GUDLAVALLERU Engineering college

II-YEAR II-SEMESTER
FUNDAMENTALS of COMMUNICATIONS (Open Elective)

Unit-I
SIGNAL, NOISE, MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

1. Introduction:
 Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog or digital in form. Analog
data refers to information that is continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete
states.
 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
Figure1.1. shows a sine wave.

Fig.1.1. Sine wave

 Digital data take on discrete values. All binary signals are digital, but all digital signals are not
necessarily binary. Fig.1.2. shows a binary digital signal.

Fig.1.2. Binary Digital Signal

Fig.1.3. shows analog communication system.

 Fig.1.3. Analog Communication System

 Converting information signals to a different form is called modulation and the reverse process
is called demodulation.

Fig.1.4. shows digital communication system.

Fig.1.4. Digital Communication system

2. Signal Analysis:
 In electronic communication systems, signal analysis is necessary for predicting the performance
of the circuit on the basis of the voltage distribution and frequency composition of the
information signal. This is possible with mathematical signal analysis.

2.1 Amplitude, Frequency and Phase

Amplitude (A): It is the value of the signal at different instants of time. It is measured in
volts. Signal amplitude is generally represented on the vertical axis of a waveform graph.
The maximum voltage of a signal in respect to its average value is called its peak amplitude.

Period (T): The period is the time taken for one complete cycle of a repeating waveform.
The period is often thought of as the time interval between peaks, but can be measured
between any two corresponding points in successive cycles.
 Frequency (f): This is the number of cycles completed per second. It is the inverse of the
time period. The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second. Mathematically, the
relationship between frequency and period is
F = 1/T
Where f = Cycles per second (Hertz)
T = Time of one cycle (Seconds)

Phase: It gives a measure of the relative position in time of two signals within a single
period. It is represented by degree or radian.

A sine wave, the most fundamental periodic signal, can be completely characterized by its
amplitude, frequency and phase

2.2. Periodic Signals:

 A signal is periodic signal if it completes a pattern within a measurable time frame. A periodic
signal is characterized by amplitude, frequency and phase. Mathematically a single frequency
voltage waveform is
V (t) = V sin (2πft+θ)
Where V (t) = Time varying voltage sine wave
V = peak amplitude (volts)
F = Frequency (hertz)
T = Time (seconds)
Θ = Phase (degrees or radians)

2.2.1. Time domain Concepts:

 Whenever a signal is represented as a function of time, it is called time domain representation.

An electromagnetic signal can be either continuous or discrete. It is represented as s (t). A
standard oscilloscope is a time domain instrument.
 Time domain is a term used to describe the analysis of mathematical functions or physical
signals with respect to time. In the time domain, the signal or function value is known for all real
numbers for the case of continuous time or at separate instants in the case of discrete time.

2.2.2. Frequency domain Concepts:

 Frequency domain is a term used to describe the analysis of mathematical functions or signals
with respect to frequency, rather than time.
 Whenever a signal is represented as a function of frequency, it is called frequency domain
representation. It is expressed in terms of different frequency components and represented as s
(f).
 The time domain representation displays a signal using time-domain plot, which shows changes
in signal amplitude with time. The time-domain plot can be visualized with the help of an
 oscilloscope. The relationship between amplitude and frequency is provided by frequency
domain representation, which can be displayed with the help of spectrum analyzer.
 Time domain and frequency domain representations of three sine waves of three different
frequencies are shown in Fig.1.6.
 A spectrum analyzer is the tool commonly used to visualize real-world signals in the frequency
domain.

Fig1.6. Time and Frequency domain graph

2.3. Complex Signal

Composite signals made of many simple sine waves find use in data communication. Any
composite signal can be represented by a combination of simple sine waves using Fourier
analysis.

2.3.1. Fourier series

Fourier series is made up of sinusoids, all of which have frequencies that are integer multiples of
some fundamental frequency. A Fourier series can be written for any periodic function as a
series of terms that include trigonometric functions with the following mathematical expression:
f (t) = A0 + A1 cosα+ A2 cos2α+….+ An cosnα
+ B0 + B1 sinβ+ B2 sin2β+…. + Bn sinnβ
Where α = β
2.3.2. Symmetry in waveforms
Many periodic waveforms exhibit symmetry. The following types of symmetry help to reduce
tedious calculations in the analysis.
1. Wave symmetry
2. Even symmetry
3. Odd symmetry
4. Half-wave symmetry

Wave symmetry: Wave symmetry describes the symmetry of a waveform in the time domain,
that is, its relative position with respect to the horizontal and vertical axes.
Even Symmetry: A function f(t) exhibits even symmetry when the region before the y-axis is the
mirror image of the region after the y-axis. i.e., f(t) = f(-t). The two simplest forms of the Even
function or waveform with even symmetry are the cosine waveform and the direct waveform as
shown in the fig.1.7.

Fig1.7. Even symmetry waveform

It is also evident that if the waveform is defined for only t>0, the remaining part of the
waveform is automatically known by symmetry.

Odd Symmetry: A function f(t) exhibits odd symmetry, when the region before the y-axis is the
negative of the mirror image of the region after the y-axis, i.e. f(t) = -f(-t). The two simplest
forms of the odd function or waveform with odd symmetry are the sine waveform and the ramp
waveform as shown in fig.1.8.

Fig.1.8. Odd symmetry waveform

It is also evident that if the waveform is defined for only t>0, the remaining part of the
waveform is automatically known by the properties of symmetry.

Half-wave Symmetry: A function f(t) exhibits half-wave symmetry, when one half of the
waveform is exactly equal to the negative of the previous or the next negative half of the
waveform i.e.
 𝑇 𝑇
f (t) =−𝑓 [𝑡 − 2] = −𝑓 [𝑡 + 2]

3. Electrical Noise and Signal to Noise Ratio

3.1. Electrical Noise
 Electrical noise is defined as any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the
passband of the signal. For example, in audio recording, any unwanted electrical signals
that fall within the audio frequency band of 0Hz to 15Hz will interfere with the music
and therefore, are considered noise.
 A noise signal consists of a mixture of frequencies with random amplitudes. Noise in
measurement and control systems is generally considered to be EMI, electromagnetic
interference. Unwanted voltages and currents induced by external magnetic fields,
electric fields, ground currents etc fall into the category of “noise” and often cause
serious errors in low level instrumentation.
 Proper wiring, shielding and utilizing isolated signal conditioning modules with internal
multi-pole filtering will minimize if not completely eliminate this type of noise.
 Noise can originate in various ways. For example, heat energy increases the random
motion of electrons and results in the generation of thermal noise in all components,
although some components are ‘noisier’ than others. Additional sources of noise include
radio signals, which are detected and amplified by many circuits, not just by radio
receivers. Interference is caused by the switching of mains appliances, and ‘spikes’ and
‘glitches’ are caused by rapid changes in current and voltage elsewhere in an electronic
system.
 Designers try to eliminate or reduce noise in most circuits, but special noise generators
are used in electronic music synthesizers and for other musical effects.

3.2. Signal to Noise power ratio

Signal to noise power ratio is the ratio of the signal power level to the thermal noise
power level.
𝑆 𝑃𝑠
=
𝑁 𝑃𝑁

𝑆
Where 𝑁
= Signal to noise power ratio

PN = Noise Power

Ps = Signal Power

Signal to noise power is expressed in dB as

𝑆 𝑃
(𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑆
𝑁 𝑃 𝑁
 4. Modulation:

 A message carrying a signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to establish a
reliable communication; it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which should not
affect the original characteristics of the message signal.
 The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message contained in it also alters.
Hence, it is a must to take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal can travel up to a
longer distance, without getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of such
high frequency signal which is called as a carrier signal to transmit our message signal. Such a
process is simply called as Modulation.
 Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with
the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

4.1. Need for Modulation

Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel longer
distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier wave,
which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.

4.2. Advantages of Modulation

The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced.
The range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel a distance without getting
distorted.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication
systems.

 Reduction of antenna size

 No signal mixing
 Increased communication range
 Multiplexing of signals
 Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
 Improved reception quality

4.3. Signals in the Modulation Process

Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.

Message or Modulating Signal

The signal which contains a message to be transmitted is called as a message signal. It is a
baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it
is also called as the modulating signal.
Carrier Signal
The high frequency signal, which has a certain amplitude, frequency and phase but contains no
information, is called as a carrier signal. It is an empty signal and is used to carry the signal to
the receiver after modulation.

Modulated Signal
The resultant signal after the process of modulation is called as a modulated signal. This signal
is a combination of modulating signal and carrier signal.

4.4. Types of Modulation

There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques used, they are
classified as shown in the following figure.

The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and pulse
modulation.

Continuous-wave Modulation
In continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave. This is further
divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Amplitude
Modulation.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Angle Modulation. Angle modulation is
further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
 o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Frequency
Modulation.
o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Phase
Modulation.
Amplitude Modulation:

A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband message signal,
which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.
According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal
containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at each
instant? This can be well explained by the following figures.
The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the carrier
wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While the last one is the resultant
modulated wave.
It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave are interconnected with an
imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This imaginary line
on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message signal.

Mathematical Expressions:

Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.

Time-domain Representation of the Waves
Let the modulating signal be,
m (t) =Am cos (2πfmt)m (t) =Am cos (2πfmt)

and the carrier signal be,

c (t) = Ac cos (2πfct)c(t)=Ac cos (2πfct)

Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be
s(t)=[Ac +Am cos (2πfmt)] cos (2πfct) (Equation 1)

Modulation Index

A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an attempt is
called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation that a carrier wave
undergoes.
Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.
s(t)=Ac[1+(AmAc)cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)

⇒s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct) (Equation 2)

Where, μ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac. Mathematically, we can write it
as
μ=AmAc (Equation 3)
Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when the
amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known.
Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1. We can use this
formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the
modulated wave are known.
Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt)cos(2πfmt) is 1.

⇒Amax=Ac+Am (Equation 4)

We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) cos(2πfmt) is -1.
⇒Amin=Ac−Am (Equation 5)
Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.
Amax+Amin=Ac+Am+Ac−Am=2Ac
 ⇒Ac=Amax+Amin /2 (Equation 6)

Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.

Amax−Amin=(Ac+Am)−(Ac−Am)=2Am

⇒Am=Amax−Amin /2 (Equation 7)
The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.
AmAc=(Amax−Amin)/2 . (Amax+Amin)/2

⇒μ=(Amax−Amin )(Amax+Amin) (Equation 8)

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The modulation
index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of Modulation. We will
get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation index value with 100.
For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the percentage of
modulation should be 100%.
For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, and then the modulated
output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is called as
an under-modulated wave.

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be an over-
modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.
As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180o phase reversal, which
causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an over-modulated wave causes
interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of AM Wave

Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as
BW=fmax−fmin

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)

⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμcos(2πfct)cos(2πfmt)

⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμ2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Acμ2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]

Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency fc, upper
sideband frequency fc+fm and lower sideband frequency fc−fm
Here,
fmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fm

Substitute fmax and fmin values in bandwidth formula.

BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)

⇒BW=2fm⇒BW=2fm

Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice the frequency
of the modulating signal.
Power Calculations of AM Wave

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμ2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Acμ2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]
Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband
frequency components.
Pt=Pc+PUSB+PLSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

P = vrms2/R = (vm/√2)2

Where,
vrms is the rms value of cos signal.
vm is the peak value of cos signal.
First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.
Carrier power
(𝐴𝑐/√2 )2 𝐴𝑐 2
Pc = ( )=
𝑅 2𝑅

Upper sideband power

=(𝐴𝑐 𝜇/2√2)2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇2
PUSB =
𝑅 8𝑅

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.
𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2
PLSB= 8𝑅

Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.
𝐴 2
𝑐 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2
Pt= 2𝑅 + 8𝑅
+ 8𝑅

𝑐 𝐴 2 𝜇2 𝜇2
⇒Pt=( 2𝑅 )+1+ +
4 4

𝜇2
⇒Pt=Pc(1 + 2
)

We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power and the
modulation index are known.
If the modulation index μ=1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier power. So, the
power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a perfect modulation.
Angle Modulation:

The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is Angle Modulation. Angle Modulation
is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies according to the message
signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is
s(t)=Accosθi(t)

where,

Ac is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier signal
θi(t) is the angle of the modulated wave
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal linearly with
the message signal.
 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with the
message signal.
Now, let us discuss these in detail.

Frequency Modulation

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency Modulation
(FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains constant.
This can be better understood by observing the following figures.
The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the modulating or message
signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the amplitude of the
modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains constant and it
is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the modulating signal is zero.

Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM modulation is
fi = fc+kfm(t)

Where,
fc is the carrier frequency
kt is the frequency sensitivity
m(t) is the message signal
We know the relationship between angular frequency ωi and angle θi(t) as
𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)
𝜔𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)
2𝑓𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡

⇒θi(t)=2𝜋∫ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Substitute fi value in the above equation.
θi(t)=2𝜋∫ (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡))𝑑𝑡

⇒θi(t)=2πfct+2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
Substitute θi(t) value in the standard equation of angle modulated wave.
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡)

This is the equation of FM wave.

If the modulating signal is m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt), then the equation of FM wave will be
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+βsin(2πfmt))

Where,
𝛥𝑓 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚
β= modulation index = =
𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚

The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier
frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δf, which is equal to the product of kf
and Am.
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the values of modulation index β.

Narrowband FM
Following are the features of Narrowband FM.
 This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband FM.
 The modulation index β is small, i.e., less than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.
 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.

Wideband FM
Following are the features of Wideband FM.
 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.
 The modulation index β is large, i.e., higher than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located around it.
 This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.
Phase Modulation

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in Phase Modulation (PM), the
phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.
So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant. This
can be better understood by observing the following figures.

The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can take
place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier signal.
When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is negative,
the phase changes in the opposite direction.

Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕi in phase modulation is
ϕi=kpm(t)
Where,
 kp is the phase sensitivity
 m(t) is the message signal
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+ϕi)

Substitute ϕi value in the above equation.

s(t)=Accos(2πfct+kpm(t))

This is the equation of PM wave.

If the modulating signal, m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt) then the equation of PM wave will be
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+βcos(2πfmt))

Where,
 β = modulation index = Δϕ=kpAm
 Δϕ is phase deviation
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is used
mainly for FM broadcasting.

5. Information Capacity, Bits, it rate, Baud

 Digital means discrete form. The data in communication can be represented in digital
form i.e. in 0 and 1 form.
 Since digital signals are usually not periodic in nature different terminology is used for
representing digital data.
 1. Bit Interval: Bit interval is the time required to send one single bit.
2. Bit rate: Bit rate is defined as the number of bit intervals per second. Bit rate is
expressed in bits per second (bps).
Fig.1.9. shows the concept of bit interval and bit rate.
3. Digital Bandwidth: Digital bandwidth is the maximum bit rate that a medium can
propagate through it. The digital bandwidth of a medium is expressed in bits per second
(bps).
4. Frequency Spectrum: Frequency spectrum is used to analyze and synthesize a signal.
Frequency spectrum representation consists of amplitude and phase spectrum of signal.
5. Baud Rate: Baud indicates the rate at which a signal level changes over a period of time.
Data Rate Limits:
 The maximum data rate limit over a medium is decided by following factors
 1. BW of channel
2. Signal Levels
3. Channel Quality(Level of Noise)
 Depending on the channel type (noiseless channel or noisy channel), the data rate is
calculated by two different formulas.
1. For noiseless channel – Nyquist Bit Rate
2. For noisy channel – Shannon Capacity
Nyquist Bit Rate:
Nyquist bit rate defines the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noiseless channel or ideal
channel.
Max. Bit rate = 2 x BW x log2L
Where BW = Bandwidth at channel
L = number of signal levels used to represent data.
Shannon Capacity:
An ideal noiseless channel never exists. The maximum data rate for any noisy channel is:
C =BW x log2 (1+S/N)
C = Channel capacity in bits per second
S/N = Signal-to-Noise ratio
The channel capacity is also called as Shannon capacity.
6. Digital Modulation:
Digital-to-Analog signals is the next conversion we will discuss in this chapter. These techniques are
also called as Digital Modulation techniques.
Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data security, quicker system availability
with great quality communication. Hence, digital modulation techniques have a greater demand, for
their capacity to convey larger amounts of data than analog modulation techniques.
There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their combinations, depending upon
the need. Of them all, we will discuss the prominent ones.

ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying

The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data whether it should be a zero level or
a variation of positive and negative, depending upon the carrier frequency.

FSK – Frequency Shift Keying

The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low, depending upon the input data applied.
PSK – Phase Shift Keying

The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input. These are mainly of two types,
namely Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSKBPSK and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSKQPSK, according
to the number of phase shifts. The other one is Differential Phase Shift Keying DPSKDPSK which
changes the phase according to the previous value.

M-ary Encoding

M-ary Encoding techniques are the methods where more than two bits are made to transmit
simultaneously on a single signal. This helps in the reduction of bandwidth.
The types of M-ary techniques are −

 M-ary ASK
 M-ary FSK
 M-ary PSK
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in
the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.
 Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when ASK modulated,
gives a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.
 The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the
carrier signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency
modulation.
 The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in
frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.
 The following image is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform along with
its input.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier signal is
changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is widely used for
wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth communications.
PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are −
Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK
This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier
takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.
BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier DSBSC modulation scheme, for message being
the digital information.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK

This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase reversals such
as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.
If this kind of techniques is further extended, PSK can be done by eight or sixteen values also,
depending upon the requirement.
 7. M-ary Encoding:
The word binary represents two bits. M represents a digit that corresponds to the number of
conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables.
This is the type of digital modulation technique used for data transmission in which instead of one bit,
two or more bits are transmitted at a time. As a single signal is used for multiple bit transmission, the
channel bandwidth is reduced.

M-ary Equation

If a digital signal is given under four conditions, such as voltage levels, frequencies, phases, and
amplitude, then M = 4.
The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions is expressed mathematically as
N=log2M

Where
N is the number of bits necessary
M is the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible with N bits.
The above equation can be re-arranged as
2N=M

For example, with two bits, 22 = 4 conditions are possible.

8. Bandwidth Efficiency:
 Bandwidth efficiency is used for comparing the performance of one digital modulation
technique to another.
 Bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth
required for a particular scheme.
 Bandwidth Efficiency (Bn)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒(𝑏𝑝𝑠)
Bn =
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ(𝐻𝑧)
𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠
Bn =
𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒