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Lesson 6 - Cell Cycle and Checkpoints

The cell cycle involves a series of stages (G1, S, G2, M) that cells go through as they grow and divide. There are three important checkpoints (G1, G2, M/spindle) that ensure cells do not proceed to the next stage until certain conditions are met, such as completing DNA replication and repairing any damage. The checkpoints help maintain the integrity of the cell cycle and prevent errors from being passed on to daughter cells. Cells can pause or exit the cell cycle if checkpoint conditions are not met.

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Reuben Al'jaldi
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239 views

Lesson 6 - Cell Cycle and Checkpoints

The cell cycle involves a series of stages (G1, S, G2, M) that cells go through as they grow and divide. There are three important checkpoints (G1, G2, M/spindle) that ensure cells do not proceed to the next stage until certain conditions are met, such as completing DNA replication and repairing any damage. The checkpoints help maintain the integrity of the cell cycle and prevent errors from being passed on to daughter cells. Cells can pause or exit the cell cycle if checkpoint conditions are not met.

Uploaded by

Reuben Al'jaldi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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What’s New?

Lesson 6 Cell Cycle and Checkpoints

A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows


and divides. Cell cycle is the name given to the process through which
cells replicate and make new cells. The cell cycle has different stages.
This includes the G1, S, G2, and M. The cell cycle can be thought of as
the life cycle of a cell. In other words, it is the series of growth and
development steps a cell undergoes between its “birth” – Formation by
the division of a mother cell – and reproduction – division to make two
new daughter cells.

What is It?
To divide, a cell must complete several important tasks: it must
grow, copy its genetic material (DNA), and physically split into two
daughter cells. Cells perform these tasks in an organized, predictable
series of steps that make up the cell cycle. The cell cycle is a cycle, rather
than a linear pathway, because at the end of each go-round, the two
daughter cells can start the exact same process over and over again from
the beginning.
In eukaryotic cells, or cell with nucleus, the stages of the cell cycle
are divided into two major phases: the interphase and the mitotic (M)
phase.
Interphase, which appears to the eye to be a resting stage between
cell divisions, is actually a period of diverse activities. Those interphase
activities are indispensable in making the next mitosis possible.
Interphase generally lasts at least 12 to 24 hours in mammalian tissue.
During this period, the cell is constantly synthesizing, producing protein,
and growing in size.
During interphase, the cell grows and makes a copy of its DNA.

G1 Phase
During G1 phase, also known as the first gap phase, the cell grows
physically larger, it makes a copy of each organelles, and accumulates
the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and its associated proteins as
well as accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the task of
replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.

S Phase
In S phase, also known as the DNA synthesis phase, the cell
synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus to produce two
similar daughter cells. DNA replication can proceed through the
mechanisms that result in the formation of identical pairs of DNA
molecules called sister chromatids that are firmly attached to the
centromeric region. It also duplicates the microtubule-organizing
structure known as the centrosome, the region where the centriole is
located. The centrosomes help separate DNA during M phase.

G2 Phase
In G2 Phase, also known as the second gap phase, the cell grows
more, replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes proteins that are
necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are
duplicated, the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the
mitotic phase, double checks the chromosomes for possible aberrations
and repairs it if needed, and begins to reorganize its contents in
preparation for M phase. G2 phase ends when M phase begins.
The G1, S, and G2 phases are collectively known as the interphase.
Interphase from the prefix inter- which means in between, because the
interphase can be seen between one M phase and the next M phase.

After the end of the interphase, M phase follows. M phase involves two
distinct division-related processes. Mitosis and cytokinesis. During the
mitotic (M) phase, cell growth and protein production stops. All of the energy
is focused on the complex and orderly division of when the cell separates its
DNA into two sets and divides its cytoplasm, forming two new daughter cells.
The nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible chromosomes and is pulled
apart by the mitotic spindle. Mitosis takes place in four stages: prophase
(sometimes divided into early prophase and prometaphase), metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.

In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell is split in two, making two new
cells. Cytokinesis usually begins just as mitosis is ending, with a little overlap.
Cytokinesis takes place differently in animal and plant cells.

In animal cells, cell division occurs when a band of cytoskeletal fibers


called the contractile ring contracts inward and pinches the cell in two, a
process called contractile cytokinesis. The indentation produced as the ring
contracts inward is called the cleavage furrow. Animal cells can be pinched
in two because they are relatively soft and squishy due to the lack of cell wall.

In plant cells, the cell is much stiffer due to the presence of a rigid cell
wall and due to high internal pressure produced by the central vacuole.
Because of these, plant cells divide in two by building a new structure down
the middle of the cell. This structure, known as the cell plate, is made up of
plasma membrane and cell wall components delivered in Golgi-derived
vesicles that coalesce in a plane across the equator of the cell and partitions
the cell in two.
What’s More?
Cells do not move through the cell cycle continuously non-stop.
Normal cells move through the cell cycle in a regulated way. They use
information about their own internal state and cues from the
environment around them to decide whether to proceed with cell division
or not. This regulation makes sure that cells don’t divide under
unfavorable conditions like when the DNA is damaged or if there are no
room for more cells in a tissue or organ.

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

Cells use special proteins and checkpoint signaling systems to


ensure that the cell cycle progresses properly. A checkpoint is a stage in
the eukaryotic cell cycle at which the cell examines internal and external
cues and decides whether or not to move forward with cell division. There
are three important checkpoints in cell cycle. i.) The G1 checkpoint
which can be found between the G1 – S Phase transition, ii.) the G2
checkpoint which can be found between the G2 – M Phase transition,
and iii.) the M checkpoint which is also known as the Spindle
checkpoint, which can be found between the transition of metaphase
and anaphase during mitosis.

The G1 Checkpoint

The G1 checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell. It is the


primary point at which the cell must choose if it will undergo cell division
or not. Once the cell passes the G1 checkpoint and enters S phase, it
becomes irreversibly committed to division. Which includes possible
complications like DNA damage or replication errors. A cell that passes
the G1 checkpoint will continue the rest of the way through the cycle to
produce two daughter cells. At the G1 checkpoint, a cell checks whether
internal and external conditions are right for division. Some of theses
factors include but is not limited to:

Size. Is the cell large enough to divide?


Nutrients. Does the cell have enough
energy reserves or available nutrients
to divide?
Molecular signals. Is the cell receiving
positive cues such as growth factors
from neighboring cells?
DNA integrity. Is any of the DNA
damaged?

These are only some of the factors that can affect cell progression
through the G1 checkpoint.

If a cell does not get the go-ahead signals it needs at the G1


checkpoint, it may leave the cell cycle and enter a resting state called the
G0 phase. Some cells stay permanently in G0 phase, while others resume
dividing if conditions are conducive. Cells in G0 phase are not actively
preparing to divide and the cell is said to be in a quiescent (inactive) stage
that occurs when the cells exit the cell cycle. Some cells enter G0
temporarily until an external signal triggers the onset of G1. Other cells
that never or rarely divide, such as mature cardiac muscle and nerve
cells, remain in G0 permanently.

The G2 Checkpoint

To make sure that cell division


goes smoothly (produces healthy
daughter cells with complete,
undamaged DNA), the cell has an
additional checkpoint before M
phase, called the G2 checkpoint. At
this stage, the cell will check:

• DNA integrity. Is any of the


DNA damaged?
• DNA replication. Was the
DNA completely copied
during the S phase?
If errors or damages are detected, the cell will pause at the G 2
checkpoint to allow for repairs. If the checkpoint mechanisms detect
problems with the DNA, the cell cycle is halted, and the cell attempts to
either complete the DNA replication or repair the damaged DNA.

If damage is irreparable, the cell may undergo apoptosis, or


programmed cell death. This self-destruction mechanisms ensures that
damaged DNA is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in
preventing cancer.

The Spindle Checkpoint (M Checkpoint)

In this checkpoint, the cell


examines whether all the sister
chromatids are correctly attached
to the spindle microtubules and is
properly aligned in the metaphase
plate before the chromosomes are
separated in anaphase. Because
the separation of the sister
chromatids during anaphase is an
irreversible step. The cycle will not
proceed until all the chromosomes
are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from opposite poles of
the cell. The cell looks for a “straggler” chromosome that are in the wrong
place, like floating around the cytoplasm. If a chromosome is misplaced,
the cell will pause mitosis, allowing time for the spindle to capture the
stray chromosome. In addition, if DNA damages or abnormalities in
spindle formation are detected at this checkpoint, the cell is forced to
undergo programmed apoptosis.

However, the cell cycle and its


checkpoint systems can be sabotaged
by defective proteins or genes that
causes malignant transformation of
the cell which can lead to cancer cell
formation. For example, mutations in
a protein called p53, which normally
detects abnormalities in DNA at the G1
checkpoint, can enable cancer-
causing mutations to bypass this
checkpoint and allow the cell to escape
apoptosis.

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