Wear 476 (2021) 203688

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Wear
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

Abrasion resistance of Fe–Cr–C coating deposited by FCAW welding process

Jurandir Marcos Sá de Sousa a, Mauro Quaresma Lobato b, Douglas Neves Garcia a,
Paulo Cordeiro Machado b, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Pará, Tucuruí, 68464-000, Brazil
b
Institute of Technology, Federal University of Pará, Belém, 66075-110, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present paper aims to assess the abrasion resistance of Fe–C–Cr alloy coatings deposited by the Flux-Cored
Fe–Cr–C alloys Arc Welding (FCAW) process. With a selfshielded tubular wire and four different parameterization levels,
Tribological performance coatings (single layers) were deposited on SAE 1020 steel substrate. A scanning electronic microscope (SEM) was
FCAW process
employed in the analysis of the microstructure. An energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was used for the
M7C3 carbides
chemical composition assessment and a Vickers tester for hardness evaluation. For tribological tests, it was used
Dilution level
the dry/sand rubber wheel tribological in dry medium apparatus (ASTM-G65). The wear coefficient was esti­
mated from the mass loss. The SEM and EDS were employed in the analysis of worn surfaces and of chemical
composition of specific areas, respectively. From the results, it was observed that all coatings showed resistant
metallurgical bond, good surface quality (concerning the uniformity and absence of defects) and geometrical
aspects. The microstructure was composed by M7C3 carbides dispersed in a Fe eutectic matrix, whose charac­
teristics varied according to the dilution level and deposition parameters. M7C3 carbides, which are precipitated
in high Cr alloys, are recognized for providing increases in their hardness and tribological performance, in which
class Fe–Cr–C is included. The microhardness average was similar for both conditions. Coatings with a higher
volume fraction and a lower mean free path between the M7C3 carbides showed a lower wear rate average and
less severe aspects of worn surfaces.

1. Introduction production breakdowns, the manufacturing of new components for the

replacement of the worn parts, the onerosity in the acquisition of ma­
The industry has a constant necessity to increase the lifespan of its terials, and the spare equipment’s downtime. The application of efficient
components and equipment. Intense technological development, com­ tribological measures can reduce the costs by up to 45% of the worn
bined with the need for fast and efficient production, contributes to this parts’ maintenance and replacement, 22% of production breakdowns,
scenario. Strategic sectors, such as mining, agriculture, railway, oil and 5% of the energy consumption and 2% from lubrication [4]. Holmberg
gas, among others, are intensely affected by problems related to severe et al. estimated that in the mining industry, the maintenance costs can be
degradation of their components and mechanical equipment, such as reduced by up to 40% due to friction, 27% for worn parts’ replacement,
wear plates, plowing blades and pipelines. 26% for labor costs, and 7% for the production breakdowns [6,7].
Abrasive wear mechanisms are one of the most common and intense Due to the necessity to improve the mechanical and tribological
ones found in industrial practice [1,2] being responsible for dimensional resistance of components subjected to abrasive wear efforts, the appli­
changes through mass loss, damages, and component failure. It is cation of hardfacings has been adopted as an effective alternative to
possible to simplify the concept of abrasion as a result of contact be­ diminish operational and economic issues [8,9]. Arc welding, thermal
tween two surfaces of differing hardness levels [3]. The material is spraying and laser cladding are examples of processes that allow these
removed or displaced by protuberances sliding over a surface or by the coating depositions. Changes in hardness, chemical composition and the
presence of free hard particles between two surfaces in relative motion presence of a second hard phase dispersed in the matrix are key factors
[4,5]. in tribological performance improvement [4,10–12].
Abrasive wear generates significant financial losses due to In abrasive wear applications, the ideal scenario is to obtain a high

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P.C. Machado).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2021.203688
Received 18 September 2020; Received in revised form 9 December 2020; Accepted 14 December 2020
Available online 10 February 2021
0043-1648/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J.M. Sá de Sousa et al. Wear 476 (2021) 203688

deposition rate combined with low dilution, increasing productivity and solidification mode. Near the fusion line, this ratio is high, where the
reducing the dilution’s harmful effects [13,14]. The Flux-Cored Arc microstructure is characterized by a planar solidification front. As the
Welding (FCAW) process meets these requirements, allowing the coat­ solidification progresses, the ratio reverses (G reduces and R increases).
ings’ manufacture as well as its repair after a certain lifespan [10,15]. From this point on, dendritic growth is observed parallel to the fusion
FCAW can be used as a tool to reduce the number of component’s line [27].
corrective shutdowns by covering the critical (directly exposed to wear) Cooling, solidification, precipitation and phase transformation con­
surfaces, with high capacity to produce layers free of defects [16]. Due to ditions in Fe–Cr–C alloys are also related to the FCAW process’ deposi­
higher productivity when compared to the Shielded Metal Arc Welding tion parameters. In coatings, the use of very low welding energy can
(SMAW) process and flexibility against the Submerged Arc Welding result in a lack of metallurgical bond between substrate and feedstock
(SAW) process, FCAW has become an interesting alternative for hard­ material. On the other hand, very high powers generate excessive
facings [17–19]. melting, increasing pool size, penetration depth and, consequently,
The Iron–Chromium–Carbon (Fe–Cr–C) alloy system is widely used dilution. As for welding speed, higher values of this parameter indicate a
in hardfacings against the abrasion mechanism, since they possess high shorter arc-substrate interaction time, which results in a lower amount
hardness, high tribological performance and a good cost-benefit ratio [5, of energy absorbed per unit length. For a given energy and welding
8,18]. In these alloys, high Cr and C contents provide wear resistance, speed, a very low feedstock feed rate may result in excessive melting
mainly by inserting hard carbides [11]. Cr carbides’ characteristics between substrate and feedstock materials, increasing the dilution. On
(dimensions, matrix distribution, volume fraction, and morphology) the other hand, excessive feedstock rates can lead to material build-up,
affect the wear rate [8,16]. Depending on the tribosystem, the Fe–Cr–C forming a barrier between the arc and substrate, making it difficult to
alloys’ resistance exceeds that of alloys with complex carbides [20]. In establish metallurgical bond. Thus, from a metallurgical point of view,
the literature, Correa et al. evaluated the microstructure’s effects on deposition parameters should be controlled to reach an energy level that
abrasion resistance of Fe–Cr–C–Nb (Niobium-Nb) coatings deposited by results in resistant metallurgical bond between substrate and feedstock,
open arc welding, while Cruz-Crespo et al. also investigated similar however, avoiding high dilution rates, since it alters the coating’s
Fe–Cr–C and Fe–Cr–C–Nb coatings, however, deposited by the FCAW chemical composition, increasing Fe and reducing the Cr content, which
process. Both authors highlight that Fe–Cr–C alloys can have their me­ reflects in a lower nucleation of hard precipitates, such as M7C3 carbides
chanical and tribological performance improved by adding alloying el­ [28].
ements such as Nb, Molybdenum (Mo), Vanadium (V), Tungsten (W), In FCAW Fe–Cr–C coatings, the microstructure is a factor of great
Titanium (Ti) in their composition, which provide the nucleation of MC importance. Literature describes that M7C3 primary carbides are the first
carbides (where M represents distinct stoichiometries formed by atoms phase to be formed in cooling below liquidus temperature, so that the
of the mentioned elements), contributing to making them harder but remaining liquid decomposes (around 500 ◦ C) into a mixture of
more refined than other Cr carbide classes [21,22]. Penagos et al. austenite and M7C3 eutectic carbides. These carbides’ aspects depend on
analyzed the synergetic effect of Nb and Mo added in high-Cr cast iron their chemical composition, as well as their cooling and solidification
and emphasize that the addition of Nb in solid solutions refines and process after deposition [25]. In abrasion resistant coatings, M7C3 car­
increases the hardness of M7C3 carbides [23]. Liu et al. investigated the bides act to increase surface hardness, hindering the penetration of
effects of adding titanium carbide (TiC) and rare earth nanoparticles of abrasive particles. Furthermore, these phases provide a barrier effect to
Yttrium Oxide (Y2O3) on M7C3 carbides in FCAW Fe–Cr–C coatings, and the nucleation and propagation of wear micromechanisms. Some fea­
found that the combination of these two elements provides a refinement tures of these carbides, such as size, spatial distribution in the matrix,
effect to the carbides, improving their mechanical and tribological morphology and volume fraction, directly influence the tribological
behavior [24]. performance: carbides poorly adhered to the matrix and/or very small
Understanding the metallurgical mechanisms involved in the weld­ carbides are easily removed by the interaction with the abrasive parti­
ing of Fe–Cr–C alloys is important to evaluate their tribological behavior cles; carbides of large dimensions and/or high fragility may fragment. In
in the coating condition. Fe–Cr–C alloys have high contents of Cr (11–30 all of these conditions, removed carbides can start to act as abrasive
wt%) and C (>5 wt%), with Fe as the base element. After the welding particles, damaging the coating’s surface more intensively [3,25].
process, cooling is initiated, the first phase to become solid is the Regarding the statement of these carbides’ importance for the
austenite dendrites. As the solidification continues, the primary abrasion resistance increase, literature presents positive results con­
austenite dendrites reject C and Cr for the remaining liquid, which is cerning hardness increase and tribological performance. Kirchgaβner
enriched by these elements until reaching the eutectic composition. The et al. evaluated three Fe–Cr–C alloy compositions as coatings deposited
remaining liquid is then transformed into a mixture of austenite plus by Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) under abrasive conditions and
M7C3 carbides, as described by Buytoz, in an evaluation of the micro­ observed an inverse correlation between abrasive wear rate and hard­
structural properties of M7C3 eutectic carbides in a Fe–Cr–C alloy [25]. ness when the coatings were subjected to a dry/sand rubber wheel
The structure of these carbides is directly influenced by the Cr content, tribological test (American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM-
since this element, unlike Fe, is a carbide nucleation promoter [26]. In G65), due to M7C3 carbides’ presence [28]. Lima et al. investigated
spite of the fast nucleation of these carbides, their growth kinematics is the performance of Fe–Cr–C and Fe–Cr–C–Nb coatings deposited via
slow, so they need a certain time period prior to the completion of the FCAW and SMAW for the sugar/alcohol industry. In the ASTM-G65 test,
solidification, which allows for their full development. Thus, lower for both alloys and processes, the authors identified higher abrasion
cooling rates are more appropriate. Otherwise, high cooling rates can resistance in coatings with higher volume fraction and better distribu­
reduce their size or even suppress them completely [25]. tion of carbides in the matrix, due to an increased surface hardness and
The grains’ growth rate, temperature gradient in the liquid and alloy prevention of the wear micromechanisms’ action [17]. Cruz-Crespo
chemical composition are among the variables with the greatest influ­ et al., in their Fe–Cr–C coatings microstructural evaluation, found
ence on the solidification morphology. Depending on how these condi­ M7C3 carbides dispersed in an austenite eutectic matrix. The authors
tions are exerted, the solid-liquid interface might develop through the detected higher hardness in the coatings with higher volume fraction of
growth of planar, cellular or dendritic grains. According to Kou, the carbides, however, this hardness increase showed no correlation with
metal alloys’ solidification substructures can be determined by the so­ the volumetric loss decrease. The authors then conferred the best per­
lute content in the liquid and by the temperature gradient (G) and so­ formance to the coatings with larger and better carbides distributed in
lidification ratio (R). While G/R ratio defines the mode, product G*R the matrix, which made the wear micromechanisms’ action difficult
dictates the structure’s size. G/R ratio decreases from the interface [22]. Similar results are reported by Rauta et al. in the evaluation of
(fusion line) to the molten pool center, generating changes in the Fe–Cr–C coatings deposited by a FCAW process with different strategies

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of electrode addition and different number of layers, followed by the Table 2

ASTM-G65 tribological test [16]. Durmus et al. analyzed the ASTM-G65 Coatings deposition parameters.
abrasion resistance of Fe–Cr–C and Fe–Cr–C–B coatings. In Fe–Cr–C al­ Parameters C1 C2 C3 C4
loys, the carbide’s volume fraction increase was related to lower dilu­
Average welding current (A) 285 286 349 325
tion, while the hardness increase occurred in the carbides with the Welding energy (J/mm) 1277 772 1366 1242
highest volume fraction and the lower wear rate in the ones with the Average welding voltage (V) 28 28 32 32
highest surface hardness and protective action against the wear micro­ Wire feed rate (m/min) 10 10 14 12
mechanisms provided by the carbides [29]. De Oliveira; Da Costa Welding Speed (mm/s) 5.0 8.3 5.0 6.7

evaluated the microstructure’s influence on the microabrasive wear of

Fe–Cr–C and Fe–Cr–C–Nb alloys deposited via GMAW and SMAW, and higher than 2 mm: C1 - 2.1 mm, C2 - 2.2 mm, C3 - 2.5 mm e C4 - 2.3 mm.
observed higher hardness and lower wear rate in coatings with a higher Three samples of each condition (Table 2) were obtained to perform the
volume fraction of M7C3 carbides [8]. tribological test. Moreover, cross-section samples (10 mm × 25 mm x 10
Thus, all previous substrate preparation steps (i.e. machining, mm) were taken to the microstructure analysis.
cleaning), feedstock (i.e. packaging, handling) and deposition system (i.
e. calibration, alignment) must be met. Deposition parameters should be
selected to provide adequate cooling and solidification conditions to 2.3. Microstructural and microhardness characterization
achieve the establishment of a microstructure rich in M7C3 carbides,
with good metallurgical bond to the matrix and ideal characteristics (i.e. After the coatings’ deposition, the substrate was subjected to the
volume fraction, morphology, spatial distribution) to combat the abra­ machining process (cutting, milling and grinding) to adapt the di­
sive wear mechanism. mensions (60 mm × 25 mm x 10 mm) and surface roughness (Ra = 0.8
Given this scenario, the present paper aims to evaluate four coatings’ μm) appropriately to the dry/sand rubber wheel tribological test stan­
mechanical and abrasive wear properties in the dry/sand rubber wheel dard (ASTM-G65 [30]) requirements.
tribological test (ASTM-G65 [30]). The same Fe–Cr–C alloy is deposited The mechanical characterization (microstructure and microhard­
via FCAW over a carbon steel substrate, however with different welding ness) was carried out through the selection of one sample from each
energy levels and dilution rates. Their microstructure (scanning electron coating condition, randomly chosen. After coated and sectioned, the
microscope with energy dispersive spectrometry), microhardness Fe–Cr–C coatings’ cross-sectional samples were subjected to a standard
(Vickers tester), volumetric loss, dimensional wear coefficient (k), and metallographic procedure, consisting of sanding (# 80 to 1500 Mesh),
the characteristics of the worn surfaces (scanning electron microscope followed by polishing (0.5 μm alumina) and chemical etching (Nital 2%
with energy dispersive spectrometry) were evaluated. for 3 s). These specimens were subjected to scanning electron micro­
scopy - SEM (JOEL JSM-6010LA) using a backscattering electron de­
2. Materials and methods tector - BSE mode. The chemical composition of the coatings was
evaluated by the dispersive energy spectroscopy - EDS (AZTec Energy X-
2.1. Substrate and feedstock material Act) technique coupled with the SEM.
The dilution, the carbides’ volume fraction, and the mean free path
The coatings were deposited on SAE 1020 (Society of Automotive between the carbides were measured in the final cross-sections with the
Engineers) carbon steel hot-rolled plates with dimensions of 9.4 × 50 × aid of Image J® software. It is worth mentioning that the dilution was
250 mm (thickness x width x length). The feedstock material employed measured from the cross-section macrographs (in the 3 samples of each
in the coatings’ deposition was a tubular wire self-shielded (Fe–Cr–C), coating), while the carbides’ volume fraction and the mean free path
1.6 mm in diameter. Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the flux- between carbides were evaluated in the SEM image (in the 3 samples of
cored wire and base metal provided by the manufacturers. each coating):

2.2. Coatings’ deposition process a) Dilution: firstly, the upper (coating) and bottom (penetration) areas
were measured. Then, the geometric relation method of the areas
The Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) deposition parameters were was applied.
determined based on a literary search for similar works (these will be b) Carbides’ volume fraction: firstly, a color contrast between regions of
presented during the discussion of this paper’s results, along with topic different shades was applied. Then, in the proper software, the total
3) and on preliminary tests carried out by the group. percentage of area covered by the carbides (lighter phases) was
Before the deposition, substrate samples were subjected to a silicon measured.
oxide (SiO2) abrasive blasting process to achieve a clean surface. c) Mean free path between the carbides: 3 horizontal rows (dividing the
Thereafter, they were cleaned in ethyl alcohol to ensure a removal of micrography into 3 sections of similar length) were drawn along the
impurities. After all the substrate and feedstock material preparation, width of the SEM micrography for reference. Then, based on this
coatings were deposited. This process was carried out in a single layer in row, multiple row segments were drawn, measuring the free spaces
the flat position with the torch perpendicular, employing a welding between carbides. This procedure was performed from one end of the
source (IMC UNIVERSAL 300) set in constant voltage mode and an rows to the other for all 3 rows and 3 samples of each coating. An
automatic torch displacement system. Table 2 shows the coatings’ average of the total sample space was then calculated.
deposition parameters, keeping the distance between the torch tip to
substrate constant at 40 mm for all conditions. Fig. 1 illustrate these procedures.
The coatings in the as-deposited condition showed a thickness a bit After the grinding process, the coatings’ surface hardness was eval­
uated through the Vickers microhardness test, following the specifica­
tions indicated by ASTM E92 (2017) [31]: strength, test time and a
Table 1
minimum distance between indentations using the SHIMADZU
Chemical composition of the base and feedstock materials.
HMV-2TADW equipment. The HV0.3 scale, with a 3 N load for 15 s, was
Elements (wt.%)
used. An indentation pattern was elaborated: 15 uniformly distributed
C Mn P S Cr Fe indentations (5 mm spacing between each indentation) were made in a
Base 0.2 0.3–0.6 0.04 0.05 – Bal. rectangular pattern (3 × 5) along the sample’s length, sweeping the
Feedstock 5.5–7.0 0.3 22.0 Bal.
region that would be subsequently submitted to the tribological test.
– –

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Fig. 1. Measurements procedures for dilution, carbides’ volume fraction, and mean free path between the carbides.

2.4. DRY sand/rubber wheel tribological test 2.5. Wear analysis performed

Three samples of each coating condition were prepared for the The dry/sand rubber wheel tribological test results were evaluated
tribological test. To qualify the Fe–Cr–C coatings’ abrasion resistance from:
deposited by FCAW, a tribological dry sand/rubber test rig was carried
out on a dry medium on the coatings produced. All requirements of test • Wear regime defined by the Ha/H ratio (where Ha and H are the
guidelines governed by ASTM-G65 [30] have been previously met. abrasive and material hardness, respectively) of Khruschov (1957)
Samples were cleaned using ethyl alcohol and weighed on a precision [32]. The SiO2 (1200 HV1) provided by IPT technology institute (São
scale (MARTE of resolution 0.1 g) before starting and after each test Paulo - Brazil) was considered as the abrasive hardness of the sand
section to measure the mass loss. The tribometer used (EQUITECS®) was used.
previously calibrated according to the ASTM-G65 [30] requirements for • Evaluation of the dimensional wear coefficient per unit sliding dis­
sliding speed, operating stability, and abrasive mass flow. tance (k) through the Archard model (1953) [19]: firstly, the volu­
The material used as abrasive consists of silicon oxide (SiO2) sand metric loss was measured by weighting the samples made before and
with #50 Mesh grain size and 1200 HV1 hardness, manufactured by IPT after the tribological tests. From the mass loss values, using Eq. (1),
Technology Institute (SP-Brazil). The abrasive sand was submitted to a these were converted to volumetric loss, as follows:
heating process at 80 ◦ C for 3 h to remove the moisture. Using the ASTM
G65 procedure B, the following parameters were selected: 130 N load, Q = (ml/ρ) * 1000 (1)
200 rpm speed, 10 min test time, totaling a sliding distance of 1436 m, Where: Q = volumetric loss (mm3); ml = mass loss (g) and ρ = material
under a 350 g/min continuous sand flow. density (g/cm3 ). 7.45 g/cm3 was considered as the density of the
For the dry/sand rubber wheel analysis, the following procedure was Fe–Cr–C alloy evaluated in this work.
performed: the sample was cleaned in an ultrasonic bath with ethyl From the volumetric loss measured previously, k coefficient was
alcohol for 5 min, dried and weighed; positioned on the tribometer and estimated by the ratio presented in Eq. (2):
tested for 10 min; after the test, the sample was removed and submitted
again to the cleaning, drying and weighing processes (to assess the mass k = Q / (LN * D) (2)
loss). This procedure was performed for all samples. It is important to
Where: k = dimensional wear coefficient [mm3/(Nm)]; LN = normal load
highlight that preliminary tests were carried out on replacement
and D = sliding distance.
samples.
Fig. 2 summarizes the main procedures carried out in the samples:
• Wear surface analysis: the SEM technique was used to evaluate the
coating as-deposited, as-grinded, and worn surface after tribological
wear tracks formed during the tribological tests. The main purpose of
test.
this application was to identify the wear micromechanisms’ action.
Regions with particular aspects were submitted to EDS evaluation for
the identification of their chemical composition.

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Fig. 2. Main steps applied to samples: as-coated, as-grinded, and after dry sand/rubber tribological test.

3. Results and discussion relief difference (due to metallographic preparation - sanding and pol­
ishing) and to the preferential chemical etching (at the end of the
3.1. Coatings’ microstructure metallographic preparation) to the matrix region. The Fe-based matrix
was affected in a more intense form than the M7C3 carbides, as much for
The microstructures of the Fe–Cr–C coatings can be seen in Fig. 3, the aspect of its chemical composition, as for its lower hardness. A
where it is possible to observe that the coatings consist of primary M7C3 similar description is reported by Correa et al. and Durmus et al., in the
carbides (lighter shade regions) dispersed in a eutectic Fe matrix (re­ microstructure evaluation of Fe–Cr–C coatings deposited by the open arc
gions of a more intense shade - grey). The dark regions are compounds welding process [21,29].
belonging to the Fe matrix. Their color aspect can be linked both to the The coatings’ dilution, estimated by the geometric method from

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Fig. 3. Fe–Cr–C coatings microstructure visualized by SEM: C1, C2, C3, and C4.

three samples of each condition (see topic 2.3.) showed the following volume fraction (45%, close to C2) within the range of coatings evalu­
average values: C1 = 16%, C2 = 15%, C3 = 15% and C4 = 28%. The ated. C4, in turn, showed the lowest volume fraction, and the largest
dilution demonstrated a direct influence on the chemical composition, mean free path between the carbides (0.04 mm) when compared to the
volume fraction and mean free path between the M7C3 carbides pre­ other coatings.
sented on the coatings’ microstructure (Fig. 3). The coatings C1–C3 The difference in the carbides’ volume fraction between C1 and C3 is
showed the same dilution. This characteristic conferred them similar Fe probably related to the higher welding current and wire feed rate of C3
content (48-51-44%), as shown in Table 3. The points at which the EDS (Table 2). These parameters, besides resulting in a greater Cr content
analysis was performed are shown in Fig. 4. Furthermore, their micro­ (Table 3), generated conditions for a larger part of Cr and C present in its
structure exhibited a higher volume fraction (C1 = 40%, C2 = 44%, C3 composition to precipitate as carbides during solidification. As for C2, its
= 45%, C4 = 36%, Fig. 5) and a lower mean free path (C1–C3 = 0.02 carbides’ volume fraction is higher than C1’s and similar to C3’s, this
mm, C4 = 0.04 mm) between the carbides concerning the coating C4. must be related to its lower welding energy (provided by the higher
The deposition parameters used exerted a decisive role for this behavior. welding speed) in comparison to the other coatings under study. Thus,
Discussions in this regard will be presented over the results. there is a tendency towards a higher cooling speed, where the coating is
Table 3 shows the chemical composition data of the main alloy ele­ subjected to a high thermal gradient, in which the time required for the
ments present in the regions that exhibited second phase aspects (Fig. 4). carbides’ nucleation and growth is shorter. In C2, what may have
The EDS analysis indicated Cr levels between 20% and 30%, confirming occurred was the carbides’ nucleation in this shorter time period,
these phases’ nature as carbides [25,26]. Additionally, Table 3 reveals however, without complete growth development. C4’s higher dilution
that the dilution affected these precipitates’ chemical composition. when compared to the other coatings caused the carbides of its matrix,
Although a direct relationship is not observed between dilution and the present in a lower volume fraction (36% - Fig. 5), to precipitate together
carbides’ volume fraction, there is a trend of reduction in these phases’ and expand during solidification, showing a large mean free path be­
content when dilution rate increases (C3, 15% dilution-45% M7C3/C4, tween them. The welding power in C4 was similar to that of C1, which,
28% dilution- 36% M7C3). by itself, implies similar dilution, carbide volume fraction, and mean
Analyzing the coatings’ microstructures (Fig. 3), the carbides’ vol­ free path between the carbides. However, all other deposition parame­
ume fraction (Fig. 5) and mean free path between the carbides, it can be ters of C4 (average welding current, voltage, wire feed rate, and welding
seen that the C1 microstructure showed a volume fraction of 40% and a speed) were higher than C1. The sum of these parameters indicates a
mean free path of 0.02 mm between the M7C3 carbides. C2, in turn, higher insertion of feedstock and thermal gradient, which increased the
showed a higher carbide volume fraction (44%) and the same mean free dilution and, consequently, reduced the nucleation and growth of the
path between the carbides (0.02 mm) as C1. C3 showed the same mean carbides.
free path between carbides as C1 and C2, and the highest carbides’ In the literature, similar results are reported in this regard: Bedolla-
Jacuinde et al. and Coronado; Sinatora detailed M7C3 carbides’ nucle­
ation during eutectic solidification in high-chromium white cast irons
Table 3 [26,33]. During the FCAW Fe–Cr–C coatings’ solidification, coarse M7C3
Characteristic chemical composition of coatings evaluated by EDS. carbides have been nucleated at 1300 ◦ C [22]. The microstructure of the
Coating Fe (wt.%) Cr (wt.%) C (wt.%) FCAW Fe–Cr–C coatings showed that M7C3’s primary carbides (1500
HV0.01) dispersed in a eutectic Fe-matrix with 668 HV0.01 [17]. The
C1 48 26 4
C2 51 26 4
FCAW Fe–Cr–C coatings exhibited a microstructure of M7C3 carbides
C3 44 30 4 dispersed in a Fe-eutectic matrix and more constituents from the added
C4 67 20 3 reinforcement elements [24,34,35]. The microstructure was composed

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Fig. 4. Characteristic regions of the microstructure in which EDS evaluation was performed.

respectively. The high microhardness standard deviation is related to

the heterogenic microstructure of the coatings.
Through Fig. 6 graph, it is possible to observe an inversely propor­
tional relationship between the dilution and the average microhardness
(R2 = 0.92). Moreover, it can be seen that C2 and C3 showed a tendency
towards higher microhardness compared to C4 and C1 coatings,
respectively. Fig. 7 graph illustrates the relationship between the
microhardness average and carbides’ volume fraction.
Fig. 7 graph behavior shows a proportional relationship between
microhardness and increase in the carbides’ volume fraction (R2 =
0.95), indicating the carbides’ content as a good indicator to describe
the assessed tribosystem’s performance. Further discussions on this
result will be presented throughout topic 3.3.

3.3. Wear rate

Fig. 5. M7C3 carbides’ volume fraction present in coatings.
Table 4 shows the abrasive wear regime identified from the Khru­
of coarse M7C3 carbides, constituting colonies widely spaced among schov Ha/H ratio (1957) [32]. The ratio presented a value higher than
themselves, dispersed in a eutectic constituent composed of austenite the limit of 1.2, indicating that all coatings were subjected to a severe
and other Cr carbides [8]. wear regime. Fig. 8 graph shows the coatings’ wear rate results, relating
them to the microhardness average: C1 - 3.92E-05; C2 - 3.05E-05; C3 -
3.2. Coatings’ microhardness 3.62E-05 and C4 - 4.43E-05 (mm3/N*m).
From Fig. 8, it can be seen that there was no correlation between
To assess the influence of dilution on the coatings’ microhardness, increased hardness and wear rate decrease (R2 = 0.24). Although the
Fig. 6 graph was plotted. Microhardness over the coatings’ central re­ dilution did not show an inversely proportional relation to the wear rate
gions showed the following average values: C1 - 746 HV0.3, C2 - 772 (R2 = 0.72), a strong relationship was observed between the increase in
HV0.3, C3 - 772 HV0.3 and C4 - 667 HV0.3, representing a difference of the carbides’ volume fraction and the wear rate reduction (R2 = 0.94 -
Fig. 9). Thus, due to the tribosystem’s observed behavior, wear coeffi­
~10% between the highest (C2 and C3) and the lowest hardness (C4),
cient results could be conferred mainly to the volume fraction of M7C3

Fig. 6. Microhardness/dilution correlation. Fig. 7. Microhardness/M7C3 carbides volume fraction correlation.

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Table 4 that the dry sand/rubber wheel abrasion resistance depends not only on
Abrasive wear regime according to the Khruschov ratio. the specimens’ hardness itself, but also on the wear-resistant aspects of
Coating C1 C2 C3 C4 the phases (type, size, shape) [2]. Microstructure proved to be the main
factor to analyze the Fe–Cr–C coatings’ abrasion resistance under all
Ha/H ratio 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.7
Wear regime type Severe Severe Severe Severe different FCAW conditions evaluated (pulling, pushing, 1 layer, and 2
layers of coating) [16]. An increase in the reinforcement phases’ volume
fraction is advantageous only up to a certain limit, from which a series of
problems can be triggered [10,36]. In the present paper, further dis­
cussions on this result will be presented throughout topic 3.4.

3.4. Worn surfaces

3.4.1. General aspects

It is important to highlight some aspects observed on the coatings, in
all conditions: as-deposited, as-grinded, and after the tribological test. In
this sense, all coatings presented resistant metallurgical bond and a good
surface finish, concerning the uniformity and absence of shape errors. A
high thermal gradient resultant from the cooling process propitiated the
nucleation of cooling cracks.
Metallurgical bond was evaluated in the grinding and tribological
test processes. In both, efforts applied on the surface did not generate
material detachment. Regarding the surface aspects, all coatings pre­
Fig. 8. Wear rate/microhardness correlation.
sented continuous layers (height, width, and thickness) without
apparent defects (except for cooling cracks), such as voids and humping.
These characteristics reinforce the process’ stability and the robustness
of the deposition parameters.
Another characteristic observed in all coatings was the presence of
cracks on their surfaces (Fig. 10) as-deposited and as-grinded. It is
observed that the cracks are concentrated perpendicular to the direction
of deposition, indicating that they are originated from the cooling
process.
In this paper, the presence of cooling cracks did not influence the
microhardness and tribological behavior of the coatings. In the first case,
Vickers indentations were performed in regions adjacent to cracks.

Fig. 9. Wear rate/M7C3 carbides volume fraction correlation.

carbides.
Regarding Table 2 (topic 2.2.), it is noted that the deposition pa­
rameters, especially welding energy, showed no direct relationship with
the tribological features evaluated in this research. Table 5 summarizes
all coatings’ performances concerning these features, indicating the
different intensity levels.
In the literature, different studies report a lack of correlation be­
tween hardness and abrasion resistance. The tribological performance of
the different FCAW Fe-hardfacings when submitted to the ASTM-G65
test can be conferred to the variation of their chemical composition,
especially the C content and the microstructure, with emphasis on the
carbides and matrix’s structure [10]; the FCAW hardfacing composed of
a eutectic matrix rich in carbides showed the highest abrasion resistance
amongst the analyzed sets [19]. High-vanadium Cr16 samples showed

Table 5
Summary of evaluation the tribological features’ performance (intensity: +).
Coating C1 C2 C3 C4

Dilution (%) +++ + + ++++

Microhardness (HV0.3) ++ ++++ ++++ +
Carbides’ volume fraction (%) ++ +++ ++++ +
Mean free path between the carbides
Fig. 10. Presence of cooling cracks on the coatings’ surfaces: as-coated and as-
+ + + ++++
Wear rate (mm3/N*m) +++ ++ + ++++
grinded condition.

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Regarding the latter, all coatings showed a concentration of marked

cooling cracks. Despite the fact that some points of material detachment
were observed close to them, it is not possible to state that this aspect
influenced the tribological performance in a relevant way.
Literature shows that this defect is common in hardfacing techniques
[10]. After the coatings’ deposition, in the first steps of cooling, the
substrate/material’s added set is subjected to a cycle of compressive
stresses, in which the working component contracts. During the course
of the cooling, this tensions’ cycle is inverted, assuming a tractive
character, in which the component’s structure expands. This change
from compressive to tensile stresses results in the cooling cracks’
nucleation [27,37]. This concentration of cracks tends to be more pro­
nounced in higher thermal gradient conditions [13,27]. The employ­
ment of substrate preheating is common to avoid these cracks’
nucleation. Temperatures in the range of 300–400 ◦ C are normally
indicated [14].
Unlike the present paper, several studies report a reduction in
tribological performance due to the presence of cooling cracks: micro­
scratching and material detachment in regions close to cooling cracks
were the main influences on abrasive wear on the FCAW Ti–FeCrC
coatings evaluated by dry sand/rubber wheel test [15]. With this same
tribological test, when evaluating abrasion resistance of the FCAW and
SMAW Fe–Cr–C+Nb, Fe–Cr–C+Ti, and Fe–Cr–C coatings, the first pre­
sented better performance, due to its higher hardness. However, in the
field tests (shredder knives of sugarcane), Fe–Cr–C+Ti and Fe–Cr–C
showed a performance far superior to Fe–Cr–C+Nb. This behavior
reversal is due to the extensive concentration of cooling cracks in the
latter, which resulted in a large material removal due to the spalling
effect [17]. Cracks present in railway sets (wheel: CL60, 0.65 %C and
0.80 %Mn; U75V, 0.80 %C and 1.05 %Mn) could cause catastrophic
failure of a wheel/rail [38]. Cooling cracks in the thermal sprayed and
remelted NiCrBSi coatings was the main influence source on the coatings
wear in all tribological tests performed (ball-on-flat, pin-on-disk, and
dry sand/rubber wheel test) [39]. Laser cladding Ni–Cr–B–Si coatings
with a high concentration of cooling cracks showed a significantly lower
tribological performance in the dry sand/rubber wheel test due to the
material detachment in the regions close to the cooling cracks [40].
Despite the mentioned negative points, it is important to highlight
that depending on the specific tribosystem, the presence of cooling
cracks is acceptable and may even be beneficial, as these can act in the
residual stresses’ relief [10,21].

3.4.2. Wear micromechanisms

Surfaces of all samples tested showed the three characteristic wear
track regions generated by the dry sand/rubber wheel test (entrance,
Fig. 11. Features worn out tracks.
center, and exit) due to the lower tangential force, which allowed the
abrasive particles to roll, generating abrasive inclusion. Besides, it is
possible to observe grooves formed on the sample’s surface and cooling cracks, establishing an accumulated material portion, which is then
cracks (discussed in topic 3.4.1.). Fig. 11 exemplifies this behavior. removed by fatigue failure. M7C3 protective action points were also
Analyzing the C1 surface (Fig. 12a and Fig. 12b), cracks, scratches, identified, where it is observed that the carbide is interrupting the
and M7C3 carbides are observed. In the cracks, abrasive sand exerted a scratches’ progress.
compressive effort on the coating/crack’s interface, generating defor­ Fig. 15a and Fig. 15b show the C4 worn surface, with cracks,
mation until penetrating it, causing localized material removal. For the scratches and fractured M7C3 carbides. Lower volume fraction of M7C3
scratches, the abrasive sand is forced and slid over the surface, and in carbides reduced the impact effect on the rubber wheel/abrasive sand/
this kinematics, the sand particles penetrate the surface and the material crack interface, generating fewer detachments at the coating/crack’s
starts to be pushed. Throughout this trajectory, the material surface is interface. On the other hand, the barrier effect against the progression of
deformed and displaced into the groove sides. As a result, the surface is scratches was affected, being observed only in a few points. In Fig. 15b,
scratched. there is a point on the surface where the action of a scratch is clearly
Fig. 13a and Fig. 13b show the C2 worn surface, where it is possible interrupted by an M7C3 carbide. However, in regions around this same
to perceive the action of scratches and cracks. The general aspects of the surface, there are other scratches, whose action continues for almost the
C2 worn surface (Fig. 13) were less severe than those of C1 (Fig. 12), a entire length framed in the micrograph.
factor that reflects its lowest wear rate among the conditions analyzed. According to the results (Figs. 12–15), in general, all coatings
On the C3 worn surface (Fig. 14a and Fig. 14b), cracks, scratches, exhibited the same wear mechanism types. Differences were only in the
detachments at the coating/crack’s interface and M7C3 carbides were severity of their action, which, in general, can be attributed to the lower
identified. In the detachment of material at the coating/crack’s inter­ volume fraction of M7C3 carbides.
face, material displaced in the abrasive particle front is hosted inside the These mechanisms are following those indicated in the literature: In

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J.M. Sá de Sousa et al. Wear 476 (2021) 203688

Fig. 12. Worn surface characteristic of the C1 coating captured via SEM. Increases: a) 800× and b) 1000×.

Fig. 13. Worn surface characteristic of the C2 coating captured via SEM. Increases: a) 200× and b) 1000×.

Fig. 14. Worn surface characteristic of the C3 coating captured via SEM. Increases: a) 200× and b) 1000×.

Fig. 15. Worn surface characteristic of the C4 coating captured via SEM. Increases: a) 200× and b) 1000×.

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all analyzed FCAW Fe–Cr–C coatings, scratching was detected as the Declaration of competing interest
predominant wear micromechanism and it was evident that the wear
was much higher in the matrix region concerning the carbides [8,22,29, The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
34]. FCAW Fe–Cr–C coatings showed microploughings, while in SMAW interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
coatings, microcuttings and edge formation were observed [19]. The the work reported in this paper.
effect promoted by the carbides to stop the abrasion event tends to be
more intense in high-Cr cast iron with a higher volume fraction of car­ Acknowledgments
bides [33,36]. The superior hardness of the high-vanadium carbides
concerning the sand effectively reduced the particles’ penetration on the The authors would like to thank all members of the LABEM (UFPA-
samples’ surfaces, reducing the wear severity [2]. Different casing steels Tucuruí, PA), GPEMAT, GETSOLDA, LCAM (UFPA-Belém, PA), and LFS
were evaluated using a special friction testing device. Under the same (USP-São Paulo, SP) research groups. They are also grateful to the
test conditions, normal stress increases and the plowing interaction Federal University of Para (UFPA) and VALE S.A. for the scientific-
dictated the friction and wear behaviors, with the scratching being the technical support.
main wear mechanism [41]. Ni–Cr–B–Si and MMC coatings with higher
concentration, dimensions, and better distribution of Cr carbides References
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