
College of Arts, Sciences and Education Junelyn G. Villar, LPT

 Such an approach encourages the belief that learning a language is simply

a case of knowing the rules.

What is a rule?
In the Longman Activity Dictionary “rule” is defined as:
-a principle or order which guides behavior, says how things are to be
done etc., (prescriptive rule)
- the usual way that something happens (descriptive rule). Descriptive
rules are primarily concerned with generalizations about what speakers of
the language actually do say than what they should do.

 Pedagogic rules – they make sense to learners and provide them with the
means and confidence to generate language with a reasonable chance of
success.
Pedagogic rules can be spit up into:
rules of form and rules of use.

Examples of prescriptive rules: Do not use different to and never use

different than. Always use different from. Never use the passive when you
can use the active. Use shall for the first person and will for second and
third persons.

Examples of descriptive rules: You do not normally use the with proper
nouns referring to people. We use used to with the infinitive (used to do,
used to smoke etc.) to say that something regularly happened in the past
but no longer happens.

Example for rule of form: To form the past simple of regular verbs, add –
ed to the infinitive.
Example of a rule of use: The simple past tense is used to indicate past
actions or states.

Example: Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs

Subject and Object Pronouns
Subject Pronouns
I you he she it we you they
Aldersgate College Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
College of Arts, Sciences and Education Junelyn G. Villar, LPT

Object Pronouns
me you him her it us you them

The subject is the person or thing doing the action:

I left early.
She went home.
We said goodbye.

The object is the person or thing receiving the action:

She telephoned me.

I hit him.
We saw her.

Practice: Write the correct pronouns for these sentences:

1. ____ telephoned yesterday. (she)
She telephoned yesterday.
2. We watch ___ for hours. (he)
We watch him for hours.
3. Hasn’t ____ arrives yet? (she)
4. ____ don’t understand. (I)
5. Are you talking to ____? (I)
6. Don’t ask ___, ____ doesn’t know. (she/she)
7. This is Julia. ____ have known ___ for years. (we/she)
8. Nobody told ___ the bus was leaving. (they)
9. Why didn’t ___ ask ____ to come? (she/they)
10. Don’t ask ____. Ask ____. (I/he)
11. ___ think ____ doesn’t like ____. (I/he/I)
12. ____ asked ___ him to invite ___. (They/he/we)

Many of the pros and cons of a rule-driven approach hinge on the quality of the actual rule
explanation. This in turn depends on how user-friendly the rule is. What makes a rule a good
rule? Michael Swan, author of teachers' and students' grammars, offers the following criteria:
• Truth: Rules should be true. While truthfulness may need to be compromised in the interests of
clarity and simplicity, the rule must bear some resemblance to the reality it is describing. It is
surprising how many incorrect explanations you find in TEFL books. A good example is the
distinction usually made between some and any, which goes something like: Use some+plural
countable/uncountable noun in affirmative sentences. Use any+plural countable/uncountable
noun in negative sentences and questions. It still fails to explain: Take any one you want. I didn't
Aldersgate College Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
College of Arts, Sciences and Education Junelyn G. Villar, LPT

like some of his books. An explanation based on the difference in meaning between some and
any might eliminate many of these problems.
• Limitation: Rules should show clearly what the limits are on the use of a given form. For
example, to say simply that we use will to talk about the future is of little use to the learner since
it doesn't show how will is different from other ways of talking about the future (e.g. going to).
• Clarity: Rules should be clear. Lack of clarity is often caused by ambiguity or obscure
terminology. For example: 'Use will for spontaneous decisions; use going to for premeditated
decisions.' To which a student responded, 'All my decisions are premeditated'.
• Simplicity: Rules should be simple. Lack of simplicity is caused by overburdening the rule
with subcategories and sub-sub-categories in order to cover all possible instances and account for
all possible exceptions. There is a limit to the amount of exceptions a learner can remember.
• Familiarity: An explanation should try to make use of concepts already familiar to the learner.
Few learners have specialized knowledge of grammar, although they may well be familiar with
some basic terminology used to describe the grammar of their own language (e.g. conditional,
infinitive, gerund). Most learners have a concept of tense (past, present, future), but will be less
at home with concepts such as deontic and epistemic modality, for example.
• Relevance: A rule should answer only those questions that the student needs answered. These
questions may vary according to the mother tongue of the learner. For example, Arabic speakers,
who do not have an equivalent to the present perfect, may need a different treatment of this form
than, say, French speakers, who have a similar structure to the English present perfect, but who
use it slightly differently.
A lot depends on the teacher’s presentation of the rule. An effective rule presentation will
include the following features:
1. It will be illustrated by an example
2. It will be short
3. Students’ understanding will be checked
4. Students will have an opportunity to personalize the rule

Lesson 2: The Inductive Approach – the rule-discovery path

What are the advantages of encouraging learners to work rules out for themselves?
Advantages:
 Rules learners discover for themselves are more likely to fit their existing
mental structures than rules they have been presented with. This in turn
will make the rules more meaningful, memorable, and serviceable.
Aldersgate College Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
College of Arts, Sciences and Education Junelyn G. Villar, LPT

 The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth

which, again, ensures greater memorability.
 Students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than
being simply passive recipients: they are therefore likely to be more
attentive and more motivated.
 It is an approach which favors pattern-recognition and problem-solving
abilities which suggests that it is particularly suitable for learners who like
this kind of challenge.
 If the problem-solving is done collaboratively, and in the target language,
learners get the opportunity for extra language practice.
 Working things out for themselves prepares students for greater self-
reliance and is therefore conducive to learner autonomy.
Disadvantages:
 The time and energy spent in working out rules may mislead students into
believing that rules are the objective of language learning, rather than a
means.
 The time taken to work out a rule may be at the expense of time spent in
putting the rule to some sort of productive practice.
 Students may hypothesize the wrong rule, or their version of the rule may
be either too broad or too narrow in its application: this is especially a
danger where there is no overt testing of their hypotheses, either through
practice examples, or by eliciting an explicit statement of the rule.
 It can place heavy demands on teachers in planning a lesson. They need to
select and organize the data carefully so as to guide learners to an accurate
formulation of the rule, while also ensuring the data is intelligible.
 However carefully organized the data is, many language areas such as
aspect and modality resist easy rule formulation.
 An inductive approach frustrates students who, by dint of their personal
learning style or their past learning experience (or both), would prefer
simply to be told the rule.
Research findings into the relative benefits of deductive and inductive methods have been
inconclusive. Short term gains for deductive learning have been found, and there is some
evidence to suggest that some kinds of language items are better 'given than 'discovered'.
Moreover, when surveyed, most learners tend to prefer deductive presentations of grammar.
Nevertheless, once exposed to inductive approaches, there is often less resistance as the learners
see the benefits of solving language problems themselves. Finally, the autonomy argument is not
easily dismissed: the capacity to discern patterns and regularities in naturally occurring input
would seem to be an invaluable tool for self-directed learning, and one, therefore, that might
usefully be developed in the classroom.
Examples:
Aldersgate College Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
College of Arts, Sciences and Education Junelyn G. Villar, LPT

ii. A factory needs workers. Yesterday Bill read Example1:

their advertisement in the paper. It said these taken from “English in Situations” (O´Neill,
things: OUP 1970
“We are a very large firm, pay very high wages,
and have a good pension-scheme.” Generative situation:
Bill is at the factory today. He now knows that all
The teacher sets up a situation in order to
those things are not true. At this moment he is
saying these things to the manager: “generate” several example sentences of a
“You said you were a very large firm but you are structure.
a really small one! You said you paid high wages
but they are really very low. You said you had a
good pension scheme. You really haven’t one at
all.”

Find the rule Example 2:

Look at these sentences: The principles of the guided discovery
approach were originally intended for self-
You know Norma and Joe, don’t you? instruction as part of the kind of programs
They worked every day. which were used in language laboratories.
Joe talks to tourists, and Norma writes letters. They soon adopted for classroom use, and
We always go to their travel agency. course books promoting an inductive
The agency offers tours to many different approach to language learning are now more
countries. or less standard. An example of an inductive
I like the service there too. presentation of the present imple from New
Wave 1 (Longman 19988) is shown on the
There is a final (s) on the verb only with left.
certain subjects. What are they?

I you he she it we they

Now apply the rule

Circle the right verb.
I see/sees Norma almost every day, or
She call/calls me. She and Joe sometimes
come/comes to my house on weekends. Joe
usually tell/tells us some funny stories.
Teaching differences between past simple and Example 3: Minimal sentence pairs By presenting
present perfect (Teacher writes the following two sentences that are only different in one or two
three sets of sentences on the board:) 1a I’ve seen particulars, the teacher is better able to focus the
all of Jim Jarmusch’s films. b I saw his latest film students’ attention on exactly how the choice of
last month. 2a Since 1990, she’s worked for three form determines a difference in meaning. The
different newspapers. b She worked for the sentences should • be lexically simple • have
Observer in 1996. 3a Have you ever been to Peru? fairly self-evident contexts
b When were you in Peru?
Aldersgate College Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
College of Arts, Sciences and Education Junelyn G. Villar, LPT

a. Complete the job interview between an As with all rule-explicit presentations, this
Interviewer (I) and a Candidate (C). Put the verbs approach demands a basic command of grammar
in brackets in the Present Perfect or Past Simple terminology on the part of the learners.
Tense. Hypotheses must be tested. That stage is essential
I: So, tell me a little about the things you ____. in the presentation. It also shifts the focus back on
(do) to the learners.
C: Well, I ____ (study) French and German at
University. Then, I ______ teach secondary
school for a few years.
I: _____ you (enjoy) teaching?
C: No, not really. I ____ (not like) the discipline
problems. So, ____ (start) working for a large
drug company.
I: ______ you (work) abroad at all?
C: Yes, well about three years ago I ____ (get) a
job in France, selling advertising space for a
Science magazine.
I: _____ you (go) anywhere else?
C: Yes, I ____ (work) in Germany in 1990.
I: Oh really? What _____ (do) there?
The minimal pair approach is designed to overcome the lack of economy of the generative situation. By
getting straight to the point, the minimal pairs presentation combines the best features of an explanation-
driven approach and a discovery approach. It is also relatively easy to plan and to set up. In terms of
efficacy, it relies heavily on the choice of sample sentences. More problematic still is the lack of context,
which can sometimes lead students to the wrong conclusions, or, more frustratingly, to no conclusion at
all.

A They’ve been painting the kitchen. There is nothing to help students untangle the
B They’ve painted the kitchen. difference between these two sentences.
A What a mess!” Whereas, with slightly more context, the
“Yes, they’ve been painting the kitchen.” difference in meaning starts to take shape:
B “The flat is looking nice.”
“Yes, they’ve painted the kitchen.”

Example 4: Using Concordance Data

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• make indexes and word lists
• count word frequencies
• compare different usages of a word
• analyze keywords
• find phrases and idioms
Aldersgate College Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
College of Arts, Sciences and Education Junelyn G. Villar, LPT

• publish to the web

• ...and much more

Concordance is being used in

• Language teaching and learning
• Data mining and data clean-up
• Literary and linguistic scholarship
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• Lexicography
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geography, and media studies
A concordance derives its power for analysis from the fact that it allows us to see every place in a text
where a particular word is used, and so to detect patterns of usage and, again, to marshal evidence for an
argument. Since words express ideas, themes and motifs, a concordance is highly useful in detecting
patterns of meaning as well. The concordance focuses on word-forms, however -- not on what may be
meant but what is actually said. It is an empirical tool of textual research. (you can use Corpus
Concordance Sampler free at http://titania.cobuild.collins.co.uk/form.html)