IT403 Mobile Computing

MODULE I
Introduction - issues in mobile computing, Wireless Communication Technologies - Celluar
Wireless networks ,Wireless(802.11), TCP/IP in the mobile setting , Geolocation and Global
Positioning System (GPS) Third Generation (3G) Mobile Services: Introduction to International
Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT 2000) vision, Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
(W-CDMA), and CDMA 2000, Quality of services in 3G.

1.Introduction
A technology that is capable of providing an environment which enables users to transmit data
from one device to other device without the use of any physical link/cables is known as Mobile
Computing.

Mobile computing can be defined as a computing environment over physical mobility. The user
of mobile computing environment will be able to access data, information or other logical
objects from any device in any network while on the move. The computing environment is
mobile and moves along with the user. This is similar to the telephone number of a GSM
(GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION) phone, which moves with the
phone. The offline (local) and real time (remote) computing environment will move with the
user. In real time mode user will be able to use all his remote data and service online.

Nomadic Computing: The computing environment is nomadic and moves along with the mobile
user. This is true for both local and remote services.

Pervasive Computing: A computing environment, which is pervasive in nature and can be made
available in any environment.

Ubiquitous Computing: A disappearing (nobody will notice its presence) every place computing
environment. User will be able to use both local and remote services.

1.1 Issues in Mobile computing

Mobile computing has three aspects: mobile communication, mobile hardware, and
mobile software. The first aspect addresses communication issues in ad-hoc and infrastructure
networks as well as communication properties, protocols, data formats and concrete
technologies. Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that receive or
access the service of mobility. They would range from portable laptops, smart phones, tablet
Pc's, Personal Digital Assistants. These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of
sensing and receiving signals. These devices are configured to operate in full- duplex, whereby
they are capable of sending and receiving signals at the same time. They don't have to wait until
one device has finished communicating for the other device to initiate communications. Mobile
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software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware. It deals with the characteristics
and requirements of mobile applications. This is the engine of the mobile device. In other terms,
it is the operating system of the appliance. It's the essential component that operates the mobile
device. Because of its flexibility and provision of providing ubiquitous infrastructure, the need to
provide security increases to a great degree.

The fact that both users and the data that they carry have become a mobile component in
computing has in itself introduced a set of security problems different to that in traditional
computing. Mobile computing brings with it threats to the user and to the corporate environment.
From personal information to corporate data, mobile devices are used for a wide variety of tasks
by individuals and companies.

Some of the issues in mobile computing are given below.

Data Loss from lost, stolen, or decommissioned devices: By their nature, mobile devices are
with us everywhere we go. The information accessed through the device means that theft or loss
of a mobile device has immediate consequences. Additionally, weak password access, no
passwords, and little or no encryption can lead to data leakage on the devices. Users may also
sell or discard devices without understanding the risk to their data.

Information stealing mobile malware: Android devices, in particular, offer many options for
application downloads and installations. Android users can easily opt to download and install
apps from third party marketplaces other than Google’s official Play Store marketplace. To date,
the majority of malicious code distributed for Android has been disseminated through third-party
app stores. Most of the malware distributed through third-party stores has been designed to steal
data from the host device.

Vulnerabilities within devices, OS, design, and third-party applications.

Unsecured WiFi, network access, and rogue access points: This has increased the attack
surface for users who connect to these networks. In the last year, there has been a proliferation of
attacks on hotel networks, a skyrocketing number of open rogue access points installed, and the
reporting of eavesdropping cases. This threat level is high. Increased access to public WiFi,
along with increased use of mobile devices, creates a heightened opportunity for abuse of this
connection.

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2. Wireless Communication Technologies

Wireless communications is, by any measure, the fastest growing segment of the
communications industry. As such, it has captured the attention of the media and the imagination
of the public. Cellular systems have experienced exponential growth over the last decade and
there are currently around two billion users worldwide. Indeed, cellular phones have become a
critical business tool and part of everyday life in most developed countries, and are rapidly
supplanting antiquated wireline systems in many developing countries. In addition, wireless local
area networks currently supplement or replace wired networks in many homes, businesses, and
campuses.

These systems transmitted information over line-of-sight distances (later extended by telescopes)
using smoke signals, torch signaling, flashing mirrors, signal flares, or semaphore flags. An
elaborate set of signal combinations was developed to convey complex messages with these
rudimentary signals. Observation stations were built on hilltops and along roads to relay these
messages over large distances. These early communication networks were replaced first by the
telegraph network (invented by Samuel Morse in 1838) and later by the telephone. In 1895, a
few decades after the telephone was invented, Marconi demonstrated the first radio transmission
from the Isle of Wight to a tugboat 18 miles away, and radio communications was born. Radio
technology advanced rapidly to enable transmissions over larger distances with better quality,
less power, and smaller, cheaper devices, thereby enabling public and private radio
communications, television, and wireless networking.

Cellular Wireless Networks

Cellular technology: The foundation of mobile wireless communications. Support users in

locations that are not easily served by wired networks. The underlying technology for mobile
telephones, wireless Internet etc..

Basic Principles of Cellular Networks are;

Cellular Network Organization

The essence of a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters.

Because the range of such a transmitter is small, an area can be divided into cells, each one
served by its own antenna.

Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station, consisting of
transmitter, receiver, and control unit.

Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk.

However, cells sufficiently distant from each other can use the same frequency band.

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Cellular Geometry - A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas. This simplifies the
task of determining when to switch the user to an adjacent antenna and which antenna to choose

Frequency Reuse: It is not practical to attempt to use the same frequency band in two adjacent
cells. Instead, use the same frequency band in multiple cells at some distance from one another.
This allows the same frequency band to be used for multiple simultaneous conversations in
different cells. Within a given cell, multiple frequency bands are assigned, the number of bands
depending on the traffic expected. A key design issue is to determine the minimum separation
between two cells using the same frequency band, so that the two cells do not interfere with each
other. In characterizing frequency reuse, the following parameters are commonly used:

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Approaches to Cope with Increasing Capacity

1) Adding new channels: Expansion of a system is managed by adding new channels.

2) Frequency borrowing: Frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.

3) Cell splitting: Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.

4) Cell sectoring: With cell sectoring, a cell is divided into a number of wedge-shaped
sectors, each with its own set of channels.

5) Microcells: As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall buildings, to
the tops of small buildings, and finally to lamp posts, where they form microcells.

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Cellular System Overview

The BS includes;

 An antenna, a controller, and a number of receivers The controller is used to handle the
call process between the mobile unit and the rest of the network. At any time, a number
of mobile units may be active and moving about within a cell, communicating with the
BS. Each BS is connected to a MTSO.

MTSO (mobile telecommunications switching office)

 One MTSO can serve multiple BSs. The MTSO connects calls between mobile units.
The MTSO is also connected to the public telephone or telecommunications network.
MTSO can make a connection between fixed subscribers to the public network. MTSO
can also make a connection mobile subscriber to the cellular network. The MTSO assigns
the voice channel to each call, performs handoffs and monitors the call for billing
information.

Two types of channels are available between the mobile unit and BS;

1) Control channels – to exchange information for setting up and maintaining calls

2) Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection between users.

Steps in an MTSO Controlled Call between Mobile Users

1) Mobile unit initialization: When the mobile unit is active, it scans and selects the
strongest setup control channel used for this system. Cells with different frequency bands
repetitively broadcast on different setup channels. Mobile unit automatically selects the
BS antenna of the cell within which it will operate. Then a handshake takes place

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 between the mobile unit and the MTSO through BS. The handshake is used to identify
the user and register its location.

2) Mobile-originated call: The receiver at the mobile unit first checks that the setup
channel is idle. When an idle is detected, the mobile unit may transmit on the
corresponding channel. Mobile unit originates call by sending the number of called unit
on preselected channel.

3) Paging: MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on called mobile unit
number. Each BS transmits the paging signal on its own assigned setup channel.

4) Call accepted: The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup channel being
monitored and responds to that BS, which sends the response to the MTSO. The MTSO
sets up a circuit between the calling and called BSs. The two mobile units tune to their
respective assigned channels.

5) Ongoing call: While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units exchange
information through their respective BSs and the MTSO.

6) Handoff: If a mobile unit moves from one cell to another, then traffic channel has to
change the BS without interrupting the call or user.

Wireless (802.11)

EEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of LAN protocols, and specifies the set of media access
control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing wireless local area
network (WLAN) Wi-Fi computer communication in various frequencies, including but not
limited to 2.4, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands.
They are the world's most widely used wireless computer networking standards, used in most
home and office networks to allow laptops, printers, and smartphones to talk to each other and
access the Internet without connecting wires. They are created and maintained by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802).

IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE

IEEE 802 Committee formed a new working group, IEEE 802.11, specifically devoted to
wireless LANs, with a charter to develop a MAC protocol and physical medium specification.

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o The smallest building block of a wireless LAN is a basic service set (BSS), which
consists of some number of stations executing the same MAC protocol and competing for
access to the same shared wireless medium.

o A BSS may be isolated or it may connect to a backbone distribution system (DS) through
an access point (AP). The DS can be a switch, a wired network, or a wireless network.
The AP functions as a bridge and a relay point.

o In a BSS, client stations do not communicate directly with one another. If one station in
the BSS wants to communicate with another station in the same BSS, the MAC frame is
first sent from the originating station to the AP and from the AP to destination station.

o Similarly, a MAC frame from a station in the BSS to a remote station is sent from the
local station to the AP and then relayed by the AP over the DS on its way to the
destination station.

o When all the stations in the BSS are mobile stations, with no connection to other BSSs,
the BSS is called an independent BSS (IBSS). An IBSS is typically an ad hoc network.
In an IBSS, the stations all communicate directly, and no AP is involved.

o Each station belongs to a single BSS; that is, each station is within wireless range only of
other stations within the same BSS. It is also possible for two BSSs to overlap
geographically, so that a single station could participate in more than one BSS. Further,
the association between a station and a BSS is dynamic. Stations may turn off, come
within range, and go out of range.

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 o An extended service set (ESS) consists of two or more basic service sets interconnected
by a distribution system. The extended service set appears as a single logical LAN to the
logical link control (LLC) level.

o To integrate the IEEE 802.11 architecture with a traditional wired LAN, a portal is used.
The portal logic is implemented in a device, such as a bridge or router, that is part of the
wired LAN and that is attached to the DS.

IEEE 802.11 Services

The IEEE 802.11 defines a set of services that provides the functionality needed to let the LLC
layer send and receive MSDUs (MAC Service Data Units). These services include two
categories: Station Services & Distribution System Services:

Station Services: The 802.11 standard defines services for providing functions among stations.
A station may be within any wireless element on the network, such as a handheld PC or handheld
scanner. All access points implement station services.

 Authentication: Used to prove identity of one station to another. Station must be

authenticated in order to access WLAN for data delivery.

 Deauthentication: Used to remove previously authenticated station. Deauthenticated

station cannot access WLAN for data delivery.

 Privacy: Prevents message contents from being read by unintended recipient. Wired
equivalency protocol (WEP) – designed to provide same level of protection as found on
wired networks. Only protects data over wireless links, not end-to-end.

 Data delivery: Provides reliable delivery of data from MAC of one station to MAC of
other stations.

Distribution System Services: Distribution system services provide functionality across a

distribution system. Access points provide distribution system services.

 Association service: Each station must initially invoke the association service with an
access point before it can send information through a distribution system. Each station
can associate with only a single access point, but each access point can associate with
multiple stations.

 Reassociation service: Used when station moves to new BSS (new Access Point).
Allows new AP to contact old AP to get packets that may be buffered there for the
station.

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  Disassociation service: Station can use this service to inform AP that it no longer
requires service from WLAN. For example, an access point may disassociate all its
stations if being removed for maintenance. Station must associate again to access WLAN
after disassociation.

 Distribution service: Determines where to send packets( Back to own BSS, to another
AP, to wired network).

 Integration service: The integration function performs all required media or address
space translations. The integration service connects the IEEE 802.11 WLAN to other
LANs. The integration service translates IEEE 802.11 frames to frames that may traverse
another network, and vice versa.

TCP / IP in the mobile setting

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most successful network layer protocol in computing due to its
many strengths, but it also has some weaknesses, most of which have become more important as
networks have evolved over time. Technologies like classless addressing and Network Address
Translation combat the exhaustion of the IPv4 address space, while IPSec provides it with secure
communications it lacks. Another weakness of IP is that it was not designed with mobile
computers in mind.

While mobile devices can certainly use IP, the way that devices are addressed and datagrams
routed causes a problem when they are moved from one network to another. At the time IP was
developed, computers were large and rarely moved. Today, we have millions of notebook
computers and smaller devices, some of which even use wireless networking to connect to the
wired network. The importance of providing full IP capabilities for these mobile devices has
grown dramatically. To support IP in a mobile environment, a new protocol called IP Mobility
Support, or more simply, Mobile IP, was developed.

The rapid growth of both the Internet usage and the number of mobile telephones form two
major trends at telecommunications field. This creates need for bringing the Internet services to
the mobile terminals. The second generation mobile systems are designed for speech traffic, and
don’t therefore effectively support data traffic transfer. The situation is different with the third
generation mobile systems, since the Internet access is on of their main purposes. Mobility of the
TCP/IP host is a problematic issue to the basic routing protocols. In the mobile cellular
environment the host location may change during the connection. In addition to the mobility also
other cellular network aspects must be considered. These include initializing the IP connection
over the wireless link as well as handling the high bit error rate and the fading effects caused by
the radio network. Additional protocols are needed to enable TCP/IP transmission in mobile
cellular environment. Mobile IP is thus needed to solve two major problems: when a node moves

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from one link to another without changing its IP address, it cannot receive packets in its new
address, and if the node changes its IP address when it moves, it must terminate and restart any
communications.

The Mobile IP introduces three new functional entities:

• Mobile Node

• Home Agent

• Foreign Agent A mobile node is a host that changes its attachment point from one network to
another. It may do this without changing its IP address and without terminating its ongoing
connections. Home agent is a router on a mobile node. It maintains location information for the
mobile node and tunnels datagrams to the mobile node when the node is away from the home
network. Foreign agent is a router on a network that a mobile node visits. It provides routing
services to the mobile node, and detunnels and delivers the datagrams that were sent by the home
agent to the mobile agent. A mobile node has a long-term IP address on a home network. This
works the same was a normal, “permanent” IP address. When the mobile node is in a foreign
network, it is given a temporary “care of address”. The mobile node normally uses the home
address as the source address of all IP datagrams it sends. An example of mobile IP functionality
is presented in Figure .

In the illustrated example the mobile node is located in a foreign network. When a host sends
packets to the mobile node the packets fist arrive to the home agent via standard IP routing. The
datagrams are then tunneled to the care-of address, in this case to the foreign agent. The
datagram is detunneled in the foreign agent node and delivered to the mobile node. The
datagrams sent by the mobile node are delivered using standard IP routing. In this case the
foreign router is the default router of the mobile node. In the illustrated case the care-of address
was the IP address of the foreign agent. The foreign agent was the end-point of the tunnel and it
delivered the inner datagrams to the mobile host. Another alternative is to use the mobile nodes
local IP address as the care-of address. In this case the mobile node itself serves as the enpoint of
the tunnel. Agent discovery and registration support services are defined for Mobile IP. Foreign

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and home agents may advertise their availability to the mobile nodes in their networks. When a
mobile node arrives into a foreign network it has to register its care-of address to the home agent.

Geolocation and Global Positioning System (GPS)

Geolocation is the process of finding, determining and providing the exact location of a
computer, networking device or equipment. It enables device location based on geographical
coordinates and measurements.

Geolocation commonly uses Global Positioning System (GPS) and other related technologies to
assess and specify geographical locations.

Geolocation provides the location of a device but is generally used in a variety of applications to
help locate human users. Geolocation works through a pre-built GPS in a device that propagates
the device's longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates. The coordinates are identified on a map to
provide a complete address that usually includes a country, city, town/colony, building name and
street address.

Fig. Principles of geolocation using GPS

For either geolocating or positioning, the locating engine often uses radio frequency (RF)
location methods, for example Time Difference Of Arrival (TDOA) for precision. TDOA
systems often use mapping displays or other geographic information system. When satellite
navigation (such as GPS) signals are unavailable, geolocation applications can use information
from cell towers to triangulate the approximate position, a method that is not as accurate as GPS
but has greatly improved in recent years.This is in contrast to earlier radiolocation technologies,

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for example Direction Finding where a line of bearing to a transmitter is achieved as part of the
process.

Internet and computer geolocation can be performed by associating a geographic location with

the Internet Protocol (IP) address, MAC address, RFID, hardware embedded article/production
number, embedded software number (such as UUID, Exif/IPTC/XMP or
modern steganography), invoice, Wi-Fi positioning system, device fingerprint, canvas
fingerprinting or device GPS coordinates, or other, perhaps self-disclosed information.

IP address location data can include information such as country, region, city, postal/zip
code, latitude, longitude and time zone.Deeper data sets can determine other parameters such as
domain name, connection speed, ISP, language, proxies, company name, US DMA/MSA,
NAICS codes, and home/business.

At times geolocation can be more deductive, as with crowdsourcing efforts to determine the

position of videos of training camps, combats, and beheadings in Syria by comparing features
detected in the video with publicly available map databases such as Google Earth, as practiced
by sites such as Bellingcat.

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on satellite. It has created the
revolution in navigation and position location. It is mainly used in positioning, navigation,
monitoring and surveying applications.

The major advantages of satellite navigation are real time positioning and timing
synchronization. That’s why satellite navigation systems have become an integral part in most of
the applications, where mobility is the key parameter.

A complete operational GPS space segment contains twenty-four satellites in MEO. These
satellites are made into six groups so that each group contains four satellites. The group of four
satellites is called as one constellation. Any two adjacent constellations are separated by 60
degrees in longitude.

The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve hours. Hence, all satellites
revolve around the earth two times on every day. At any time, the GPS receivers will get the
signals from at least four satellites.

GPS Codes and Services

Each GPS satellite transmits two signals, L1 and L2 are of different frequencies. Trilateration is

a simple method for finding the position (Latitude, Longitude, Elevation) of GPS receiver. By
using this method, the position of an unknown point can be measured from three known points

GPS Codes

Following are the two types of GPS codes.

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  Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code

 Precise code or P code

The signal, L1 is modulated with 1.023 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This code is called as
Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code and it is used by the public.

The signal, L2 is modulated with 10.23 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This code is called as
Precise code or P code and it is used in military positioning systems. Generally, this P code is
transmitted in an encrypted format and it is called as Y code

The P code gives better measurement accuracy when compared to C/A code, since the bit rate of
P code is greater than the bit rate of C/A code.

GPS Services

Following are the two types of services provided by GPS.

 Precise Positioning Service (PPS)

 Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

PPS receivers keep tracking of both C/A code and P code on two signals, L 1and L2. The Y code
is decrypted at the receiver in order to obtain P code.

SPS receivers keep tracking of only C/A code on signal, L1.

GPS Receiver

There exists only one-way transmission from satellite to users in GPS system. Hence, the
individual user does not need the transmitter, but only a GPS receiver. It is mainly used to find
the accurate location of an object. It performs this task by using the signals received from
satellites.

The block diagram of GPS receiver is shown in below figure.

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The function of each block present in GPS receiver is mentioned below.

 Receiving Antenna receives the satellite signals. It is mainly, a circularly polarized

antenna.

 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal

 Down converter converts the frequency of received signal to an Intermediate Frequency

(IF) signal.

 IF Amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.

 ADC performs the conversion of analog signal, which is obtained from IF amplifier to

digital. Assume, the sampling & quantization blocks are also present in ADC (Analog to
Digital Converter).

 DSP (Digital Signal Processor) generates the C/A code.

 Microprocessor performs the calculation of position and provides the timing signals in

order to control the operation of other digital blocks. It sends the useful information to
Display unit in order to display it on the screen.

Third Generation (3G) Mobile Services

3rd Generation Mobile Telecommunications (3G), is a set of standards that came about as a
result of the International Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) initiative known as IMT-2000
(International Mobile Telecommunications-2000). 3G systems are expected to deliver quality
multimedia to mobile devices by way of faster and easier wireless communications as well as
“anytime, anywhere” services.

Introduction to International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT 2000) Vision

International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 for Data & Multimedia Services is a set of

globally harmonized standards for third generation wireless communications (3G).

They will provide access, any time and anywhere, by means of one or more radio links, to a wide
range of telecommunications services supported by the fixed telecommunication networks (e.g.
PSTN/ISDN/IP), and to other services which are specific to mobile users. A range of mobile
terminal types is encompassed, linking to terrestrial and/or satellite based networks, and the
terminals may be designed for mobile or fixed use.

Key features of IMT-2000

 High degree of commonality of design worldwide.

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  Compatibility of services within IMT-2000 and with the fixed networks.
 Provisioning of these services over wide range of user densities and coverage areas (In-
building, Urban, Sub-urban, Global).
 High quality, high speed access 144 Kb/s, 384 & 2Mbit/s fast wireless access to Internet.
 Across Networks, across Technologies using a small pocket terminal for worldwide use.
 Worldwide roaming capability.
 Capability for multimedia applications, and a wide range of services and terminals.
 Efficient use of radio spectrum consistent with providing service at acceptable cost.
 IMT-2000 shall cover application areas presently provided by separately systems i.e
cellular, cordless and paging etc.

IMT-2000 Will provide

 Simultaneous transfer of speech, data, text, pictures, audio and video.

 High-speed, mobile access to Internet.
 Entertainment on demand (movies, Music..).
 Video-conferencing.
 Mobile-commerce.
 Travel information (roads, flights, trains,…).

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Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W –CDMA)

Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) is a third-generation (3G) standard that
employs the direct-sequence code division multiple access (DS-CDMA) channel access method
and the frequency-division duplexing (FDD) method to provide high-speed and high-capacity
service. WCDMA is the most commonly used variant of the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS). It was developed by Japan’s NTT DoCoMo and formed
the basis of its Freedom of Multimedia Access (FOMA) 3G Network.

The WCDMA system is part of the UMTS. It is developed by the 3G Partnership Program,
which is composed of evolved core cellular networks that belong to the Global System for
Mobile (GSM) communications networks worldwide.

Channel Bandwidth: 5 MHz

Duplex Mode: FDD and TDD

Spread Spectrum Technique: Direct Spread Chip

Rate: 3.84 MHz Frame Length: 10 ms (38400 chips/sce) Slot

Length: 15 Slots per Frame (2560 chips/slot)

Spreading Modulation: Balanced QPSK (downlink) and Dual-Channel QPSK (uplink) with
complex spreading circuit.

Data Modulation: QPSK (downlink) and BPSK (uplink).

Parameters of WCDMA

Channel Coding: Convolutional code, Turbo code, and no coding. Spreading Factors: 4-256
(uplink) and 4-512 (downlink). Modulation symbol rates vary from 960 k symbols/s to 15 k
symbols/s (7.5 k symbols/s) for FDD uplink (downlink). Spreading (downlink): OVSF sequences
for channel separation. Gold sequences 218-1 for cell and user separation (truncated cycle: 10
ms). Spreading (uplink): OVSF sequences for channel separation. Gold sequences 225-1 for user
separation (truncated cycle: 10 ms).

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WCDMA features two modes: 

 Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): Separates users by employing both codes as well as
frequencies. One frequency is used for the uplink, while another is used for the downlink.

 Time Division Duplex (TDD): Separates users by employing codes, frequencies and
time, wherein the same frequency is used for both uplink and downlink.

Although WCDMA is designed to operate on evolved GSM core networks, it uses code division
multiple access (CDMA) for its air interface. In fact, the majority of the 3G systems in operation
employ CDMA, while the rest use time division multiple access (TDMA). The TDD mode of
WCDMA actually employs a combination of TDMA and CDMA. 

CDMA allows multiple users to share a channel at the same time, while TDMA allows users to
share the same channel by chopping it into different time slots. CDMA offers the benefits of
multipath diversity and soft handoffs.

As an air interface technology, WCDMA is able to artificially increase a signal's bandwidth. It

does so by modulating each baseband symbol with a binary or quaternary signature with a much
higher rate than that of the original data symbol.

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The WCDMA system is part of the UMTS. It is developed by the 3G Partnership Program,
which is composed of evolved core cellular networks that belong to the Global System for
Mobile (GSM) communications networks worldwide.

WCDMA features two modes: 

 Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): Separates users by employing both codes as well as
frequencies. One frequency is used for the uplink, while another is used for the downlink.
 Time Division Duplex (TDD): Separates users by employing codes, frequencies and
time, wherein the same frequency is used for both uplink and downlink.
Although WCDMA is designed to operate on evolved GSM core networks, it uses code division
multiple access (CDMA) for its air interface. In fact, the majority of the 3G systems in operation
employ CDMA, while the rest use time division multiple access (TDMA). The TDD mode of
WCDMA actually employs a combination of TDMA and CDMA. 

CDMA allows multiple users to share a channel at the same time, while TDMA allows users to
share the same channel by chopping it into different time slots. CDMA offers the benefits of
multipath diversity and soft handoffs.

As an air interface technology, WCDMA is able to artificially increase a signal's bandwidth. It

does so by modulating each baseband symbol with a binary or quaternary signature with a much
higher rate than that of the original data symbol.

CDMA 2000

CDMA2000 (also known as C2K or IMT Multi-Carrier (IMT-MC)) is a family of 3G mobile

technology standards for sending voice, data, and signaling data between mobile phones and cell
sites. It is developed by 3GPP2 as a backwards-compatible successor to second-
generation cdmaOne (IS-95) set of standards and used especially in North America and South
Korea.
CDMA2000 compares to UMTS, a competing set of 3G standards, which is developed
by 3GPP and used in Europe, Japan, and China.
The name CDMA2000 denotes a family of standards that represent the successive, evolutionary
stages of the underlying technology. These are:
 Voice: CDMA2000 1xRTT, 1X Advanced
 Data: CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized): Release 0, Revision A,
Revision B, Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB)
All are approved radio interfaces for the ITU's IMT-2000. In the United States, CDMA2000 is a
registered trademark of the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA-USA)

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Code Division Multiple Access 2000 (CDMA2000) is a third generation (3G) standard
developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). This protocol uses CDMA
access to send voice and data and signals between mobile phones and cell sites.

Enhanced services can be provided to CDMA One subscribers through CDMA2000. Data
communication speeds ranging from 114 Kbps to 2 Mbps are supported by this standard.

CDMA2000 is also known as IMT-Multi-Carrier or IS-2000.

The main capacity of CDMA2000 is to deliver a radio interface system that is better than the
second generation (2G) systems. In October 2000, SK Telecom (Korea) launched the first
commercial system that used this platform (based on the CDMA 2000 1x technology). Since
then, several other versions have been developed.

Quality of services in 3G

The Internet was originally designed for nonreal-time data services such as interactive burst or
interactive bulk transfer. In these applications, there are no requirements on the maximum
amount of delays that a packet may encounter during its transit to the destination. Similarly,
bandwidths required by an end user are never specified. As such, the network accepts all
incoming packets without using any admission control mechanism, forwards them using a
simple, first-come-first-served algorithm, and delivers them on a best-effort basis. Thus, issues
concerning the quality of service (QoS) delivered to an end user are rather straightforward. The
QoS in present-day mobile IP is also minimal because, once again, data is delivered using the
best-effort scheme. With the emergence of real-time multimedia services as envisaged by third-
generation (3G) wireless systems, new QoS requirements are imposed on the networks. For
example, with interactive video conferencing or streaming video and audio, the network must be
able to deliver these services to the destination on a timely basis. Because flow control or
retransmission is not possible for these applications, the bit error rate or packet loss ratio must be
kept below a certain level; otherwise, the QoS may suffer. For instance, if the bit error rate is too
high, the video in an MPEG application may never synchronize at a receiver.

Network Services are considered end-to-end, this means from a Terminal Equipment (TE) to
another TE. An End-to-End Service may have a certain Quality of Service (QoS) which is
provided for the user of a network service. It is the user that decides whether he is satisfied with
the provided QoS or not.

Quality of Service
1. Network Services are considered end-to-end, this means from a Terminal Equipment (TE) to
another TE. An End-to-End Service may have a certain Quality of Service (QoS) which is
provided for the user of a network service.

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2. It is the user that decides whether he is satisfied with the provided QoS or not. To realise a
certain network QoS a Bearer Service with clearly defined characteristics and functionality is
to be set up from the source to the destination of a service.
3. A bearer service includes all aspects to enable the provision of a contracted QoS. These
aspects are among others the control signalling, user plane transport and QoS management
functionality.
4. A UMTS bearer service layered architecture is depicted below, each bearer service on a
specific layer offers it's individual services using services provided by the layers below.
There are four different QoS classes:
1. conversational class
2. streaming class
3. interactive class
4. background class

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