Grammar reference

Contents

Unit 1 Prepositions of time 129 Unit 8 Zero, first and second 138
Frequency adverbs conditionals
Present simple and present When, if, unless + present,
continuous future
State verbs So do I and nor/neither do I
Countable and uncountable nouns Unit 9 Which, that, who, whose, 139
A few, a little, many, much, a lot of,
when, where clauses
lots of
(defining and non-deñning)
Prepositions of place Past perfect
Unit 2 Past simple and past continuous 131 Unjt 10 Commands 140
When, while and as Have something done
Used to
Unit 11 The passive: present and 140
Unit 3 Verbs followed by to or -ing 133 past simple
Phrasal verbs Comparative and superlative
Unit 4 Comparative and superlative 133 adverbs
adjectives Unit 12 Reported speech, commands 141
A bit, a little, much, far, a lot and questions
(Not) as ... as ...
Indirect questions
Big and enormous (gradable and non-
gradable adjectives) Irregular verbs 144

Unit 5 Can, coald, might, may 134

(ability and possibility)
Should, shouldn't, ought to, mast,
mustn't, have to, don't have to
(obligation and prohibition)
Adjectives with -ed and -ing
Unit 6 Present perfect 135
Just, already and yet
Since and for
Present perfect or past simple?
Unit 7 Ways of expressing the future 137
Prepositions of movement
Too and enoagh
Extremely, fairly, quite, rather,
really, very

128 Complete PET

Unit 1 Present simple and present continuous
Present simple
Prepositions of time
work
The prepositions at, on and in tell I/you/we/they
works
us when something happens. He/she/it
| We use at for times of the day: at
ten o'clock, at 8.15, at lunchtime, I/you/we/they don't on Sundays (?)
work
etc. and with expressions such as at He/she/it doesn't
the weekend, at night, at New Year, Do I/you/we/they
work
etc. Does he/she/it
• We use on for days and dates: on
Monday, on Saturday morning, on
Present continuous
February 5th, on the last day of the
month, etc. I 'm
• We use in for years, seasons, You/we/they 're
months, long periods, and parts of He/she/it 's
the day: in 2010, in winter, in July, in I 'm not
the holidays, in the afternoon, etc. You/we/they aren't / 're not working this afternoon (?)
He/she/it isn't / 's not
Frequency adverbs
Am I
We use frequency adverbs to say
Are you/we/they
how often something happens.
Is he/she/it
• We can use a word, e.g. sometimes,
always or a phrase like most
afternoons or every night. The present simple is used to describe:
• We usually put one-word frequency • a permanent state or situation: / Uve in the town where I was born.
adverbs (and hardly ever) before • a fact or something which is always true: The earth goes around the sun.
the main verb: We sometimes watch
• an activity which happens regularly or occasionally: He gets up at six o'clock
a film in the evening. I don't usually
every day.
go out until 8 o'clock. It hardly ever
rains in July. The present continuous is used to describe:

• With am, are, is, was or were, etc. • a temporary situation: l'm living with my únele while they are painting our
they come after the verb: They house.
are always late! Nowadays my • an activity happening at the present moment: l'm sorryyou can't talk to herat
grandmother is often ill. the moment. She's having a shower.
• They also come after auxiliary and • an activity in progress but not exactly at the present moment: l'm studying
modal verbs: It has often happened. three foreign languages, so l'm quite busy nowadays.
I can never understand him. • a situation which is changing or developing: Lots ofpeople are coming to Uve
• If we want to, we can put usually, here, so the town is growing quickly.
often, sometimes and occasionally m things the speaker finds strange or annoying, with always. (This is a way
at the beginning or end of a of complaining): You're always using the telephone. Ourphone bilí will be
sentence: Occasionally, we eat in enormous!
the garden. I feel tired sometimes.
• something which happens frequently, with always: My girlfriend is always
• We cannot put always or never at cooking me special meáis!
the beginning or end: Always I work
hñfd. I play table tennis never.
• We put phrases at the beginning
or end: / have piano lessons once a
week. Most evenings I stay at home.
• We can form questions using: How
often do you, Do you ever, Do you
always, etc.: How often do you
swim? Do you ever drink tea? Do
you always walk to school?
Grammar relerence M29)
State verbs A few, a little, many, much, a lot of, lots of
Verbs which describe states, not actions, are not We often use different quantifiers (a few, many, etc.)
usually used in the continuous. These verbs describe: with countable and uncountable nouns.
thoughts: believe know remember forget think • For small quantities of countable nouns, we use a few: a
(meaning believe) feel (meaning believe) guess (meaning few students.
believe) suppose understand, etc. • For small quantities of uncountable nouns, we use a little:
feelings: like bate want need prefer, etc. a little Information.
senses: smell taste hear see • For large quantities of countable nouns, we use many:
possession: have belong own contain include, etc. Many houses were damaged by the storm. Are there many
rooms in the hotel? I don't have many CDs.
existence: exist remain consist seem mean matter, etc.
• For large quantities of uncountable nouns in negative
the verb be sentences and questions, we use much: There isn't much
Some state verbs can be used in the continuous when information. Do you have much homework?
they describe actions: • We can use a lot of, or lots of, for large quantities of
l'm thinking about what you said. (I'm considering it.) She's countable and uncountable nouns: We had a lot of fun. I
feeling unhappy. (How she is at the moment.) The shop have lots of friends. Does she have lots ofmoney?
assistant is weighing the fruit for us. (He's measuring the
• If there is no noun after the quantifier, we use a lot
number of kilos.) Other verbs like this include see, taste,
without of: I like him a lot.
smell and be.
• We can use other words to refer to a quantity of an
Countable and uncountable nouns uncountable noun, e.g. a bit offood, an amount ofmoney.
Nouns can be either countable [C] or a drop of water.
uncountable [U].
Prepositions of place
Some nouns can be both countable [C] and
The prepositions at, on and in tell us where someone or
uncountable [U], but with a difference in meaning:
something is.
Theysayit's healthy to drink tea. [U] (tea in general) Would
you like a tea? [C] (a cup of tea) Living in a large house is a • We use at for a point, e.g. at the bus stop, and in
lot of work. [U] That picture is a work ofart. [C] expressions like at the top, at the back, at the station, at
theseaside, atschoolano ataparty
The grammar for countable nouns is different from the
grammar for uncountable nouns. • We use on for surfaces, e.g. on the table, on the wall, and
lines, e.g. on the coast, on the borden
• We use in when someone or something is in a space, e.g.
in a building, in a field, in the water, in South America.

Countable nouns: Uncountable nouns:

• use a or an in the singular, e.g. a job, • do not use a or an
an animal • cannot be made plural, e.g. work, music
• can be made plural, e.g. cars, books • use verbs in the singular, e.g. the news is good, music helps me relax
• use some and any in the plural, e.g. • use some and any in the singular, e.g. some food, any advice
some friends, any answers
Some common uncountable nouns in English
accommodation advice countryside damage electricity equipment
experience food furniture homework housework information
knowledge luggage make-up money music news
noise paper pollution rain research scenery
shampoo smoke software space sugar sunshine
time transpon work

130) Complete PET

Unit 2
Past simple and past continuous The past simple is used to describe:

Past simple • actions or events in the past: / visited

Egypt last year.
Be
• actions or events which happened one
1/he/she/it was (n't) after another: / saw the Pyramids, then
You/we/they were (n't) I went to the Cairo Museum and later I
at home yesterday (?)
Was I/he/she/it went to a traditional restaurant.
Were you/we/they The past continuous is used to
I/he/she/it was describe:
Yes
you/we/they were • activities that were already happening
I/he/she/it wasn't at a moment in the past: We were
No doing a maths exam in class when
you/we/they weren't
my mobile rang. (= We were in the
Most other verbs
middle of the exam when the phone
rang.) While I was walking to school,
I/you/he/she/it/ I met a friend. (= On my way to school
watched
we/they ^ I met a friend.)
• activities when we are not interested
TV
I/you/he/she/it/ in when the activity started and we do
didn't watch yesterday (?)
we/they not know if this activity finished or not:
The sun was shining and I was feeling
I/you/he/she/ happy. (= We know that the sun was
Did watch shining at the same moment as I was
it/we/they
feeling happy, but we don't know when
I/you/he/she/it/
Yes did these activities started or when they
we/they finished.)
I/you/he/she/it/ We often use the past simple and the
No didn't
we/they past continuous together to show
that an action happened in the middle
Past continuous
of an activity: / was watching televisión
I/he/she/it was (n't) when the telephone rang. (= We started
You/we/they were (n't) TV watching televisión and in the middle of
watching yesterday this activity, the telephone rang) (We don't
Was I/he/she/it at 6 pm (?)
Were you/we/they know if I stopped watching TV after the
telephone rang.)
I/he/she/it was
Yes I was watching televisión
you/we/they were
I/he/she/it wasn't
No the telephone rang
you/we/they weren't
Remember: state verbs are not normally
Regular verbs in the past simple end in -ed: watched, arrived, played, etc.
used in the past continuous
Q page 144 Irregular verbs Q page 129 Present simple and present
continuous

Grammar reference (Í31

When, while and as
• We can use when, while or as to introduce an activity in We generally use when to introduce an action in the pas:
the past continuous: simple:
When/While/As I was watching TV, the telephone rang. / was watching TV when the telephone rang.

Spelling of regular past simple and -ing forms

infinitive past simple rule -ing form rule

most regular watch watched add -ed watching add -ing
verbs
verbs ending
in:
-e arrive arrived add -d arriving usually remove
-e, add -ing
consonant + y study studied y changes to i, studying no change, add
add -ed •ing
vowel + y play played no change, add playing no change, add
-ed •ing
one-syllable, plan planned double the last planning double the last
consonant- consonant, add consonant, add
vowel- -ed -ing
consonant
more than one prefer preferred double the last preferring double the last
syllable, as consonant consonant, add
above, stress on -ing
final syllable
more than one open opened no change, add opening no change, add
syllable, as -ed -ing
above, stress
not on final
syllable
-l* travel* travelled* double final l* travelling* double final /*

* In British English [The final / is not doubled in US English.)

Used to
I/you/he/ used to Used to is used to describe things that happened
she/it/we/ regularly in the past but don't happen now: / used to
they wear a school uniform but now I don't. We didn't use to get
homework when we were younger but now we do.
I/you/he/ didn't use to
she/it/we/ play w i t h dolls (?) Note:
they Used to is only used in the past. To talk about things that
use to happen regularly in the present, use the present simple with
Did I/you/he/
an adverb like usually, every day, etc.: / usually drink water
she/it/we/
with my lunch. He catches the same train every day.
they

132 Complete PET

Unit 3 Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb consists of two or three parts. There
Verbs followed by to or -ing are three main kinds of phrasal verb:
Some verbs are followed by the -ing form of another • verb + adverb, with object, e.g. He picked up his coat.
verb: Everyone enjoys listening to music. /Ve finished
* verb + adverb, without object, e.g. The plañe took off.
reading my book. Other verbs like this include:
• verb + adverb + preposition, with object, e.g. / got on
admit, avoid, dislike, fancy, feel like, imagine, mention, mind,
with my work.
miss, practise, put off, suggest.
Some verbs are followed by the to infinitive of another Unit 4
verb: We expected to win the game. I can't afford to buy a
bike. Other verbs like this include: agree, appear, attempt, Comparative and superlative adjectives
begin, decide, demand, fail, hope, intend, learn, manage, We use a comparative adjective to compare two people or
offer, plan, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, want, would like. things and to say one thing has more (or less) of a quality
Some verbs are followed by the -ing form or the to (size, height, etc.) than the other: A blue whale is heavier
infinitive of another verb with similar meanings: / love than an elephant. Mount Everest is higher than K2.
playing tennis. I love to play tennis. It continued raining all We use a superlative adjective to compare one person or
day. It continued to rain all day. Other verbs like this include: thing with all those in the same group and to say this thing
begin, continué, hate, like, love, prefer, start. has the most (or least) of a quality: There are many high
Some verbs are followed by the -ing form or the mountains in the world but Mount Everest is the highest.
infinitive of another verb, but with a different meaning:
Comparative adjectives Superlative adjectives
verb + infinitive verb + -ing We add -er to one- We add -est to one-
remember Did you remember I remember feeling syllable adjectives, e.g. syllable adjectives:
to bring your very tired at the end deep, high, tall. The The giraffe is the tallest
running shoes? (an of the race (a memory Pacific Ocean is deeper animal in the world.
action you have to of something in the than the Atlantic.
do) past) We add -er to two- We add -est to two-
forget Don't forget to bring /'// never forget syllable adjectives syllable adjectives
your tennis mcket winning my first end ing in -y or -ly, e.g. end ing in -y or -ly.
(an action you have tennis championship
noisy, friendly. My The blue whale is the
to do) (a memory of
something in the brother is friendlier heaviest animal in the
past) than me. world.
regret / regret to tell you / regret not training We use more to form We use most to form
the race has been harder before the race the comparative the superlative of two-
cancelled (regret + (l'm sorry I didn't do of most other two- syllable adjectives: The
to say / to tell / to this) syllable adjectives. mosquito is the most
inform means: l'm
Gold is more expensive dangerous creature.
sorry to give you
than silver.
this information)
After the adjective we Before the adjective we
try l'm running every If you want to get
day because l'm fit, why don't you usually put than. usually put the.
trying to get fit (my try swimming? The adjectives good, The adjectives good,
aim is to get fit) (swimming is a way bad and far form bad and far form
to achieve what you irregular comparisons. irregular superlatives.
want) We can sometimes use We can sometimes use
stop During the race, he When he realised less instead of more: least instead of most:
stopped to drink he couldn't win, he A mobile phone is This mobile phone is the
some water (in stopped running (he
normally less expensive least expensive.
order to drink some didn't continué)
than a laptop.
water)

Grammar reference i
Spelling of comparative and superlative adjectives
• Enormous {fantastic, delighted, astonished, etc.) are
Regular non-gradable adjectives, meaning very big {good, happy.
adjective comparative superlative rule surprised, etc.). We can say really or absolutely enormous
but not normally quite*, very or extremely enormous.
deep deeper deepest Most
adjectives add *quite here means a little Q page 138 quite with non-
•er or -est gradable adjectives to mean completely

Adjectives
end ing in: Unit 5
safe safer safest •e add -r or -st
Can, could, might, may (ability and possibility)
noisy noisier noisiest -y change to -i,
To say someone has (or hasn't) an ability, we use can,
add -er or -est
can't, could and couldn't:
big bigger biggest one vowel +
Francesca can speak five languages, but she can't speak
one consonant Russian. As a child, she could play the piano but she couldn't
double the last play the violin.
consonant, add • The question forms are can you and could you: Can you
-er or -est swim? Could you run 20 kilometres when you were very
Irregular young?

good better best irregular • We use can and could with see, hear, smell, feel and
taste: From the top of the mountain you could see for
bad worse worst
more than 50 km. I can hear a strange noise coming from
far farther/ farthest/
upstairs.
further furthest
To express possibility about the present or future,
A bit, a little, much, far, a lot we use may, might or could: I may come and visit you
next summer. We might go to the cinema this evening if we
We can't use very with comparatives but we can use much,
finish all our work in time. We should go out for a walk now
far or a lot: Cheetahs are much/far/a lot faster than
because it could rain laten
elephants. (Not Cheetahs are very faster than elephants.')
We use may not and might not for the negative (not
We can use a bit or a little to describe a small difference:
can't or couldn't, which express certainty): Frankie is
Canadá is a bit /a little bigger than the USA.
looking very palé: he may not be very well. Don't cook any
(Not) as ... as ... dinner for me because I might not be back in time.
We use as + adjective + as to say two things are the Should, shouldn't, ought to, must, mustn't,
same in some way: Tara is as tall as Hannah. {= Tara is the
have to, don't have to (obligation and
same height as Hannah.)
prohibition)
We use not as + adjective + as to say that one thing is
less than another: Hannah is not as tall as her brother. (= To give somebody advice we use should or, less often,
Hannah is shorter than her brother.) ought to: You should get a new pair of shoes. You ought to
have a rest now.
We can use so in negative sentences to replace the
fírst as: Hannah is not so tall as her brother. • Particularly in the negative, shouldn't is more common
than oughtn't: You shouldn't work so hard. The question
Remember: the form of the adjective does not change:
form is should l/she, etc: Should we go now?
(not) as taller as (not) as tall as.
• We often use should (and occasionally ought tó) to talk
Big and enormous (gradable and non- about the right thing to do, but which is different from
gradable adjectives) what really happens: / should do the housework instead
• Big {good, happy, surprised, etc.) are gradable adjectives. of watching televisión in the middle of the afternoon. He
We can say someone or something is quite, very or really should write his own answers instead of copying them
big {good, happy, surprised, etc.) to talk about how from the Internet.
big {good, happy, surprised, etc.) they are. We can also
say something is extremely big which means it's much
bigger than usual.

134) Complete PET

To express obligation, we use must and have to: You
musí be quiet. I have to go now.
Unit 6
• We use must when the obligation is something we Present perfect
agree with. Teacher to students: You must hand in your
I/you/we/ have / 've
homework on Monday.
they
• We use have to when the obligation comes from
he/she/it has / 's
someone else: My teacher has given me a lot of
homework which I have to do for Monday.
I/you/we/ have not /
• We use must for strong advice: You must be careful if you
they haven't
stay out late at night. arrived home (?)
he/she/it has not /
• The question forms are must l/you, etc. and do l/you, etc.
have to: Must we stop writing now? Do they have to wear hasn't
uniforms at that school? Have I/you/we/
To express prohibition, we use mustn't: You mustn't go they
in there - it says 'No en try!'. You mustn't speak during the Has he/she/it
exam - it's forbidden.
• Do not use don't have to to express prohibition: You Regular verbs have the same form for the past simple
mustn't use your mobile phone in class (it's not allowed). and the past participle: arrived, watched, played, etc.
Compare this with: You don't have to use your mobile
Some irregular verbs have the same form for the past
phone to speak to Fayed. Look! He's over there (i.e. it's
not necessary). simple and the past participle: cut, felt, bought, etc.

• Never use mustn't about the past. For prohibition in the Other irregular verbs have a different form for the past
past, we can use not allowed to, e.g. We weren't allowed simple and past participle: done, given, written, etc.
to speak. For something that wasn't necessary, we often
Q page 144 Irregular verbs
use didn't have to: Jo gave me a ticket for the concert, so
I didn't have to pay. We use the present perfect to connect the past with
the present. It is used to describe something which
To say that there is no obligation, or it's not necessary, we
started in the past and:
use don't have to, don't need to or needn't: This is a really
good exercise on phrasal verbs for anyone who's interested, • has a connection with the present: Tve finished all my
but it's not for homework, so you don't have to do it ifyou exams (so l'm very happy now).
don't want to. You needn't learn all the vocabulary on this • continúes into the present: Tve lived here for five years
page - only the words you think are use ful. (and I still live here now).

Adjectives with -ed and -ing Just, already and yet

There are many adjectives which can be formed with We often use the adverbs just, already or yet with
-ed or -ing. the present perfect to talk about things that have
• Adjectives with -ed express how the person feels about happened before now but have a connection with the
something: She was terrified as Dracula approached her. present.

• Adjectives with -ing are used to describe the person or • We use just to talk about things that happened a short
thing which produces the feeling: There's a surprising time ago: Tve just eaten (= I ate a short time ago and
article in today's newspaper (I felt surprised when I read l'm not hungry now). Magda's just gone out (= She left a
it). short time ago so you can't speak to her now).

• Common adjectives like this include: • We use already to say something has happened, often
sooner than expected. 'Do page 23 for homework!' 'We've
amused/amusing annoyed/annoying disappointed/
already done that page.' {= That page is finished now so
disappointing bored/boring relaxed/relaxing
we don't need to do it again.)
surprised/surprising tired/tiring depressed/
'When are you going to tidyyour bedroom?' 'Tve already
depressing embarrassed/embarrassing interested/
tidied it.'(= The room is tidy now so I don't need to do it
interesting amazed/amazing excited/exciting
again.)
disgusted/disgusting satisfied/satisfying
Note: these two adverbs normally go in the middle of the
sentence, between have and the past participle: Tve just
bought some new trainers. She's already read that book.

Grammar reíerence U35)

 We often use yer in questions and negative sentences when we expect something to happen. It means until now: 'Have
you seen the new Kate Winslet film yet?' 'No, I haven't seen ityet.'{= No, I haven't seen the film at a time before now but
I expect l'll go.)

Note: Yet normally goes at the end of the question or sentence: 'Have you finished yet?' 'No, I haven't finished yet'

Since and for

We often use since and for with the present perfect to talk about a time that started in the past and continúes
into the present.

We use since to talk about the beginning of a period of * We use for to talk about the whole period of time:
time:

Michael Keen has written I've been on the basketball for three years
three novéis 2007 team three weeks
since last year a long time
He's played tennis three Wednesday
• We often use How long to ask questions about this
times
period of time: 'How long have you had those trainers?'
'Since last year.'

Present perfect or past simple?

Present perfect Past simple
We normally use the present perfect when: We normally use the past simple when:
• we are thinking about the past and the present: I'ue • we are thinking about the past but not the present:
broken my arm so I can't do the maths exam. Molly has / broke my arm when I was riding my bike. Seth
bought a ticket for the concert tonight. (= Molly has a bought two tickets for last week's concert and he went
ticket and plans to go to the concert tonight.) with his friend Jim. (= Seth went to the concert w i t h
Jim last week.)
• we are not interested in when this action happened, • we are interested in when this action happened:
but we are interested in the result now: / lost my keys yesterday (and I couldn't open the
I've lost my keys (and now I can't open my front door). front door). / did my homework last night.
I've finished all my homework (so I don't have to do it
now).

We can also use the present perfect to: We use the past simple:
• talk about experiences over a time that started in the • when these experiences happened over a time in the
past and continúes until now, but we don't say when: past:
JK Rowling has written seven Harry Potter books. (= JRR Tolkien wrote the Lord of the Rings.
She may write more.) (= Tolkien's dead so he won't write more.)
I've never been to Japan (until now, but I may go in the When l was in Asia, I didn't go to Japan.
future). (= l'm not in Asia now).
• to give news: • to add more details to this news:
Rafa Nadal has won again. I've had my hair cut. He beat Roger Federen (not h&s beaten)
Remember if we ask questions about a time that I went to that new hairdresser's.
started in the past and continúes into the present, we We use the past simple to ask questions about a time
use the present perfect: in the past:
'How long have you lived here?' 'When did you move here?'
Tve lived here for three years.' (= l'm interested in a 'May 2009.' (= l'm interested in a particular date in
time period that started in the past and continúes until the past.)
now.) 'What time did the match start?'
'How many matches have you played this week?' (= l'm
interested in a time period that started in the past and
continúes until now.)

136 Complete PET

Unit 7
Ways of expressing the future
Here are some ways of talking about the future.
examples
future simple 1 w i t h things which are not certain, She'll probably phone later. I think it'll be
especially w i t h / think, l hope, l expect, warmer next week.
probably and maybe

2 predictions for the future Sea levéis will rise by several centimetres.
The climate will change.
will can also be used to:
• make requests Will you help me with my homework?
• make promises 1 won't forget to give you a present.
• make offers TU buy you a sandwich if you're hungry.
• express a decisión made at the moment That's the phone ringing - TU get it!
of speaking
going to future 1 predictions about the future based on Your work is so good that I reckon you're going
present evidence to get a Grade A.
Look at the clouds! I think it's going to snow.
2 future plans and intentions Tm going to study biology at university.
He says he's going to phone you tomorrow.
present things arranged between people for the future Tm seeing the dentist tomorrow - l phoned her
continuous assistant yesterday.
present simple events fixed on a timetable The flight to Paris takes off at six.
Our train leaves at 5.15.

In some c a s e s , more than one verb form is possible: To talk about cars and taxis, we use in: They arrived at
• In practice, an agreed arrangement Cpresent continuous] the cinema in Liam's car. I decided not to go in my car. There
may be almost exactly the same as a plan [going to): Tm were five of us in the taxi.
seeing Joey tonight. / l'm going to see Joey tonight. • With get, and sometimes with other verbs such as jump
m When it is not clear whether a prediction is based on fact and climb, we use in/into and out of: Get in the car! Two
{going to) or opinión {wilPj, we can use either of these people got into the taxi. I got out of the car and closed
forms: Amy is going to pass her exam. (l'm the teacher the door behind me. Sofía jumped into her car and set off
and I've seen some of her exam marks.) I Amy will pass quickly.
her exam. (I know Amy and I think she's very eleven) To talk about public transpon, motorbikes, bicycles
and horses, we use on: She left on the 7.45 plañe. I usually
Prepositions of movement go to school on my bike, but today Tm going on the bus. The
To say how we travel, we normally use by: We went to best way to cross the hills is on a horse.
Paris by train. • We use on/onto or otf with get: You get on the bus at the
• Expressions like this include by car, by plañe, by ship, by station, and get off at the shopping centre. Marión left the
boat, by ferry café and got on his motorbike.
• We also say by road, by sea, by air, by rail, by metro, by
underground.
• But we say on foot, not by foot: There were no buses so
we went on foot.
• We can't use by with a, the, her, etc. in expressions like a
taxi, the plañe, her bike. Instead, we say in a taxi, on the
plañe, on her bike.

Grammar reíerence (137)

Too a n d enough
Unit 8
Too means more than is needed or wanted: She's too
oíd to join the pólice. Z e r o , first a n d s e c o n d conditionals
Enough means as much as is necessary or needed: We use conditional sentences to talk about a possible
Have we got enough eggs to make a cake? situation or action (//*...) and the possible results of
this situation or action:
Extremely, fairly, quite, rather, really, very
If it rains, I 'II get wet.
We can use the adverbs very, extremely and really
(possible situation) (possible result)
before adjectives to make the adjectives stronger: /.'
was a very long journey. We were extremely tired yesterday We can also talk about the result before we describe
(very tired). / had a really good sleep last night (very good). the situation:

To make an adjective weaker, we can use rather or Til get wet if it rains.
fairly: (possible result) (possible situation)
It's rather cold today (cold, but not freezing). Note: If the situation comes first, a comma is used. If the
Their apartment is fairly big (big, but not huge). result comes first, no comma is used.

We can use quite to make gradable (e.g. good, tired, etc.) Conditionals are often divided into types:
adjectives weaker, but with non-gradable adjectives (e.g. Type O or zero conditional
sure, true, different, etc.), quite can mean completely:
If + present tense, present tense: Ifour team wins a
The town I Uve in is quite small (small, but not tiny). match, our coach is happy. (= He's happy every time we
win.)
l'm quite sure it's the right answer (l'm 100% sure).
The zero conditional is used to talk about things which are
too enough always or generally true.
too + adjective (+ for adjective/adverb + Type 1 or first conditional
somebody) (+ enough (+ for
somebody) (+ If + present tense, future: Ifour team wins this match,
infinitive):
we'll win the competition. (= I think the team could win.)
• He's too young to drive. infinitive):
• That suitcase is too • This coffee is not warm The first conditional is used to talk about a real possibility in
heavy for me to lift. enough! Please heat it the future.
too + adverb (+ for up again. Type 2 or second conditional
somebody) (+ • Franz didn't answer the
If + past tense, would + infinitive: Ifour team won all the
infinitive): questions well enough to
matches, we'd be the champions! (= I don't think the team
• You're working too get the job.
will win all the matches.)
slowly. Please hurry up. • That hotel is not smart
• It was snowing too enough for her. The second conditional is used when the speaker is
heavily for me to see the enough + noun (+ imagining a situation that will probably not happen.
road ahead. for somebody) (+ When deciding whether to use the first or second
too much/too many + infinitive): conditional, you need to think about whether each
noun (+ for somebody) • Have you got enough situation is a real possibility or not for you:
(+ infinitive): money to get to London?
If it rains at the weekend, Til go to the cinema. (I think it
• They brought too much • There isn't enough cake
could rain.)
food for us to eat. for me to give some to
• Tve received too many everyone. If it rained in the desert, plants would grow. (l'm sure it won't
emails to answer. rain.)

When, if, unless + present, future

We can use when, i for unless to talk about the
possibility of things happening in the future:
• We use when for things we are sure will happen:
When I get home, Til watch TV. (l'm sure NI get home
today.)
• We use //for things that may happen:
If I get home before 8 pm, Til watch the film, (l'm not sure
if l'll get home before 8 pm but it is possible.)

138) Complete PET

 We use:
• Unless can generally replace if... not and means except
if: l'll watch the film unless I get home too late. (= NI • so in positive sentences: 7 Uve in Japan.' 'So do /.'
watch the film if I don't get home too late. / I plan to • ñor or neither in negative sentences: James can't swim
watch the film except if\t home too late.) well.' 'Nor/Neither can Matt.'

So do I a n d nor/neither do I • the same auxiliary verb in the reply: Tve studied for the
exam.' 'So have I.' 'Callum isn't here.' 'Nor/Neitheris
We can use so do I and nor/neither do I when we reply
Hamish.'
to someone but we don't want to repeat the same
words. We use these expressions to say that the same • do or did if there is no auxiliary verb: 'He goes to King
is true for me or someone else: William's School.' 'So does Kate.' 7 didn't watch TV last
night.' 'Nor/Neither did I.'
Someone says: You agree:
• the same word order as questions: 7 saw a great film at
l'm bored. So am I.
the weekend.' 'So did/'. (Not So Idid)
I've got lots of cousins. So have I.
Maya plays the guitar. So does Lou.
We don't like rock music. Neither/Nor do they.
You can sing well. So can you.
They bought that new CD. So did I.
Josh hasn't done his homework. Neither/Nor have I.

Unit 9
Which, that, who, whose, when, where c l a u s e s (defining a n d n o n - d e f í n i n g )
A clause is part of a sentence. The relative clause in this sentence is underlined:
The man who phoned you is my doctor.
Relative clauses start with these relative pronouns: which, that, who, whose, where, when and why.
Defining relative clauses
• Relative clauses which tell you which person or thing the speaker is talking about are called defining relative clauses.
• Definí np relative clauses .pive essential information: The doctor whopave me the medicine is my r.misin. The relative
clause (underlined) tells us which doctor we are talking about.
N o n - d e f í n i n g relative clauses
• Relative clauses which give you extra information are called non-defíning relative clauses.
• Non-definíng relative clauses give information that is not essential: My doctor, who belongs to the same tennis club as
you, gave me the medicine yesterday. We already know which doctor (it's my doctor); who belongs to the same tennis
club as you does not tell us which doctor we are talking about; it just adds extra information.
There are differences in grammar between defining and non-defíning relative clauses:
Defining relative clauses Non-defíning relative clauses
• Don't have commas. • Use commas (or pauses in spoken English).
• Use the following relative pronouns: • Use the following relative pronouns:
who, which, whose, where, when, why. who, which, whose, where, when, why.
• That can be used instead of who or which. • Don't use that.
• Who, which or that can be omitted when they are the • The relative pronoun cannot be omitted.
object of the clause: The medicine (which/that) the
doctor gave me should be taken twice a day {the doctor
is the subject and which/that the object of the clause).

Grammar reíerence (Í39)

 Past perfect I 'm (not)
I/you/he/she/ 're (not)
had / 'd You/we/they
it/we/they are (n't)
I/you/he/she/ had not / 's (not) having the computer
arrived home (?) He/she/it
it/we/they hadn't (isn't) mended (?)
I/you/he/she/ Am I
Had
it/we/they Are you/we/they
The main uses of the past perfect are: Is she/he/it
to show that we are talking about something which
happened before something that is described in the past I/you/he/she/it/ had
simple: When he got to the station, his train had already we/they (didn't have) the house
left. Compare this with: When he got to the station, his
train left. This shows that the train left at the same time I/you/he/she/ painted (?)
Did have
he arrived. it/we/they
• it is often used with time expressions like when, as soon We use have something done when we ask someone
as, after, before: She started driving before he'd fastened else to do something for us: We're having the car
his seatbelt. When the terrible storm had ended, people repaired. (= The mechanic is repairing the car for us.) /
started to come out of their houses. had my hair cut last week. (= A hairdresser cut my hair
• it is often used with the adverbs already, just, never: The for me.)
thieves had already escaped when the pólice arrived. Hed B We can also use get something done: She gets her hair
never eaten a really good pizza until he went to Italy. cut (but usually only in informal situations).
• We can use have (or get) something done in any form
or tense: l'm thinking of having my hair cut. My watch is
Unit TO broken - I must have it repaired.
Commands*
*Commands are also known as imperatives.
Unit 11
'Stand up!' 'Don't touch the walls, children.'
'Be quiet, everybody.' 'Don't worry so much.' The passive: present and past simple
'Have a good weekend.' 'Don't forget to phone me.' The passive is formed by the verb be + done / eaten /
cleaned, etc.: Lunch is served in the hotel restaurant from
We use: 1 pm.
the infinitive without to: 'Be good!', 'Don't talk!' (Not
'Don't to talk!) Active Passive

the same form when we talk to one or more than one They ate all the food very All the food was eaten
person: 'Enjoy your holiday everybody!' quickly. very quickly.
this structure to command, tell or ask someone to We've sold the car. The car has been sold.
do something, to give instructions or advice, make
suggestions, encourage, warn, etc. It's nice when people invite It's nice when Tm invited
me to dinner. to dinner.
Have something done
On a clear day you can see On a clear day Ibiza

I/you/we/they have Ibiza from the mainland. can be seen from the
mainland.

he/she/it has The passive is used when:

the car • the speaker doesn't know who or what does/did
repaired (?) something: My bike was stolen last night.
I/you/we/
Do • the speaker doesn't need to say who or what does/did
they have
something because it's obvious from the situation or
Does he/she/it context: The murderer was arrested (obviously by the
pólice).
• what happens is more important than who does it: The
post is delivered at 8.30.
(ÍÁo) Complete PET
• when writing in a formal style: Your documents were Unit 12
signed yesterday and they can now be collected from our
office. Reported s p e e c h
More about the passive: We often use say and tell to report what people say:
• If it is important to say who or what did something, we • we use tell if we mention who we are talking to: He told
add by + noun: This picture was painted by my aunt. me he was from Casablanca. (Not He told he was from
Casablanca)
• We sometimes leave out a relative pronoun and the form
of the verb be: The film, (which was) made in the 1990s, • if not, we use say: She said she would help me. (Not She-
is still very popular. said me she would help me)
Remember: you can leave out that: 'He said that he was
Comparative and superlative adverbs tired and 'He said he was tired have the same meaning.
We use a comparative adverb to compare two ways
Tense changes
things are done: Computers run more quickly than in the
past. Lucy always talks more loudly than Stacey. What people say > Reporting what people said
We use a superlative adverb to compare one thing or present simple past simple
person with all those in the same group: There were a 7 Uve in Berlín.' She said she lived in Berlín.
lot of good dancers in the competition, but Sam and Ricky
present continuous past continuous
danced the most brilliantly.
'Tm watching TV.' He said he was watching TV.
Comparative adverbs Superlative adverbs
present perfect past perfect
• We use more to form We use most to form
'Tve seen the film She said she had seen the
the comparative of the superlative of
two-syllable adverbs, two-syllable adverbs, already' film already.
including adverbs including adverbs past simple past perfect*
end ing in -ly: Mario, end ing in -ly: This 7 missed the concert.' He told me he had missed
read the text more machine works most the concert.
quickly than Susanna. efficiently of all.
She uisits me more often * We can also use the past simple: He told me he missed the
than she used to. After We add -est to one- concert
the adverb we usually syllable adverbs: Max
will would
put than. won the race because he
ran fastest at the end. TU. phone you soon.' She said she would phone
• We add -er to one- me soon.
syllable adverbs, e.g. The adverbs well and am/are/is going to was/were going to
hard, fast, straight: badly form irregular
'Tm going to play She said she was going to
My mum works harder superlatives: well —>
best; badly —> u;orsr: tennis.' play tennis.
than my dad. (Not more
hardly) They are all excellent can could
students, but Mel speaks 7 can run but l can't run He said he could run but he
• The adverbs well and French best. We tested
fast.' couldn't run fast.
badly form irregular three cars, and this one
comparisons: u>e//—> performs worst.
better, badly —> worse:
Dolphins can swim The superlative
better than people. Your sometimes takes the,
team always plays worse especially in more
than mine. formal situations: In
the current economic
• We can sometimes use situation, sales of
less instead of more: our luxury model are
After a while, the wind growing the most slowly.
began to blow less
strongly.

Grammar reíerence ( u i
Other changes Reported c o m m a n d s
We usually make the following changes: What people say > Reporting what people said
What people say > Reporting what people said 'Stand up!' The teacher told them to
l/you he/she/they stand up.
7 spoke to you earlier.' He said he had spoken to 'Be quiet!' He told the child to be
her earlier. quiet.
we they 'Don't touch anything.' The mother told her son not
'We've finished!' They said they had to touch anything.
finished. 'Don't worry.' Her friend told her not to
my his/her worry.
7 can't find my keys.' She said she couldn't find We generally use ask and not tell to report more polite
her keys. requests:
your my/his/her/their 'Open the window.' He told her to open the
77/ come to your house He said that he would window.
later.' come to her house later. 'Can you open the window?' He asked her to open the
our their window.
'We've tidied our They said they had tidied
Reported questions
bedroom.' their bedroom.
today / this week / month that day / week / month We can, use ask. wonder, want to know. etc. to introduce
reported questions:
/ year / year
tomorrow / next month / the next day / the What people say > Reporting what people said
year following month / year 'Where do you live?' He asked me where I lived.
yesterday / last week / the day before / the 'What are you doing She wondered what he was
month / year previous day / the previous after class?' doing after class.
week / month / year; the 'Have you finished your He wanted to know if she
week / month / year before homework?' had finished her homework.
Tm playing tennis She said she was playing To report a question, we make the following changes:
tomorrow.' tennis the next day. • change the word order in the question to the same as a
there normal sentence:
here He said he had lived there direct question: 'Where can I buy a
'I've lived here all my Ufe.' all his Ufe. dictionary?'
reported question: He asked me where I could
buy a dictionary.
(not... where could I buy ...)
• make the same tense changes as for reported speech:
Q page 141 Reported speech
direct question: 'Where have you been?'
reported question: She asked me where I had
been.
• do not use do. does or did as an auxiliary verb:
direct question: Do you like strawberries?'
reported question: He asked me ifl liked
strawberries.
(not... // / did like strawberries)

142 Complete PET

 Also, as for reported speech, we use the same
• use a full stop, not a question mark at the end of the
question words {what, when, where, etc.) but if there
sentence:
is no question word, we use if or whether:
direct question: 'What time do you start
school?' Direct question Indirect question
reported question: They asked us what time we Where did you go?' I can 't remember where you went.
started school. 'Didyou stay in a hotel?' l'd like to know ifyou stayed in a
In reported questions, we use the same question words hotel.
{what, when, where, etc.) but if there is no question word, we However, unlike in reported questions, in indirect questions:
use // or whether.
• the tense stays the same:
Direct question Reported question direct question: 'Will he leave soon?'
Why are you laughing?' The teacher asked us why we indirect question: / ivas wondering ifhe'll leave soon.
were laughing. (not... if he would leave ...)
Are you going on holiday?' He asked me if I was going on • we use a question mark when the introductory
holiday. expression is a question: Could you tell me where the
bank is?
Indirect questions
• we use a full stop when the introductory expression is
When we ask for information, we sometimes use not a question: l'd like to know where the bank is.
indirect questions to sound more polite. Expressions
used to introduce indirect questions include: / was
wondering ..., l'd like to know., I can't remember..., Could
you tell me .... etc.
Direct question Indirect question
'Where do you Uve?' I was wondering where you
lived.
'What are you doing later?' Could you tell me what you are
doing later?
'Have you finished your l'd like to know ifyou have
homework?' finished your homework.
As for reported questions (see above), when a direct
question becomes part of a longer, indirect question,
we make the following changes:
• change the word order in the indirect question to the
same as a normal sentence:
direct question: 'How long have you lived here?'
indirect question: l'd like to know how long you've
lived here.
(not... how long have you lived
here.)
• do not use do, does or did as an auxiliary verb:
direct question: Do you play tennis every day?'
indirect question: Could you tell me ifyou play
tennis every day?
(not... ifyou do play tennis ...)

Grammar reíerence M43;

Irregular verbs
verb past simple past participle verb past simple past participle
be was/were been lend lent lent
beat beat beaten let let let
become became become lie lay lain
begin began begun light lit lit
bend bent bent lose lost lost
bite bit bitten make made made
bleed bled bled mean meant meant
blow blew blown meet met met
break broke broken pay paid paid
bring brought brought put put put
build built built read read read
burn burnt/burned burnt/burned ride rodé ridden
buy bought bought ring rang rung
catch caught caught rise rose risen
choose chose chosen run ran run
come carne come say said said
cost cost cost see saw seen
cut cut cut solí sold sold
deal dealt dealt send sent sent
dig dug dug set set set
do did done sew sewed sewn
draw drew drawn shake shook shaken
dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed shine shone shone
drink drank drunk shoot shot shot
drive drove driven show showed shown
eat ate eaten shut shut shut
fall fell fallen sing sang sung
feed fed fed sink sank sunk
feel felt felt sit sat sat
fight fought fought sleep slept slept
find found found smell smelt/smelled smelt/smelled
fly flew flown speak spoke spoken
forbid forbade forbidden spell spelt/spelled spelt/spelled
forget forgot forgotten spend spent spent
forgive forgave forgiven spill spilt/spilled spilt/spilled
freeze froze frozen spoil spoilt/spoiled spoilt/spoiled
get got got stand stood stood
give gave given steal stole stolen
go went gone stick stuck stuck
grow grew grown strike struck struck
hang hung hung sweep swept swept
have had had swim swam swum
hear heard heard swing swung swung
hide hid hidden take took taken
hit hit hit teach taught taught
hold held held tear tore torn
hurt hurt hurt tell told told
keep kept kept think thought thought
kneel knelt knelt throw threw thrown
know knew known understand understood understood
lay laid laid wake woke woken
lead led led wear wore worn
learn learnt/learned learnt/learned win won won
leave left left write wrote written

144 Complete PET