Research

Methodology
Methods and Techniques
(SECOND REVISED EDITION)
MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.

Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic. In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation.
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a
careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”1
Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”2
Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is
actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the
unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller
understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method,
which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as
research.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity
about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and
the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of
the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we
quite often use
the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic
of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report
what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used
for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for
example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto
studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot
control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical
research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for
an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation
of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research.”4 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about
human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at
certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that
may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain
communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation
research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when
we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think
or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other
projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we
can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or
which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to
apply qualitative research in
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the
researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his
hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the
persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such
research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under
study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in
some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered
to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
(v) some O
of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or
on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can
think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the
former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter
case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-
setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as
clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or
indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go
deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples
and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or
it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those
with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical
research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at
any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and
decision-oriented. While doing conclusion- oriented research, a researcher is free to
pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a
decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research
according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision
oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments
with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.
 Research Approaches
The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic approaches to
research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The former involves the generation of
data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid
fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research. The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which
to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample of
population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the
population has the same characteristics. Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control
over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on
other variables. Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a
system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and
social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a
dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is
run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.”5 Simulation approach can also be useful in building
models for understanding future conditions.
 Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected
to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques
and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at length in chapters that follow.
Significance of Research
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry,
and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of
research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research
inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of
thinking and organization.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex
nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving
operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both
for government and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be
equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research
we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the
country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic conditions.
The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry, working
conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature of
defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with
regard to the allocation of nation’s resources. Another area in government, where research is
necessary, is collecting information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such
information indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place.
Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of
research problems. These day nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians
or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to
economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic
structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and
the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future
developments.
 In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important
source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It
is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in
a better way.
Research Methods versus Methodology

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and
research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those
methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or
techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the researchers
*At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods.
Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research
operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and
the like. Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting and
constructing research technique. For instance, the difference between methods and
techniques of data collection can better be understood from the details given in the
following chart—
 Type Methods Techniques
1. Library (i) Analysis of historical Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film listening and
Research records analysis.
(ii) Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and manipulations, reference and abstract
guides, contents analysis.
2. Field (i) Non-participant direct Observational behavioural scales, use of score cards, etc.
Research observation
(ii) Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape recorders, photo graphic
techniques.
(iii) Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using independent observers in
public places.
(iv) Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background of respondents.
(v) Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of sociometric scales.
(vi) Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and closed questions.
(vii) Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given experience and its effects.
(viii) Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed simultaneously.
(ix) Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and for discerning
opinion; may also be used as a follow up of questionnaire.
(x) Case study and life history Cross sectional collection of data for intensive analysis, longitudinal
collection of data of intensive character.
3. Laboratory Small group study of random Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of observers,
etc. Research behaviour, play and role analysis
to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following
three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop
certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation
or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of
these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and
indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various
techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and
procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is
necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ
from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously
evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects
particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials
and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research decisions
to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely what
decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
 RESEARCH PROCESS IN FLOW CHART

FF

FF

Review the literature

Review concepts
Define and theories Design research Analyse data Interpret
Formulate (including Collect data
research (Test hypotheses and report
hypotheses sample design) (Execution)
problem Review previous F if any) F
research finding V VII
I III IV VI
II

Where F = feed back (Helps in controlling the sub-system

to which it is transmitted)
FF = feed forward (Serves the vital function of
providing criteria for evaluation