Mindanao State University

Tawi-Tawi College of Technology and Oceanography

Sanga-Sanga, Bongao, Tawi-Tawi
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

GEC108
(SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY)
Module 1

(photo: www.hiclipart.com)

Student’s Name: __________________________________________________________

Section: __________________________ Schedule: _____________________________

1
 Mindanao State University
Tawi-Tawi College of Technology and Oceanography
Sanga-Sanga, Bongao, Tawi-Tawi

MSU-TCTO MISSION AND VISION

Vision

A university in the Sulu Archipelago renowned for Fisheries, Marine and Environmental
Science, and other disciplines.

Mission

Provide relevant quality education especially to Muslims and other indigenous groups
Promote environmental conservation and sustainable utilization of fisheries and marine
resources
Develop and transfer new knowledge and innovative technology to the community
Engage stakeholders in peace and socio-economic development endeavors

COURSE NUMBER & TITLE:

GEC108 Science, Technology, and Society

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course deals with interactions between science and technology and social, cultural,
political, and economic contexts that shape and are shaped by them. This interdisciplinary course
engages students to confront the realities brought about by science and technology in society. Such
realities pervade the personal, the public, and the global aspects of our living and are integral to
human development. Scientific knowledge and technological development happen in the context
of society with all its socio-political, cultural, economic, and philosophical underpinnings at play.
This course seeks to instill reflective knowledge in the students that they are able to live the good
life and display ethical decision-making in the face of scientific and technological advancement.
This course includes mandatory topics on climate change and environmental awareness.

COURSE OVERVIEW

Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn the meaning of science, technology and society. The
three areas will be treated as a single discipline. The discipline referred to as science,
technology and society (STS) is an integration of three areas. You will learn how science
affects the society and how the society affects science; how science affects technology and
how technology affect science; how society affects technology. The three areas put together

2
will lead us in this course, to study the quality of life. Quali ty of life depends on our values.
You will specifically learn the ideas and definitions educators and scientists have about STS.

Course Learning Outcome

Upon completion of the GEC 108 (Science, Technology and Society) you will be able
to:

 Articulate the role and importance of science and technology in everyday life and in nation-building.
 Discuss the impacts of science and technology on environment and society, specifically the
Philippine society
 Appreciate the role of society in the development of science and technology
 Recognize his/her role in the conservation of the environment and the development of the Filipino
nation
 Demonstrate respect for diversity in culture, religion, gender, ethnicity, age
 Integrate the knowledge in science and technology for the development of a healthy lifestyle towards
holistic development of the individual and society
 Compare and contrast the benefits and risks of technology in making everyday decisions

Module 1: Overview of Science, Technology and Society

Unit 1: Introduction to STS

This part covers the introduction to Science, Technology and Society such as the
definition of Science, Technology and Society. This provides an insight on how Technology is
derived from Science and how it could affect Society
Unit II: Historical Development of STS in the world and the Philippines
The Development of Science and technology from various centuries and how it has
changed society. This unit will also include the history of technological development in our
country
Unit III: Origin of life
This unit covers the various beliefs on the origin of life and what are the effects of these
beliefs to society

Unit VI: Beginning of Life in the Womb

In this unit, it covers how humans reproduce, how zygote develops inside the womb of the mother
during pregnancy. It also covers social issues regarding child rearing.

COURSE STUDY GUIDE.

This module is designed using a flexible learning approach. Due to the COVID-19
pandemic and for continuity of inclusive and accessible education, our classes is a combination of
face-to-face (traditional mode of teaching) and non-face-to-face instruction this 1st Semester of AY
2021-2022. Therefore, this module is made for self-directed study. To effectively learn from this
module, I have a few tips for you to follow:

3
 Be open-minded: in exploring the world of knowledge, it is very important to open our minds to
understand new concepts. As young adults, it is time to gain knowledge to hone our inner self. Some of the
topics in this module might be controversial and sensitive.

Use time WISELY: you would have to learn from different learning modules this semester, use
your time wisely in order to learn and advance into the next semester.

Be Resourceful. Adapting to this new form of knowledge may be difficult for you. Manage your
resources well.

Do not be SHY: if you have any question on concern regarding this module, feel free to ask your
instruction for clarification.

STUDY SCHEDULE

This module will be utilized by the following sections enrolled in GEC 108 during the 1 st
Semester of AY 2021-2022:

Please note the schedule and room assignment of your classes if you are directed to come
to school for face-to-face classes as per your professor’s instructions and/or as indicated in the
succeeding table.
Week Topic Learning Outcome Activities
PRELIM PERIOD
COURSE OVERVIEW AND SELF-INTRODUCTION
Week 1 Release of the Learning Packets
Module 1: General Concepts and STS Historical Development
Unit 1: Introduction to Science, Technology and Society
Week 2 List different technologies coming from List Down!
different branches of science
Analyze the impact of technology to life
Construct conclusion using the Scientific Most Impactful Technology
Method
Apply Scientific Method
Unit 2: Historical Development of STS in the world and the Philippines
Week 3 -4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages Research Activity
of the STS program of the Duterte
Administration

Unit 3: Origin of Life

Week 4 Discuss the evidences of the theories on the Research activity
origin of life
Discuss the conflict between the groups
believing in different theories on the origin Video Reaction Paper
of life

List down different societal issue related to

the belief on origin of life List down
Unit 4: Life in the womb

4
 Week 5 Determine and relate how life arises from Video Reflection Paper
the
List down different societal issues arising List down
from human reproduction
Relate and Evaluate Teen pregnancy in the
country Video Reflection paper
Defend position on different societal issues
Position Paper
Week 6 Exam Week

EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT AND GRADING SYSTEM

Please be guided of the following to pass this course:

1. Watch all the videos (self-made or not) and media presentation, and listen to audio-
recorded lessons as provided in this course
2. Answer the print-based activities, and graded quizzes.
3. Take three (3) major exams (Prelim, Midterm, Final); and
4. Submit required projects for this course.

Formative Assessment

There are unit activities in this module that are not marked as ‘graded” as specified in the Study
Schedule, however, you need to comply it as part of the required activities in this course. If there
are missed activities at the end of the semester, your record will be marked “INC” Incomplete.
These activities are given to assess you in your weekly learning and as
a requirement for you to move forward to the next part of the module. You will be monitored in
the submission of your outputs.

Summative Assessment

Upon completion of this module, you will be graded based on the following:

Evaluation Activities.
 Graded Quizzes and Major Exams
 Final Projects. /Activities

Rubrics for Reflection Paper

Categories 3 points 2 points 1 point

Self - disclosure Seeks to understand Seeks to understand Little self-disclosure,

concepts by examining concepts by examining minimal risk in connecting
openly your own somewhat cautiously your concepts from class to
experiences in the past as own experiences in the personal experiences. Self-
they relate to the topic, to past as they relate to the disclosure tends to be
illustrate points you are topic. Sometimes superficial and factual,
making. Demonstrates an defensive or one-sided in without self-reflection
open, non-defensive your analysis. Asks some
ability to self-appraise, probing questions about
discussing both growth self, but do not engage in
and frustrations as they seeking to answer these.
related to learning in class.
Risks asking probing

5
 questions about self and
seeks to answer
these

Connection to outside In-depth synthesis Goes into some detail Identify some general
experiences of thoughtfully selected explaining some specific Ideas or issues from
aspects of experiences ideas or issues from outside experiences
related to the topic. outside experiences related to the topic
Makes clear connections related to the topic.
between what is learned Makes general
from outside experiences connections between
and the topic. what is learned from
outside experiences and
the topic

Connection to In-depth synthesis of Goes into more detail Identify some general
readings/videos thoughtfully selected explaining some specific ideas or issues from
(assigned and ones you aspects of readings related ideas or issues from readings/videos related to
may have sought on to the topic. readings related to the the topic. Readings are
Makes clear connections topic. Makes general only
your own) between what is learned connections between what those assigned for the
from readings and the is learned from readings topic
topic. Demonstrate further and the topic. Includes
analysis and insight reference to at least one
resulting from what you reading other than those
have learned from assigned for class
reading, includes
reference to at least two
readings other than those
assigned for class

Connection to class synthesize, analyze and Synthesize clearly some Restate some general
module & course evaluate thoughtfully directly appropriate ideas ideas or issues from the
outcomes selected aspects of ideas or issues from the class class discussion as they
or issues from the class discussion as they relate relate to this topic.
discussion as they relate to to this topic
this topic.

Spelling & grammar No spelling or grammar Few spelling and Many spelling and
errors errors. grammar errors. grammar errors, use of
incomplete sentences,
inadequate proof reading

Rubrics for Reaction Paper

Category 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point

Content & Content is Content is accurate - Content is not Content is
Development comprehensive, and persuasive. - comprehensive and incomplete. - Major
accurate, and Major points are /or persuasive. - points are not clear
persuasive. Major stated. - Responses Major points are and /or persuasive.
points are stated are adequate and addressed, but not Questions were not
clearly and are well address assignment. well supported. - adequately answered
supported. - Content and Responses are
Responses are purpose of the inadequate. -
excellent and timely. writing are clear. Content is
Content and purpose inconsistent with
of the writing are regard to purpose
clear and clarity of
thought
Organization & -Structure of the Structure is mostly Structure of the - Organization and
Structure paper is clear and clear and easy to paper is not easy to structure detract
easy to follow. - follow. - Paragraph follow. - Paragraph from the message of
Paragraph transitions are transitions need the writer. -
transitions are present. - improvement. - Paragraphs are
logical and maintain Conclusion is Conclusion is disjointed and lack
the flow of thought logical. missing, or if transition of
throughout the provided, does not thoughts
paper. - Conclusion flow from the body
is logical and flows of the paper
from the body of the
paper

6
 Grammar, Rules of grammar, Rules of grammar, Paper contains few Paper contains
Punctuation & usage, and usage, and grammatical, numerous
Spelling punctuation are punctuation are punctuation and grammatical,
followed; spelling is followed with minor spelling errors. - punctuation, and
correct. Language is errors. Spelling is Language lacks spelling errors. -
clear and precise; correct. clarity or includes Language uses
sentences display the use of some jargon or
consistently strong, jargon or conversational tone.
varied structure conversational tone

Rubrics for Position Paper

CATEGORY 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point

Introductory The introductory The introductory The author has an The introductory
paragraph paragraph has a strong paragraph has a hook or interesting introductory paragraph is not
hook or attention grabber attention grabber, but it paragraph but the interesting AND is not
that is appropriate for the is weak, rambling or connection to the topic relevant to the topic.
audience. This could be a inappropriate for the is not clear.
strong statement, a audience.
relevant quotation,
statistic, or question
addressed to the reader.
Focus The statement clearly The statement names The statement outlines The statement does not
Statement names the topic of the the topic of the essay. some or all of the main name the topic AND
essay and outlines the The author's position is points to be discussed does not preview what
main points to be stated but does not name the will be discussed.
discussed. The author's topic.
position is strongly and
clearly stated.
Support for Includes 3 or more Includes 3 or more Includes 2 pieces of Includes 1 or fewer
Position pieces of evidence (facts, pieces of evidence evidence (facts, pieces of evidence
statistics, examples, real- (facts, statistics, statistics, examples, (facts, statistics,
life experiences) that examples, real-life real-life experiences) examples, real-life
support the position experiences) that that support the position experiences).
statement. The writer support the position statement.
anticipates the reader's statement.
concerns, biases or
arguments and has
provided at least 1
counterargument.

Evidence and All of the evidence and Most of the evidence At least one of the Evidence and examples
Examples examples are specific, and examples are pieces of evidence and are NOT relevant
relevant and explanations specific, relevant and examples is relevant AND/OR are not
are given that show how explanations are given and has an explanation explained.
each piece of evidence that show how each that shows how that
supports the author's piece of piece of evidence
position. evidence supports the supports the author's
author's position. position.
Sequencing Arguments and support Arguments and support A few of the support Many of the support
are provided in a logical are details or arguments are details or arguments are
order that makes it easy provided in a fairly not in an expected or not in an expected or
and interesting to follow logical order that logical order, logical order,
the author's train of makes it reasonably distracting the reader distracting the reader
thought. easy to follow the and making the essay and making the essay
author's train of seem a little confusing. seem very confusing.
thought.

Writing Piece is clearly written Author paid attention to Errors may be present Errors make it
Mechanics with no grammar, writing conventions; and may slightly take difficult to read and/or
spelling, punctuation, or Minor errors do not away from the clarity; understand the paper.
capitalization errors. distract from meaning. yet, the writer’s
meaning can be
determined.

7
Closing The conclusion is strong The conclusion is The author's position is There is no conclusion -
Paragraph and leaves the reader recognizable. The restated within the the paper just ends.
solidly understanding the author's position is closing paragraph, but
writer's position. restated within the first not near the beginning.
Effective restatement of two sentences of the The essay body is not
the position statement closing paragraph and is summarized.
begins the closing followed by a summary
paragraph and is of the essay body.
followed by an effective
summary of the essay
body.

Grading System

Below is the percentage distribution for grade computation:

For Prelim, Midterm and Final Grade:

Module Questions -%
Reaction Papers/ Reflection Papers -%
Position Papers - %
Presentation / Reports/Projects - %
Written Exams - %
Total - 100%

Final Grade
Prelim, Midterm & Final Grade - 70%
Final Projects - 30%
Total - 100%

TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS

To complete the activities in this module conveniently, you need the following offline
software application: MS Word, MS PowerPoint, Windows Media player/VLC Media Player in
your laptop, tablet, desktop or mobile phone. A Facebook group or google classroom may be
created for queries and clarification regarding the module

Facebook group : _____________________________________

Google Classroom Account : _____________________________________

CONTACT OF THE FACILITATOR

Need help? Contact me via:

Mobile Phone No :
Facebook Account :
Email Address :

You can also message the College of Arts and Sciences Facebook account: Cas-msu Tawi-
Tawi for other academic concerns.

8
BEFORE WE START!

I want to get to know you first. Please answer these questions honestly and do not be shy to share
some personal information.

Name: ________________________________ Age: ______ Birthday: ______________

Share something about you that people don’t know:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

What traits do you like about other people?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

What are your traits that other people like?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

How did you pass the time during the lockdown?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

UNIT I: INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

What are Science, Technology and society, and why should people want to study and learn
it? Why should students, teachers, researchers and other professionals have interest in the subject?
Primarily, we need some background and understanding of the significance of science and
technology in the living past and their importance in the modern world (Mosteiro,2004)

The relationship between science and technology and society, can be described by the
example of rain falling on a mountain. Rain that has fallen on a mountain does not immediately
wash away downhill. First, it is captured and stored by forests, giving life to trees and other

9
vegetation and creating a verdant landscape. This can be compared to the accumulation of scientific
knowledge and the continuing search for truth, obtained through basic research, and perhaps
demonstrates that science has intrinsic value of itself. Meanwhile, the rainwater stored in the forest
bubbles out from the springs and flows downhill in a steadily widening stream. A single stream
flow can separate into a large number of sub-flows, and sometimes the flow can go underground
into a subterranean network. This situation can be compared to the diversity of research and
development that can arise based on scientific knowledge, leading to the planting of various new
technological seeds. Eventually, the river reaches farming communities and urban cities, where it
is utilized for drinking and other household purposes, for agricultural or industrial uses, and for
various other needs, universally benefiting all aspects of society. This is equivalent to research and
development resulting in practical technologies that boost the prosperity of the people’s society and
lives, and to the utilization of science and technology in response to various issues facing society.
If the forest fails to capture a sufficient amount of the falling rain, society will quickly be faced
with drought and people will not be able to live. In the same way, realization of societal progress
through science and technology requires a sufficient accumulation of scientific knowledge. In other
words, science can be considered to be the foundation strength of society. However, this foundation
strength is not something that can be acquired in a single day or night, but instead requires a steady,
continuous build-up.

Science is a body of knowledge pursued by scientists. What the scientists do is referred to

as the process. Knowledge derived from science lead to products, which are often referred to as
technology, like in manufacturing. All these take place in the society. Therefore, science,
technology and society are intricately linked. People study science in individual compartments like
physics, chemistry and biology, but they do not know their relevance in the community and to their
individual lives. STS cover every aspect of the pure sciences. When you finished your exams in
Physics, Chemistry and Biology you thought that was all there is to those subjects. Those subjects
are part of your life. An automobile is a product of Science, what you call technology.

Nature of Science

Scientific results are linked to the development of new products and new technologies, and
contribute greatly to economic and medical progress, and to other real social and economic
activities.
Science is believed to be a systematic study of nature. Those who study science are called
scientist. What is peculiar about scientists is that:
 They do not accept any information as fact until the gather evidences and other scientist
came up with this same finding, in this, scientists are said to be skeptical (Skepticism)
 They like to look into everything asking why and how questions (Curiosity)
 They work and keep on working at whatever they suspect will give then a clue to what they
are looking for (Perseverance/Persistence)
 They take things step by step and they aim at accuracy (Systematism). It is very easy for
them to discover things and even the unexpected because of this alertness.

10
  They do not like to work in isolation, even if they do they show each other what they have
found (Cooperation)
 Scientists are objective, open-minded, honest, restrained, and willing to change opinion,
they are critical minded, etc.

Because of these attributes of scientist, Science is said to be dynamic, constantly moving,

and the knowledge changes. What you know yesterday and today may not be an acceptable fact
tomorrow because a theory may have to change when new observations are made. Science is
therefore tentative.

Technology and Economy

1. Technology is the single most important determining factor in sustained economic growth,
estimated to account for as much as half a nation’s growth over the past 50 years.
2. Technology is transforming the very basis of competition-enabling small businesses to perform
high-quality design and manufacturing work that previously required the resources of big
business, while allowing big businesses to achieve the speed, flexibility, and proximity to
customers that were once the sole domain of smaller firms.
3. Technology provides the tools for creating a spectacular array of new products and new services.

Activity 1: List Down

Directions: List down 10 branches of science that you have learned from your Senior High School
and what technology was derived from that branch of science.

Branch of Science Technology

1. _______________________ __________________________
2. _______________________ __________________________
3. _______________________ __________________________
4. _______________________ __________________________
5. _______________________ __________________________
6. _______________________ __________________________
7. _______________________ __________________________
8. _______________________ __________________________
9. _______________________ __________________________
10. _______________________ __________________________

Activity 2: Most Impactful Technology

In your opinion, what technology has created the most impact in your life? Why? What could be
the disadvantage of this technology?

11
Technology: ___________________________________________________________________
Why:__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Disadvantages:__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Scientific Method

Do you like to observe the things around you? Have you tried to investigate something
that made you curious? If you have, then you may have tried what scientists do when they
investigate something. Scientists follow a procedure when studying a certain phenomenon. This
procedure is called the scientific method.

The following are the steps of the scientific method:

1. Identify the problem. problem is based on one’s observations.

2. Gather and study information.
3. Formulate a hypothesis. hypothesis is an intelligent guess to explain an observation.
4. Test the hypothesis.
5. Make a conclusion.
6. Verify the conclusion.

Let’s Read!

Nena wants to determine which detergent is the best. There are too many detergent brands
at the sari-sari store, so before buying any, she first asked other housewives to know which
detergent each one considered the best. There were various responses but she decided to
consider only the top four choices. The top four detergents are Malinis, Maputi, Mabango and
Matipid. She bought these detergent brands from the nearby sari-sari store. She thought that
Maputi, the most expensive brand, would be the best.

12
 Nena decided to use one brand of detergent each time she washed clothes. For each brand,
she took note of how long the detergent lasted, how pleasant the smell of the clothes was after
they had been washed and how well the detergent got rid of dirt. After observing all this, she
was convinced that Malinis was the best detergent. It lasted longer than all three other
detergents. Clothes that were washed with Malinis had the most pleasant smell. This brand also
got rid of dirt faster than all the other detergents. Nena was glad to know that the most expensive
brand is not necessarily the best all the time.

From then on, Nena used Malinis every time she washed clothes.

Exercise 1: Based on what you have read, answer these questions.

1. What was the problem of Nena?

______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. How did Nena gather and study the information?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. What was the Hypothesis of Nena?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. How did she test the hypothesis?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
What was the Conclusion of Nena?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. If you were Nena, how would you verify her conclusion?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Activity 3 : Lets Apply!

13
Let’s Apply the Scientific Method!
Apply the scientific method in your house. What have you observed in your house and what
is your hypothesis? Test your hypothesis and verify your conclusion.
1. Problem.
____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Information studied and gathered.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Hypothesis.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. Hypothesis testing.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
5. Conclusion.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
6. Verify conclusion.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Values and Attitude of Scientist

A scientific attitude is a way of looking at things governed by facts based on observations. The
scientific attitudes are very useful in any career particularly in Science. The following are attitudes
that one should possess in order to become more successful in the chosen field like biological
sciences.

1. A belief that problems have solutions. Major problems have been tackled in the past, like
sending a man to the moon. Other problems, such as pollution, war, poverty, and ignorance
are seen as having real causes and are therefore solvable, perhaps not easily but possible.
2. A respect for power of theoretical structure. A Scientist is unlikely to adopt the attitude.
“that is all right in theory but it won’t work in practice”. Theory is “all right” only if does
work in practice. Indeed, the rightness of the theory is in the end what the scientist is
working toward; no science facts are accumulated at random. Theory guides observation;
and observation modifies theory.

14
3. A thirst of knowledge, an “intellectual drive”. Scientists are addicted puzzle-solvers.
Scientist are willing to live with incompleteness rather than fill the gaps with offhand
explanations.
4. Ability to separate fundamental concepts from the irrelevant or unimportant.
Beginning science students get bogged down in observations and data that are of little
importance to the concept they want to investigate. Levels of analysis vary, and keeping
focus on the “big picture” can be difficult.
5. Ability to suspend judgement. A scientist tries hard not to form an opinion on a given
issue until he or she has investigated it, because it is so hard to give up opinions already
formed. Willingness to act on the best hypothesis that one has time or opportunity to form.
6. An appreciation of probability and statistics. Correlations do not prove cause-and-
effect, but some pseudoscience arises when a chance occurrence is taken as “proof”.
Individuals who insist on all-or-non world and who have little experience with statistics
will have difficulty understanding the concept of an event occurring by chance, or the
relationship of a sample to a population.
7. An automatic preference for scientific explanation. No scientist can know all the
experimental evidence underlying current science concepts and therefore must adopt some
views without understanding their basis. A scientist reject non-scientific explanation and
prefers science paradigms out of an appreciation for the power of reality based, testable
knowledge.
8. An understanding that all knowledge has tolerance limits. All careful analyses of the
world reveal measurements that scatter at least slightly around the average point; a human’s
core body temperature is about many degrees and many objects fall with a certain rate of
acceleration, but there is some variation. There is no absolute certainty, nor it is required
in science.
9. Awareness of assumption. A good scientist starts by defining terms, making all
assumptions very clear, and reducing necessary assumptions to the smallest number
possible. Often we want scientists to make a broad statement about a complex world. but
usually scientists are very specific about what they “know” or will say with certainty:
“when these conditions hold true. The usual outcome is such-and-such.
10. Determinism. “cause-and-effect” underlies everything. In simple mechanisms, an action
causes a reaction, and effects do not occur without causes.
11. Empathy for the human condition. The practice of science is bounded by ethical
constraints, and good scientists are aware of, and often deeply involved in, other moral
ideological domains.
12. Empiricism. a scientist prefers to “look and see” you do not argue about whether it is
raining outside, just stick your hand out the window.
13. Loyalty to reality. Ability to accept a model that matched reality better. A scientist would
never have considered holding to an opinion just because it is associated with his name.
14. Parsimony. Prefer the simple explanation than the complex.
15. Precision. Scientist are impatient with vague statements. Scientists are very exact and very
“picky”

15
16. Respect for quantification and appreciation of mathematics as a language of science.
Many of nature’s relationships are best revealed by patterns and mathematical relationships
when reality is counted or measured.
17. Respect for scientific paradigms. A paradigm is our overall understanding about how the
world works. It means a framework or structure is working at things.
18. Scientific Manipulation. Any idea, it may be simple and conform to apparent
observations, must also be confirmed by work that teases out the possibility that the effects
are caused by other factors. Don’t jump to conclusions, especially if you found what you
were looking for in the first place.
19. Skepticism. Nearly all statements make assumptions of prior conditions. A scientist often
reaches a dead-end in research and has to go back to determine if all the assumptions made
are true to how the world operates. Be particularly sceptical of assumptions that come from
non-science domains IF they claim scientific truth. In short, harness a questioning mind
about things said to be the truth.
20. Willingness to change opinion. Scientists are willing to immediately throw away old
fashion ideas that are no longer applicable to scientific endeavour.

Nature of Technology
Technology is the product of science. Technologists are scientists. Have you ever seen a
technologist who is not a scientist? Because of this connection, technology can be said to be
dynamic and tentative. Do you agree with this statement? It is true, that is why we have
technological advancement. Think of how much changes have taken place for you.

Where technology has developed in close relationship to the convenience and prosperity
of human life since before the advent of recorded history, science originated from natural
philosophy and was supported by people’s intellectual curiosity. The main objective of science
has been elucidation of how nature is put together and operates, and it has developed as a
separate entity from technology. Of course, while technological progress was backed up by
various scientific advances, this does not mean that scientific research was conducted for the
purpose of developing new technologies, rather, scientific knowledge was utilized only because
it was available. In fact, it was more common for new technologies to be developed in order to
pursue scientific research. After the industrial revolution, the separate paths taken by science
and technology began to move closer together. Significantly, the concept of linking scientific
results to technology for utilization in society became prevalent after around 1850, which is
when a chemical industry began to develop based on utilization of knowledge about chemistry,
and electrical technologies arose based on knowledge about electromagnetism. Nevertheless,
science has moved away from being the business of the intellectual world, with scientific
results now pioneering the frontiers of human activities in terms of both space and time, and
expanding the potential of human activities. Science also has become a major influence on
people’s sense of values, changing the nature of society and becoming the engine driving
society’s progress from the viewpoint of civilization.

16
 The IT revolution of recent years is the culmination of many developments in computer
technology, including the concept of the computing machine introduced by Alan Turing, and
invention of transistor by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain, as well as the
advent of the internet and other advances in information and communications technology. The
IT revolution however, does not consist merely of the development of new products or
improvement of people’s convenience, but also greatly changing people’s modes of behavior
and lifestyles, through the possibilities it has opened up for the people of the world to use
cyberspace for instantaneous exchange of information and opinion. The effects of the IT
revolution have changed the nature of society in many dimensions, from education, medical
and welfare, transport, finance, and manufacturing sectors to modes of work and play.

Elsewhere, the television has become a major factor shaping our modern society, as the
communications medium with the greatest influence, this device, as well, is the culmination of
various scientific results over the years beginning with the invention of wireless
communication by Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, the invention of the Braun tube in 1897, the
invention of the Yagi-Uda antenna in 1925, and Kenjiro Takayanagi’s successful transmiossion
of an electronic image using a Braun tube in 1926.

Nature of Society

The sociologist will tell you that their main job is to study society. The society is made up
of people. Among these people are scientist and technologists. What proceeds from the work
of the scientists and technologists are used up by the society? When for instance a plane is
developed by scientists and technologists, the recipients(users) are the people in the society.
Society itself is not stagnant. Society is dynamic. Look back at your village that you were
growing up. It is possible that you have electricity now, pipe borne water, road that connects
your village to their own etc. there are more plans to turn your village to a much better place
than what you currently have. It is like science and technology – dynamic and tentative.

Thus, scientist and technologist abode in a community (society) they see the need of the
society, as one grows, the other grows. If one is stunted the other will be stunted. Any factor
that affect the society has effect on the scientist and the technologist who are also part of
society.

While there is probably no end of examples of scientific progress having a major effect on
people’s sense of values, and changing the nature of society itself, the following is an
introduction to just a few of the more famous examples. The centennial anniversary to one of
the most amazing years of in history.
Paradigm shifts in science

Albert Einstein, one of the premier scientists of the 20 th century, issued in rapid succession
a theory of the photon, a theory of Brownian motion, and the special theory of Relativity. All

17
 of which served to overthrow the then-prevailing views on physics. Einstein’s theory of
Relativity became the foundations for all later physics, contributing greatly to progress in
various fields of science. At the same time, it altered people’s concept of space and time, and
had a huge effect on philosophy and thought.

In the field of astronomy, Nicolaus Copernicus developed a theory, later bolstered and
refined by Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, which had a great effect on the development
and reform of society, overthrowing Europe’s medieval sense of values and driving it into the
modern age. In recent years, however, examples of such society-changing advances have
become increasingly common. For example, Edwin Hubble’s discovery in 1929 that the
universe was expanding led directly to the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe (1946)
by George Gamow and others. In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detected cosmic
background radiation pervading the universe, providing powerful evidence for the Big Bang
theory. These discoveries gave people a new “sense of the universe”. Moreover, advances in
space development have greatly expanded the space available for possible human activities,
and opened up new frontiers for humanity where people can dream. At the same time, images
of Earth take from space have given people all over the world a new “view of the Earth”, vividly
revealing its beauty and irreplaceability

Furthermore, the revelation in 1974 by Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina that
Chlorofluorocarbon gases were causing depletion of the ozone layer, followed in 1985 by the
discovery of an ozone hole, and had a huge effect on efforts to protect the global environment

Emerging Technology Issues

1. Information Age. Important issues include: fair rules of competition, the protection of
intellectual property, the security of business transactions in electronic commerce,
individual rights to privacy, law enforcement investigation, upgrading the skills of the
workforce, and integrating information technologies into the educational system and
the delivery of government services.

2. Global Investments. Support for research and technology development remains strong
in the advanced industrial nations such as U.S., Japan and the countries of the European
Union. Several Asian countries – including South Korea, Taiwan, China, Malaysia,
and Indonesia – are rapidly developing technical capabilities that will enhance their
competitive position in global markets. Many industrializing countries are
emphasizing the development of indigenous technological capabilities – increasing
research and development investments, establishing research institutes and key
technology programs, forming government-industry partnerships, boosting technical
manpower development programs, modernizing key manufacturing sectors, and
planning for information superhighways.

18
Technology Policy.

1. Retain a long-term commitment to research education, and innovation.

2. Create a business environment in which the innovative and competitive efforts of the
private sector can flourish
3. Encourage the development, commercialization, and the use of civilian technology
4. Create a world-class infrastructure for the twenty-first century to support industry and
promote commerce
5. Develop a world-class workforce capable of participating in a rapidly changing
knowledge-based economy.

UNIT II: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF STS IN THE WORLD AND THE

PHILIPPINES
The development of science and technology is as old as mankind. Many ‘inventions’
claimed after the 11th century in fact dated back to the Greeks and Chinese many centuries before.
Scientific information proposed by the Greek Philosopher Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) and
others lost in the dark ages in Britain and Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire.

The Birth of Technology (2 Million Years BC)

Tools. The birth of ‘technology’ was when the first human-like species, Homo habilis (‘skillful
person’ 2.6 million years BC) made sharp cutting edges from stone. Later, Homo neandethrals or
cave men (200,000 – 30,000 BC) used tools and weapons and were the very successful ancestors
of Homo sapiens, the species were recognized as our ancestors today. Swords, daggers and other
weaponry represented a warlike society but are also interpreted as items of social status, perhaps
given as diplomatic gifts between tribes.

Metals. Lead (Pb), one of the softest metals, was being extracted from rock in 6500 BC in Anatolia
(now Turkey), followed by copper (Cu) three thousand years later in Mesopotamia. The Iron Age
was built on hard, strong and versatile metal, Iron (Fe)

The wheel. The longest-used invention in human history, had the biggest influence on the
development of modern civilization. Around 4500 BC the wheel and axle combination became the
most important invention of all time. Carts came into common use. By 2000 BC wheels had spokes,
and then rapid development occurred with waterwheels and windmills to provide power.

NEW INVENTIONS (9th – 18th Century)

Arab Alchemy. Turning common metals into precious metals, proved to be a dead end around the
9th Century AD. Nevertheless, Arabs were clever chemists and discovered many chemicals that we
used today.

19
Gunpowder. Gunpowder is a substance used in guns to propel (move forward) the bullet. The
recipe for making gunpowder appeared in a book in Europe in 1242. Roger Bacon (1214-1294), an
English friar and philosopher, was the first to describe its formula. Guns soon followed.

Printing. The 15th century saw the start of mechanical printing machines able to make identical
copies of sheets of paper and books. Spreading knowledge and information was very slow process
before the invention of typography. Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468) developed the first
mechanical printing machine in the 1440s. the first printed book was the Bible in 1456 with the run
of 150 copies. Each Bible previously took three years to make by hand.

The Telescope. The telescope was invented by Dutchman Hans Lippershey (1570-1619). In 1610,
using his improved design, Gallileo Galilei (1564-1642) was able to prove that the Earth revolved
around the Sun. This confirmed the ideas of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-
1543) but it angered the Catholic Church who had adopted the idea that the Earth was the center of
everything.

The Microscope. Looking at small things became possible when a Dutch maker of spectacles,
Hans Janssen and his son, put glass lenses together in 1590 to make a primitive microscope. Anton
van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) took this invention a step further in 1676 with a magnification of
270 times and discovered tiny single-celled creatures in pond water. Ultimately, this helped our
understanding of microorganisms and disease.

The First Industrial Revolution (1780-1840)

Steam Power. This era saw the development of steam engines to power factory machinery. Heating
water in a boiler to make steam power a vehicle was a major technological advance. James Watt
(1736-1819) is recognized as the inventor of the steam engine in 1765. Water could be pumped out
of mines and industrial processes speeded up. George Stephenson’s (1781-1848) Rocket was the
first locomotive to pull heavy loads a long distance. This led to the rapid expansion of railways
throughout Britain and the world. The combination of iron and steam paved the way for the great
Victorian engineering projects of Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859). He designed bridges,
tunnels, viaducts and ships. Steam engines enabled the development of pumps, locomotives, steam
ships, steam lorries, etc.

Photography. In 1826, after years of experiments, the French inventor Joseph Nicephore (1765-
1833), using ‘Bitumen of Judea’ spread on pewter plate and an exposure of eight hours in bright
sunlight, produced the first permanent picture. His technique was improved upon by his colleague
Louis Daguerre (1787-1851) by using compounds of silver, the basis of modern photography
.
The Second Industrial Revolution (19th Century – 1945)

20
The Electric Light. After many refinements, Thomas Edison’s (1847-1931) electric light bulbs
were the best and by the 1879 they would last for hundreds of hours, much longer than any of their
rivals. They were also cheap. To sell bulbs, energy was needed, so Edison’s Electric Illumination
Company built their own power station in New York. After many decades he successfully
persuaded the public to opt for clean, convenient electric light rather than gas lights. Edison may
his first light bulb from bamboo fibers.

The Telephone. This is an invention that made money. Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) was
the first in the race to patent a machine in 1876 that you could use to talk to someone on the other
side of the world. admittedly, it was initially from one room to another.

The Motor Car. Until the 1860s all prototype care was steam driven. German inventor Nicolas
Otto (1832-1891) created an improved internal combustion engine in 1876 and this is still the way
car work today. In 1885, the firs car, the Benz |Patent Motorwagen, was developed by Karl Benz
(1844-1929). It was a long time before cars became common. Petrol, A cleaning fluid, was only
available from chemist. Famous names such as Rolls Royce and Henry Ford developed the
technology; Rolls Royce for the rich and Henry Ford for the man in the street.

The Movies. It has been only just over one hundred years since the first movie, or film, was shown
by brothers Auguste and Louis Lumiere (1862-1954 and 1864-1948) in 1895 at the Grand Café in
Paris.

X-rays. X-rays were quickly adapted for their use in medicine. They are especially useful in
examining the skeletal system, but they can also identify other diseases, for example pneumonia
and lung cancer.

Communications. Radio waves travel in all directions at an incredible 300,000 km per second.
The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1856-1854) was the first to prove they existed but it was
Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1973) who set up the word’s first radio stations to transmit and receive
Morse code. In 1896, he sent the first message across the Atlantic from Cornwall to Newfoundland.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1909.

Flight. At the turn of the century, in 1903, two bicycle repair man from Ohio, Wilbur and Orville
Wright (1867-1912 and 1871-1948) built and flew the first really successful airplane near Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina. From that time progress was rapid and the military advantages of flight
were realized in WWI

Rockets and Space Flights. The earliest rockets used in China in the 11 th century but by the 19th
century speed and accuracy were much improved. Knowledge of astronomy meant that scientists
knew the relative movements of the plants in relation to the Earth. A Russian mathematics teacher,
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), was the first person to draw up plans for space stations and
air locks to allow space walks. He correctly calculated that a rocket would have to travel at 8 km

21
per second to leave the atmosphere and that liquid rocket fluid would be essential. American
scientists Robert Goddard (1882-1945) not knowing of Tsiolkovsky’s ideas, independently
developed liquid fueled rockets from 1926. Ultimately, NASA took up the challenge but the
Russians eventually won the race to put a man into orbit. Yuri Gagarin (1934-1968) orbited the
Earth in 1961. In the US, NASA scientists redressed the balance in the pace race with their moon
landing in 1969. The Proton rocket is a type of Russian space vehicle. It was first launched in 1965
and it is still used today, which makes it one of the most successful rockets in the history of space
flights.

The Atomic Bomb. Science and Technology advances can be seen as good or bad. The invention
of gunpowder must have seemed like that. In 1932, physicist John Cockcroft (1897-1967) and
Earnest Walton (1903-1995) did the impossible. They split the atom. They proved Albert Einstein’s
(1879-1955) theory of relativity (E=mc2) and unlocked the secrets of the atomic nucleus. Splitting
the atom was a brilliant scientific achievement. However, having that knowledge allowed such
scientist to develop the atomic bomb. The use of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
Japan to end the WWII in 1945 was political decision that was highly controversial. We now know
that there are no turning back once scientific and technological discoveries have been made. The
cloud of smoke and flame produced by a nuclear explosion is called a “mushroom cloud” because
of its typical shape.

The Third Scientific-Technological Revolution (1945-present)

After the WWII new discoveries and advances in science and technology came thick and fast.
Plastics were developed for the first time. In 1949, the first practical programmed electronic
computer ran mathematical problems. It fitted into one room! In the 1960s, the electronic silicon
chip was invented, computers because smaller and more powerful. In 1984, the CD was born and
the digital revolution began. The worldwide web has given us access to billions of documents with
information and images as well as online shopping and banking. Mobile telephone technology
means we have instant contact with friends and family. During this period, there have also been
huge advances in genetics since the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953. Today,
Biotechnology and genetic engineering show fast growth trends and, also, are big business. DNA
contains the genetic information for the reproduction of life. In the beginning, Computers were
mostly used for mathematical operations. The first electro-mechanical computer was built in the
USA in 1946 by Eckert and Mauchy

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Science and technology in the Philippines represent the wide specific and technological
advances the Philippines has made. The main managing agency responsible for science and
technology (S&T) is the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). The science department
have consulting agencies for Forestry, Agriculture and Aquaculture, Metal Industry, Nuclear
Research, Food and Nutrition, Health Meteorological and the Volcanology and Seismology.

22
Numerous national scientists have contributed in different fields of science including Fe de Mundo
in the field of Pediatrics, Eduardo Quisimbing in the field of Plant Taxonomy, Gavino Trono in the
field of Tropical Marine Phycology, and Maria Orosa in the field of Food Technology.

Pre-Spanish Period. Even before the colonization by the Spaniards in the Philippine
Island, the natives of the archipelago already had practices linked to science and technology.
Filipinos were already aware of the medicinal and therapeutic properties of plants and methods of
extracting medicine from herbs. They already had an alphabet, number system, a weighing and
measuring system and a calendar. Filipinos were already engaged in farming, shipbuilding, mining
and weaving. The Banaue Rice Terraces are among the sophisticated products of engineering by
pre-Spanish era Filipinos.

Spanish Colonial Period. The colonization of the Philippines contributed to growth of

science and technology in the archipelago. The Spanish introduced formal education and founded
scientific institution. During the early years of Spanish rule in the Philippines. Parish schools were
established where religion, reading, writing, arithmetic and music was taught. Sanitation and more
advanced methods of agriculture was taught to natives. Later the Spanish established colleges and
universities in the archipelago including the University of Santo Tomas. The study of medicine in
the Philippines was given priority in the Spanish era, especially in the later years. The Spanish also
contributed to the field of engineering in the island by constructing government building, churches,
roads, bridges, and forts. Biology is given focus. Contributors to science in the archipelago during
the 19th century were botanist, Fr. Ignacio Mercado., Dr. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Dr. Leon
Ma Guerrero, chemist Anaclento del Rosario, and medicine scholars Dr. Manuel Guerrero, Dr. Jose
Montes and Dr. Elrodario Mercado. The Galleon Trade have accounted in the Philippine colonial
economy. Trade was given more focus by the Spanish colonial authorities due to the prospects of
big profits. Agriculture and industrial development on the other hand were relatively neglected.
The opening of the Suez Canal saw the influx of European visitors to the Spanish colony and some
Filipinos were able to study in Europe who were probably influenced by the rapid development of
scientific ideals brought by the Age of Enlightenment.
American Period and Post-Commonwealth Era. The progress of science and technology
in the Philippines continued under American rule of the island. On July 1, 1901, The Philippine
Commission established the Bureau of Government Laboratories which was placed un the
Department of Interior. The Bureau replaced the Laboratorio Municipal, which was established
under the Spanish colonial era. The Bureau dealt with the study of tropical diseases and laboratory
projects. On October 26, 1905, the Bureau of Government Laboratories was replaced by the Bureau
of Science and n December 8, 1933, the National Research Council of the Philippines was
established. The Bureau of Science became the primary research center of the Philippines until
World War II. Science during the American period was inclined towards agriculture, food
processing, forestry, medicine and pharmacy. Not much focus was given on the development of
industrial technology due to free trade policy with the United States which nurtured an economy
geared towards agriculture and trade. In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute
of Science. In a report by the US economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, there is a lack of

23
basic information which were necessities to the country’s industries, lack of support of
experimental work and minimal budget for scientific research and low salaries of scientists
employed by the government. In 1958, during the regime of President Carlos P. Garcia, the
Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958, which established the National Science
Development Board.
Marcos Era. During Ferdinand Marcos’ presidency, the importance given to science grew.
In the amended 1973 Philippine Constitution, Article VX, Section 9 (1), he declared that the
“advancement of science and technology shall have priority in the national development. “ In his
two terms of presidency and during Martial Law, he enacted many laws promoting science and
technology. In his Second State of the Nation Address on January 23, 1967, he declared that science
was necessary for the development programs, and thus, directed the Department of Education to
revitalize the science courses in the public high schools. The Department of Education, the National
Science Development Board (NSDB), is organizing a project t provide selected high schools with
science teaching equipment over a four-year period. In his Third State of the Nation Address on
January 22, 1968, he recognized that technology was the leading factor in economic development,
and channeled additional funds to support projects in applied sciences and science education. In his
Fourth State of the Nation Address on January 27, 1969, he gave a big part of the war damage fund
to private universities to encourage them to create courses in science and technology and to
research. He stated that he planned a project to have medical interns do a tour of duty in provincial
hospitals to arouse their social conscious and reduce the “brain drain.” On April 6, 1968, he
proclaimed 35 hectares in Bicutan, Taguig, Rizal as the site of the Philippine Science Community.
The government also conducted seminars for public and private high school and college science
teachers, training programs and scholarships for graduate and undergraduate science scholars, and
workshops on fisheries and oceanography. In his Fifth State of the Nation Address on January 26,
1970, he emphasized that the upgrading of science curricula and teaching equipment is crucial to
the science development program. He added the Philippine Coconut Research Institute to the
NSDB to modernize the coconut industry. The NSBD also established the Philippine Textile
Research Institute. The Philippine Atomic Energy Commission of the NSDB explored the uses of
atomic energy for economic development. Marcos assisted 107 institutions in undertaking nuclear
energy work by sending scientists to study nuclear science and technology abroad, and providing
basic training to 482 scientists, doctors, engineers, and technicians. In his Seventh State of the
Nation Address on January 24, 1972, he spoke about his major development projects in reforming
sectors of education. Such projects included research and development schools, technical institutes,
science education centers, and agricultural colleges and vocational high schools. In 1972, he created
the National Grains Authority to provide for the development of the rice and corn industry to fully
harness it for the economy of the country. (Presidential Decree No. 4, s. 1972). He established the
Philippine Council for Agricultural Research to support the progressive development of agriculture,
forestry, and fisheries for the nation. It was attached to the Department of Agriculture and Natural
Resources for administrative purposes. He provided further support for the promotion of scientific
research ad invention with Presidential Decree No. 49, s. 1972. This decree contains details on the
protection of intellectual property for the creator or publisher of the work. He established the
Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) under

24
the Department of National Defense to provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific
knowledge to ensure the safety of the people (Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972).
In 1973, he created the Philippine National Oil Company to promote industrial and
economic development through effective and efficient use of energy sources. (Presidential Decree
No. 334, s. 1973).
In 1976, he enacted a law under Presidential Decree No. 1003-A, s. 1976to establish the
National Academy of Science and Technology, which is composed of scientists with “innovative
achievement in the basic and applied sciences,” to serve as a reservoir of scientific and
technological expertise for the country. In 1978, he created a Task Force on the formulation of a
national action program on science and technology to assess policies and programs of science and
technology (Executive Order No. 512, s. 1978). In his Fourteenth State of the Nation Address on
July 23, 1970, he said that the government invested funds and time in organizations for scientific
research, such as the NSDB, the Philippine Council for Agricultural Research and Resources, The
Plant Breeding Institute, The International Rice Research Institute, The Bureau of Plant Industry,
and the Bureau of Forest Products. While these projects have had breakthroughs, the market
machinery did not adapt and invest in this technology due to the high-risk front-end costs.
In 1979, he constituted the Health Sciences Center created by R.A. No. 5163 as an
autonomous member within the University of the Philippines System to improve the internal
organizations and unity of leadership within its units. (Executive Order No. 519, s. 1979).
In 1980, he reorganized the National Science Development Board and its agencies into a
National Science and Technology Authority to provide central direction and coordination of
scientific and technological research and development. (Executive Order No. 784, s. 1982). He
granted salary increases to the people with teaching positions in the Philippine Science High School
due to their necessity in the advancement of national science. He enacted a law on the completion
of the National Agriculture and Life Science Research Complex at the University of the Philippines
at Los Baños.
In 1986, he established the Mindanao and Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science High
School to encourage careers in science and technology and to be more accessible to talented
students in Mindanao and Visayas areas.

Fifth Republic. In 1986, during Corazon Aquino’s presidency, the National Science and
Technology Authority was replaced by the Department of Science and Technology, giving science
and technology a representation in the cabinet. Under the Medium Term Philippine Development
Plan for the year 1987-1992, science and technology’s role in economic recovery and sustained
economic growth was highlighted. During Corazon Aquino’s State of the Nation Address in 1990,
she said that science and technology development shall be one of the top three priorities of the
government towards an economic recovery. On August 8, 1988, Corazon Aquino created the
Presidential Task Force for Science and Technology which camp up with the first Science and
Technology Master Plan or STMP. The goal of STMP was for the Philippines to achieve newly
industrialized country status by the year 2000. The Congress did not put much priority in handling
bills related to science and technology. The Senate Committee on Science and Technology was one
of the committees that handles the least amount of bills for deliberation. Former DOST Secretary

25
Cerefin Follosco reported that the budget allocation for science and technology was increased to
1.054 billion pesos in 1989 from the previous year’s 464 million pesos. However, due to Asian
financial crisis, budget allocation for the years 1990 and 19901 were trimmed down to 920 and 854
million pesos respectively. Budget allocation were increased to 1.7 billion pesos in 1992. During
her term, President Aquino encouraged scientists and inventors to bring the Philippines to its former
position as second to Japan in the field of science and technology. One of the goals of her
administration was to achieve the status as being an industrialized country by 2000. She urged that
the private research sector form a stronger bond between public research to help jump-start the
progress in the area of the Philippines Research and Development. Ironically, it was during
President Corazon Aquino’s term and the reorganization of Philippine bureaucracy that Executive
Order No. 128 abolished R.A. No. 3859, also known as “Philippine Inventors Incentive Act.” This
Philippine Inventors Commission was under the Science Development board. It gave assistance to
Filipino inventors through giving financial aid, patent application assistance, legal assistance, and
to help inventors market their products domestically and abroad. Despite the abolishment of the
Philippine Inventors Commission, her administration gave rise to new avenues for the government
to aid the progress of Science and Technology in the country. R.A. 6655 or the Free Public
Secondary Education Act of 1988 opened doors to free education up to the secondary level,
implemented in the education system together with this was the “Science for the Masses Program”
which aimed at scientific and technology literacy among Filipinos. The Aquino administration
recognized the importance of science and technology in the development of the Philippines into a
newly industrialized country. Funding for the science and technology sector was tripled from 464
million in 1986 to 1.7 billion in 1992. The Science and Technology Master Plan was formulated
which aimed at the modernization of the production sector, upgrading research activities, and
development of infrastructure for science and technological purposes. A Research and
Development Plan was also formulated to examine and determine which areas of research needed
attention and must be given priority. The criteria for identifying the program to be pursued were,
development of local materials, probability of success, potential of product in the export market,
and its strategic nature. At 1998, the country was estimated to have around 3,000 competent
scientist and engineers. Adding to the increase of scientist would be the result of the two newly
built Philippine Science High Schools in Visayas and Mindanao which promotes further
development of young kids through advance S&T curriculum. The government provided 3,500
scholarships for students who were taking up professions related to S&T. Schools were becoming
more modernized and updated with the addition of high-tech equipment for student improvement
and teachers were getting training programs to benefit themselves and their students. Health care
services were promoted through local programs such as “Doctors to the Barrio Program.” The
health care programs were innovative and effective as shown by the change in life expectancy from
67.5 years in 1992 to 69.1 years in 1995. Priority for S&T personnel increased when Magna Carta
for Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439) was established. The award was
published in order to give incentives and rewards to people who have been influential in the field
of S&T. In the sixth SONA, education was one of the primary story-lines wherein programs such
as National Program for Gifted Filipino Children in Science and Technology and enactment of a

26
law creating a nationwide system of high schools specializing in the field of science and
engineering.
Fidel V. Ramos believes that science and technology was one of the means wherein the
country could attain the status of new industrialized country (NIC). During his term, he was able
to establish programs that were significant to S&T. in 1993, Science and Technology Agenda for
National Development (STAND) was established. Among its priorities were: (1) exporting winners
identified by the DTI; (2) domestic needs identified by the President’s Council for Countryside
Development; (3) Support industries and (4) coconut industry development. Congress, during his
term, was able to enact laws that were significant for the field. Among were (1) Magna Carta for
Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439); (2) Science and Technology
Scholarship Law of 1994 (Republic Act No. 7687) and (3) Inventors and Inventions Incentive Act
(Republic Act No. 7450). The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No.
8293) was enacted during Ramos’ term. The law provides industrial property rights, copyrights and
related rights, and technology transfer arrangements.
In President Joseph Estrada’s term, two major legislations that signed were Philippine
Clean Air Act of 1999 (Republic Act No. 8749 which was designed to protect and preserve the
environment and ensure the sustainable development of its natural resources, and Electronic
Commerce Act of 2000 (Republic Act No.8792) which outlaws computer hacking and provides
opportunities of new businesses emerging from the internet-driven New Economy. Aside from
these, in his first State of the Nation Address, President Estrada launched a full-scale program based
on cost-effective irrigation technologies. He also announced that Dole-outs are out, which meant
basic health care, basic nutrition, and useful education for those who want, but cannot afford it.
Lastly, he said that they would speed up the program to establish one science high school in every
province. It was in his second State of the Nation Address that President Estrada announced the
Clean Air Act, and the decision to pursue the 15-year modernization program of the Armed Forces
of the Philippines. His last State of the Nation Address pushed for the advancement of the industries
and schools into the passage of the e-Commerce Act.
In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo administration, the science and technology sector of the
Philippines was dubbed as the “golden age” of science and technology by then secretary Estralla
Albastro. Numerous laws and projects that concerns both the environment and science to push
technology as a tool to increase the country’s economic level. This is to help increase productivity
from Science, Technology and Innovations (STI) and help benefit the poor. Moreover, the term
“Filipinnovation” was the coined term used in helping Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia.
The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools and education system such as the
Philippine Science High School (PSHS), which focuses in science, technology and mathematics in
their curriculum.
Private sectors were also encouraged to participate in developing the schools through
events and sponsorships. Future Filipino scientists and innovators can be produced through this
system. Helping the environment was one of the focus in developing technology in the Philippines.
One of the more known laws to be passed by her administration was the R.A. 9367 or the “biofuels”
act. This act promotes the development and usage of biofuels throughout the country. This
potentially enables a cheaper alternative to gasoline as a medium in producing energy. Also, this

27
benefits the environment since it boasts a cleaner emission compared to regular fuel. Yet, setbacks
such as lack of raw materials is holding the full implementation of laws since importing the
necessary materials are imported more. On one hand, drought-free rice was also highly encouraged
to be used during her term. This enables farmers to produce rice despite the environmental hazards
that slows or stops the production. In an effort to improve the efficiency of both land and water, the
government imposes Republic Act 10601 which improves the Agriculture and Fisheries Sector
through Mechanization (AFmech). R.A. 10601 covers research development, and extension (RDE),
promotion, distribution, supply, assembling, manufacturing, regulation, use, operation,
maintenance and project implementation of agricultural and fisheries machinery and equipment.
In 2014, President Aquino conferred four new Nationals scientist for their contribution in
the Scientific field, Academicians Gavino C. Trono, Angel C. Alcala, Ramon C. Barba, and
Edgardo D. Gomez was honored in their respective fields. Trono’s contribution helped a lot of
families in coastal populations through extensive studies he made on seaweed species. Alcala
served as the pioneer scientist and advocated of coral reefs aside from his contribution in the fields
of systematics and herpetology. Barba’s contribution changes the seasonal supply of fresh fruits to
an all year round availability of mangoes through his studies on the induction of flowering of mango
and micro propagation. Lastly, Gomez steered the nation-scale assessment of damage coral reefs
which led a national conservation.

The Impacts of Science on Society

If social forces have an ongoing impact on science, it’s equally true that science, through
its practices and outcomes, has an ongoing impact on society too. Consider the following:

 Role in advancing access to food and in supporting health outcomes in the developing
world
 Impacts on sustainable environments and biodiversity
 Role in supporting a growing global human population
 Impacts on human health, from nutrition to allergens to indirect environmental impacts
 Nature of economic and legal landscape related to intellectual property and ownership of
genetic information
 Extent of increased pesticide use in support of pesticide-resistant crops
 Potential for water efficient and pesticide/herbicide free crops
 Extent of impacts of non-target species

For each of these areas, scientific research continues to lead to a changings epistemic landscape
in which scientific knowledge and local knowledge butt up against each other. Despite epistemic
claims from the scientific community that genetically engineered food is safe for consumption and
pose little threats to traditional farming practices, the local epistemic context – informed politically,
socially, and ethically does not allow for a reconciliation of that scientific knowledge within local
context. Despite great potential for significant broader impacts of science of society, most of the
impacts to date have been indirect. Environmentally, the implementation of genetically engineered
species stands at odds with the unknown risks to existing species and ecosystems directly and to

28
human indirectly. Consideration of the diverse range of intersecting issues and values at play in
discussions about genetic engineering of organisms can help to identify and examine such broader
impacts of this research.

The Impacts of Technology on Society

Technological and human life cannot be separated; society has a cyclical co-dependence on
technology. We use technology, depend on technology in our daily life and our needs and demands
for technology keep on rising. Humans use technology to travel, to communicate, to learn, to do
business and to live in comfort. However, technology has also caused us concerns. Its poor
application has resulted the pollution of the environment and it has also caused a serious threat to
our lives and society. This calls for the proper use of technology. The biggest challenge facing
people is to determine the type of future we need to have and then create relevant technologies
which will simplify the way we do things.

Positive Impacts
Agriculture. Modern agricultural technology allows a small number of people to grow
vast quantities of food in a short period of time with less input which results into high yields and
ROI “return on investment” the use of technology in agriculture has also resulted in manufacturing
of genetic crops which can grow fast and they can be resistant to many pests and diseases. Also,
farmers have access to artificial fertilized which add value to the soil and boost the growth of their
crops and enable them to produce high quality yields. Farmers in dry areas have been in a position
to grow healthy crops, they use advanced water pumps and sprinklers which derive water from
rivers to the farms, the all process can be automated to save time.

Transportation. Transportation is one of the basic areas of technological activity. Both

society and business have benefited from the new transportation methods. Transportation provides
mobility for the people and goods. Like other technologies it can be viewed as a system. It is a
series of parts that are interrelated. These parts all work together to meet a certain goal.
Transportation uses vehicles, trains, airplanes, motorbikes, people, roads, energy, information,
materials, finance and time. All these parts I have mentioned work together to move and relocate
people and goods. Technology has helped in advancing all the four types of transportation and these
include; (1) road transport used by automobiles, (2) air transport which is used by airplanes, (3)
water transportation which is used by ships and speed boats and (4) space transportation used to go
to the moon. The most used of all these is road transportation, this one facilitates the movements
of goods and people. Technologies like automobiles, buses, and trucks have improved the way
humans move and how they transport their goods from place to another. Also, developed countries
are getting funds from wealthy countries to improve their road transport which has resulted in the
development of rural remote areas.
Communications. Both society and organization depend on communication to transfer
information. People use technology to communicate with each other. Electronic media like radios,
televisions, internet, and social media have improved the way we exchange ideas which can

29
develop our societies. In many countries, radios and televisions are used to voice the concerns of
the society; they organize live forums where the community can contribute through mobile phones
or text service systems like tweeter. During political elections, leaders use radio, television and
internet media to reach the people they want to serve. Communication technologies like televisions,
radios and internet can be used to persuade, entertain and inform the society. Small businesses have
also used the internet and mobile communication technology to grow and improve their customer
service.

Education and Learning Process. Education is the backbone of every economy. People
need well and organized educational infrastructures so that they can learn how to interpret
information. Many schools have started integrating educational technologies in their schools with
a great aim of improving the way students learns. Technologies like smart whiteboards, computers,
mobile phones, iPads, projectors, and internet are being used in classrooms to boost student’s moral
to learn. Visual education is becoming more popular and it has proved to be the best method of
learning in many subjects like mathematics, physics, biology, geography, economics and much
more. The business community has invested money in various educational technologies which can
be used by both teachers and their students. These technological breakthroughs paved the way for
distance learning and blended learning that can be applied in terms of pandemics.

Negative Impacts

Resource Depletion. The more demand for new technologies and advancement of current
technologies, the more pressure we put on earth’s natural resources. Look at the total number of
mobile phones and computers being manufactured today, our population is increasing every day
and all these billion consumers demand either a mobile phone or a computer in their homes or
offices, this is good news for the manufacturers like Apple or Samsung, the demand for their
gadgets is high, but to sustain this demand, they have to exploit Mother Nature for resources like
aluminum, once these resources are extracted from the earth plates, they will never return back
because it took these a billion years to mature. That means that at one time, we shall be left with
no natural resource which can be a problem to the future generation and economy. Likewise, the
intensive farming practices will deplete the soil. This makes heavy applications of commercial
fertilizers necessary to yield healthy harvests, but also these fertilizers have chemicals which are
dangerous to the soil and human lives.

Increased Population. Technology has helped us live longer by improving health facilities
and aiding in the research for solutions for most health problems which affect humans. This is good
news for developed countries but bad news for developing countries which have not been in a
position to access these health care benefits brought by technology. In developed countries
population growth is controlled by the advanced birth control methods, this has helped them
balance their population in relation to natural resources and other opportunities which come with a
planned population. This is different in developing countries, the rate at which people produce is
very high, the mortality rate is high, food is scare and health care is poor.

30
 Increase Pollution. Pollution affects the land we grow crops on, the water we drink and
the air we breathe. The increased demand for new technologies and advancement of technologies
has resulted in many manufacturing and processing factories. As they work so hard to create the
best technologies for both society and business, they release harmful chemicals and gasses which
have polluted our environment and this has resulted in climate changes (global warming). So the
more technology we enjoy, the more we harm our environment. Experts have tried to implement
ways of reducing this impact by encouraging factories to go green, to a small extent, this has been
achieved through the development of green technologies like; green cars, green computers, but a
great effort is still needed to reduce the pollution of the air and the earth.

The impacts of society on science.

One sense of the broader impacts of research is on what societal values and social interests
can have on the practice of science. More than we might regularly recognize, the social norm under
which we function in our cultural political settings impact the sorts of research that happens through
funding, regulation, and criticism. Public interest in genetically engineered organisms has already
had just such a significant impact on the research science in that area.

From a social perspective, genetic engineering of organisms raises a cross section of issues.
These issues are relevant across technologies and applications: such ethical issues prevail in the
public debates about genetic engineering are not necessarily even specific to GE crops, but perhaps
to questions of crops more generally as well as to other GE organisms.

For example, if agricultural impacts on human health are ethically-relevant, then they’re
relevant not only in context of GE crops but also in “traditional” food crops more generally which
have their own significant impacts. The important space for ethical work is in determining why and
under what conditions GE crops are uniquely relevant.

Social concern has impacted the science of genetic engineering in at least three ways:
through concern about environmental and health risks, through questioning epistemic reliability
and access, and through institutional impacts on the practice of science. Concern for environmental
harms and risks to human health stand as central themes and pose a central conflict value conflict
in debates around genetic engineering of organisms. Direct non-target effects, like on native
organisms who ingest pollen of GE plants, could be one example of potential environmental harms.
Indirect effects, such as potential decreased food availability for seed specialists in a GE
agricultural monoculture, can be another. Increased use of pesticide coupled with pesticide resistant
GE crops have been a major concern.

From a human health perspective, recombination and transference of genetic materials by

and through GE species open questions about the possibility of new viral diseases. Given the
variability and unexpected results of Introduction of novel GE species into ecosystems, other

31
questions about risks to human health and environmental wellbeing remain central in the debate
about ethical issues in genetic engineering.

In fact, these institutional inputs play a major role in the research process and as social
influences on scientific practice and research. Regulatory bodies reflect both social concern and
scientific interest in research practices and constrain the ways in which research can be done.

Research Activity 1!
Read and research on the technological advancements during the current term of President
Rodrigo Duterte and answer these questions:
1. In your point of view, what program of the current administration would have the greatest
impact in the life of Filipino people in the foreseeable future? Why?
2. What could be the positive impact of that program? How?
3. What could be the negative impact of that program? How?

1._____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2._____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3._____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
UNIT III: ORIGIN OF LIFE

Have you ever sat in your room, looked at the ceiling and question yourself where did humans and
life come from? why do people in various sectors have different views on the origin of life?
In this unit, we will try to understand the mysteries of the world. There are various theories on the
origin of the universe and life itself. We will tackle the popular theories and look at their arguments
and evidences.

Life is defined as “the ability of an organism to reproduce, grow, produce energy through chemical
reactions to utilize the outside materials”.

In this lecture, we will:

Try to understand two important questions related to life
1. How life originated on earth?
2. How different kinds of organisms are formed in the world?

32
Let us first discuss the lesser known origins of life on Earth
 Theory of Spontaneous Generation

The theory of spontaneous generation or abiogenesis assumes that non-living material in a

spontaneous manner give rise to life. Early philosophers observed maggots emerging from rotten
food and hypothesized that life can arise from non-living material. This theory was long believed
to be true until came the advent of the understanding of microbiology. Scientists Lazaro
Spallanzani, Francisco Redi and Louis Pasteur designed scientific experiments to fully disprove
this theory.
 Theory of Panspermia or Spore Theory

The theory assumes that life was present in the form of resistant spores and appeared on earth from
other planet. Since the condition of earth was supporting the life, these spores grew and evolved
into different organisms.
 Theory of the Eternity of Life

This theory assumes that life had no beginning or end. This theory states that life has ever
been in existence and it will continue to be so ever. It further believes that there is no question of
origin of life as it has no beginning or end. This theory is similar to steady state theory.

Prominent Theories on the Origin of Life

 Theory of Special Creation, Creationism, and Intelligent Design

This theory assumes everything in this world was created by a supernatural power. Most
religions believe that there is a supreme being that is all powerful and created everything in
existence. Scientists disputes this theory due to lack of scientific evidence.

Research Activity 2 !
What are the evidences for the theory of special creation, creationism, and Intellectual
design?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 Theory of Evolution

This theory assumes that life originated as primitive cell with ability to replicate, absorb
nutrition and repair the damage. These single cells are the starting material to form multicellular
system and eventually the development of organisms with tissue and organ system. In addition,
individual organisms also acquire features over time to adopt better towards changed environment.

33
The progressive advancement of organism is by the process known as evolution. Scientists also
dispute this theory because it is purely inferential and cannot be proven using the scientific method.

Research Activity 3!

What are the evidence for the Theory of Evolution?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 4 :

Watch the video provided by your instructor with the video title 7 Theories on the Origin of Life
with a YouTube link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VCVixShBJT8

Search the web or ask other people about theories that explains the origin of life that was not
discussed in this unit and explain it based on your own understanding
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 5:
Watch the video provided by your instructor with the video title Evolution VS Intelligent
Design https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i7HBm9n_MJU.

Write a reaction paper on what you have watched.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2: Before we end, answer these questions.

Do you think there is a relationship between one’s belief, either on the Theory of Evolution or the
Theory on (Special Creation or Intelligent Design), and one’s tendency to commit violence against
another or one’s self?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

34
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Activity 6: List Down!
List down 10 social issues that is related to the beliefs on the Origin of life and explain why it is
related to the society’s belief system

1. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

7. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

8. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

9. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

10. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Watch This!

Congratulations on finishing the second unit of this module. Before you start unit III. Watch the
video provided by your instructor with the title Life Before Birth – In the Womb (1:42:34)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0gAsdEUNUJY

Activity 7: Write a reflection paper on the video that you have watched and submit it to your
instructor.

35
Reflection:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

UNIT IV: LIFE IN THE WOMB

Have you ever asked yourself how your parents made you? Life is full of mysteries and in this unit
we will unravel the mystery on how we grow and develop from sperm and egg cell within the womb
of our mother or pregnancy.
During your time in Senior High, your teachers discussed that one of the criteria of living organisms
is being able to reproduce and pass their genetic trait to the next generation. Let us review some
general concepts about sexual reproduction.

Male Reproductive Organ

Testes

The male gonads, or testes (singular, testis), produce sperm in highly coiled tubes called
seminiferous tubules. Most mammals produce sperm properly only when the testes are cooler than
the rest of the body. In humans and many other mammals, testis temperature is maintained about
2°C below the core body temperature by the scrotum, a fold of the body wall.

Ducts

From the seminiferous tubules of a testis, the sperm pass into the coiled duct of an epididymis. In
humans, it takes 3 weeks for sperm to travel the 6-m length of this duct, during which time the
sperm complete maturation and become motile. During ejaculation, the sperm are propelled from
each epididymis through a muscular duct, the vas deferens. Each vas deferens (one from each
epididymis) extends around and behind the urinary bladder, where it joins a duct from the seminal
vesicle, forming a short ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra, the outlet
tube for both the excretory system and the reproductive system.

36
Accessory Glands

Three sets of accessory glands—the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral
glands—produce secretions that combine with sperm to form semen, the fluid that is ejaculated.
Two seminal vesicles contribute about 60% of the volume of semen. The fluid from the seminal
vesicles is thick, yellowish, and alkaline. It contains mucus, the sugar fructose (which provides
most of the sperm’s energy), a coagulating enzyme, ascorbic acid, and local regulators called
prostaglandins. The prostate gland secretes its products directly into the urethra through small
ducts. Thin and milky, the fluid from this gland contains anticoagulant enzymes and citrate (a sperm
nutrient).

The bulbourethral glands are a pair of small glands along the urethra below the prostate. Befor
ejaculation, they secrete clear mucus that neutralizes any acidic urine remaining in the urethra.
There is evidence that bulbourethral fluid carries some sperm released before ejaculation, which
may contribute to the high failure rate of the withdrawal method of birth control (coitus interruptus)

Penis

The human penis contains the urethra as well as three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue. During
sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries. As this tissue fills, the increasing
pressure seals off the veins that drain the penis, causing it to engorge with blood. The resulting
erection enables the penis to be inserted into the vagina.

The main shaft of the penis is covered by relatively thick skin. The head, or glans, of the penis has
a much thinner outer layer and is consequently more sensitive to stimulation. The human glans is
surrounded by a fold of skin called the prepuce, or foreskin, which is removed if a male is
circumcised.

Human Female Reproductive Anatomy

The human female’s external reproductive structures are the clitoris and two sets of labia, which
surround the clitoris and vaginal opening. The internal organs consist of gonads, which produce
eggs and reproductive hormones, and a system of ducts and chambers, which receive and carry
gametes and house the embryo and fetus.

Ovaries

The female gonads are a pair of ovaries that flank the uterus and are held in place in the abdominal
cavity by ligaments. The outer layer of each ovary is packed with follicles, each consisting of an
oocyte, a partially developed egg, surrounded by support cells. The surrounding cells nourish
and protect the oocyte during much of its formation and development.

37
Oviducts and Uterus

An oviduct, or fallopian tube, extends from the uterus toward a funnel-like opening at each ovary.
The dimensions of this tube vary along its length, with the inside diameter near the uterus being as
narrow as a human hair. Upon ovulation, cilia on the epithelial lining of the oviduct help collect
the egg by drawing fluid from the body cavity into the oviduct. Together with wavelike contractions
of the oviduct, the cilia convey the egg down the duct to the uterus, also known as the womb. The
uterus is a thick, muscular organ that can expand during pregnancy to accommodate a 4-kg fetus.
The inner lining of the uterus, the endometrium, is richly supplied with blood vessels. The neck
of the uterus, called the cervix, opens into the vagina.

Vagina and Vulva

The vagina is a muscular but elastic chamber that is the site for insertion of the penis and deposition
of sperm during copulation. The vagina, which also serves as the birth canal through which a baby
is born, opens to the outside at the vulva, the collective term for the external female genitalia. A
pair of thick, fatty ridges, the labia majora, encloses and protects the rest of the vulva. The vaginal
opening and the separate opening of the urethra are located within a cavity bordered by a pair of
slender skin folds, the labia minora. A thin piece of tissue called the hymen partly covers the
vaginal opening in humans at birth and usually until sexual intercourse or vigorous physical activity
ruptures it. Locatedat the top of the labia minora, the clitoris consists of erectile tissue supporting
a rounded glans, or head, covered by a small hood of skin, the prepuce.

Gametogenesis. The process of producing of gametes. (Sex cells)

Spermatogenesis, the formation and development of sperm, is continuous and prolific in adult
human males. Cell division and maturation occur throughout the seminiferous tubules coiled within
the two testes, producing hundreds of millions of sperm each day. For a single sperm, the process
takes about 7 weeks from start to finish.

38
Oogenesis, the development of mature oocytes (eggs), is a prolonged process in the human female.
Immature eggs form in the ovary of the female embryo but do not complete their development until
years, and often decades, later.

Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth

During human copulation, the male delivers 2–5 mL of semen containing hundreds of millions of
sperm. When first ejaculated, the semen coagulates, which likely keeps the ejaculate in place until
sperm reach the cervix. Soon after, anticoagulants liquefy the semen, and the sperm swim through
the uterus and oviducts. Fertilization—also called conception in humans—occurs when a sperm
fuses with an egg (mature oocyte) in an oviduct

Embryonic Development

The zygote begins a series of cell divisions called cleavage about 24 hours after fertilization and
after an additional 4 days produces a blastocyst, a sphere of cells surrounding a central cavity. A
few days later, the embryo implants into the endometrium of the uterus. The condition of carrying
one or more embryos in the uterus is called pregnancy, or gestation. Human pregnancy averages
266 days (38 weeks) from fertilization of the egg, or 40 weeks from the start of the last menstrual
cycle. In comparison, gestation averages 21 days in many rodents, 270 days in cows, and more than
600 days in elephants. The roughly nine months of human gestation are divided into three trimesters
of equal length.

First Trimester
During the first trimester, the implanted embryo secretes hormones that signal its presence and
regulate the mother’s reproductive system. One embryonic hormone, human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) passes from the maternal blood to the urine, where it can be detected by the
most common early pregnancy tests.

During its first 2–4 weeks of development, the embryo obtains nutrients directly from the
endometrium. Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst, which is called the trophoblast, grows
outward and mingles with the endometrium, eventually helping form the placenta. This disk
shaped organ, containing both embryonic and maternal blood vessels, can weigh close to 1 kg at
birth. Diffusion of material between the maternal and embryonic circulatory systems supplies

39
nutrients, provides immune protection, exchanges respiratory gases, and disposes of metabolic
wastes for the embryo. Blood from the embryo travels to the placenta through the arteries of the
umbilical cord and returns via the umbilical vein

The first trimester is the main period of organogenesis, the development of the body organs. During
organogenesis, the embryo is particularly susceptible to damage. For example, alcohol that passes
through the placenta and reaches the developing central nervous system of the embryo can cause
fetal alcohol syndrome, a disorder that can result in mental retardation and other serious birth
defects.
The heart begins beating by the 4th week; a heartbeat can be detected at 8–10 weeks. At 8 weeks,
all the major structures of the adult are present in rudimentary form, and the embryo is called a
fetus. At the end of the first trimester, the fetus, although well differentiated, is only 5 cm long.

Second and Third Trimesters

During the second trimester, the fetus grows to about 30 cm in length and is very active. The mother
may feel fetal movements as early as one month into the second trimester, and fetal activity is
typically visible through the abdominal wall one to two months later. Hormone levels stabilize as
hCG secretion declines and the placenta completely takes over the production of progesterone, the
hormone that maintains the pregnancy.

During the third trimester, the fetus grows to about 3–4 kg in weight and 50 cm in length. Fetal
activity may decrease as the fetus fills the available space. As the fetus grows and the uterus
expands around it, the mother’s abdominal organs become compressed and displaced, leading to
digestive blockages and a need for frequent urination. Childbirth begins with labor, a series of
strong, rhythmic uterine contractions that push the fetus and placenta out of the body. Once labor
begins, local regulators (prostaglandins) and hormones (chiefly estradiol and oxytocin) induce and
regulate further contractions of the uterus.

Labor is typically described as having three stages.

The first stage is the thinning and opening up (dilation) of the cervix. The second stage is the
expulsion, or delivery, of the baby. Continuous strong contractions force the fetus out of the uterus
and through the vagina. The final stage of labor is the delivery of the placenta.

40
SOCIETAL ISSUES ON PREGNANCY:

Activity 8: List Down

List down 10 social issues that is related to the human reproduction and explain why it is a social
issue.
1. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

7. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

8. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

10. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Question!

Now that we have learned the theories of the origin of life and how life begins in the womb. I have
a philosophical question for you, where and when does life actually begin? Defend your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Watch the video provided by your instructor with the title Teenage Pregnancy | Failon Ngayon
or watch in online https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8MbAz_fA9uE

41
Activity 9: Write a reflection paper on the video that you have watched.
Reflection:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Activity 10: Position Paper

Pick one of these societal issues associated with human reproduction, abortion, artificial birth-
control methods, cloning, human embryonic experiments, Overpopulation. Once you have
chosen a topic, write a position paper about that topic.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Congratulations on finishing this module!

References:
Books:

Bueno D., (2018). Science, Technology and Society.

Gonzalez, Wenceslao & al, Kristin. (2005). Science, Technology and Society: A Philosophical
Perspective,.

Mosteiro A., (2004) Science, Technology and Society, Educational Publishing House, ISBN 9715131743

Pillitteri, A., (2010) Maternal & Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing & Childrearing Family, 6th
Edition

Reece, J., et. al. (2011) Campbell Biology (10th edition) ISBN 978-0-321-77565-8
Serafica, J., (2018) Science, Technology and Society, Rex Book Store, ISBN 9789712386718

42