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An introduction to sampling methods

Published on
September 19, 2019
by
Shona McCombes.
Revised on
August 30,
2021.

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely

possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead,
you select a sample. The sample is the group of individuals who
will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully

decide how you will select a sample that is representative of the
group as a whole. There are two types of sampling methods:

Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to

make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the
methodology section of your paper or thesis.
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Population vs sample
First, you need to understand the difference between a population
and a sample, and identify the target population of your research.

The population is the entire group that you want to draw

conclusions about.
The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect
data from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location,

age, income, and many other characteristics.

It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe you

want to make inferences about the whole adult
population of your country; maybe your research
focuses on customers of a certain company,
patients with a specific health condition, or
students in a single school.

It is important to carefully define your target

 population according to the purpose and
practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and

geographically dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a
representative sample.

Sampling frame
 Table
The sampling of contents
frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample
will be drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire target
population (and nobody who is not part of that population).

Example

You are doing research on working conditions at Company X. Your

population is all 1000 employees of the company. Your sampling
frame is the company’s HR database which lists the names and
contact details of every employee.

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample
depends on various factors, including the size and variability of the
population and your research design. There are different sample
size calculators and formulas depending on what you want to
achieve with statistical analysis.

Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population
has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative
research. If you want to produce results that are representative of
the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most
valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

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1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should
include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random
number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on
number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on
chance.

Example

You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of

Company X. You assign a number to every employee in the
company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number

generator to select 100 numbers.

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2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is
usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population
is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example

All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From

the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number
6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is
selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample
of 100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is

no hidden pattern in the list that might skew the sample. For
example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and team
members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your
interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample
that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you
draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into

subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.
subg oups (ca ed st ata) based o t e e e a t c a acte st c (e.g.
gender, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate

how many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then
you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from
each subgroup.

Example

The
 company
Table ofhas 800 female employees and 200 male employees.
contents
You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of
the company, so you sort the population into two strata based on
gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting
80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of
100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics
to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from

each sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can
also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the
techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed

populations, but there is more risk of error in the sample, as there
could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the
whole population.

Example

The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t
have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so
you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your
clusters
 clusters.

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Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-
random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being
included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a

higher risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can
make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a
non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as
representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory

and qualitative research. In these types of research, the aim is not
 q yp ,
to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an
initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

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1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen
to be most accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there
is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population,
so it can’t produce generalizable results
so it can t produce generalizable results.

Example

You are researching opinions about student support services in

your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow
students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient

way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the
same
 classes
Table ofas you at the same level, the sample is not
contents
representative of all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is
mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher
choosing participants and directly contacting them, people
volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased,

as some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than
others.

Example

You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot
of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some
insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more
likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student
support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are
representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves
the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most
useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants

to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather
 g g p p
than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very
small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear
criteria and rationale for inclusion.

Example

You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of

disabled
 Tablestudents at your university, so you purposefully select a
of contents
number of students with different support needs in order to gather
a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used
to recruit participants via other participants. The number of people
you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more
people.

Example

You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city.

Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability
sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to
participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other
homeless people that she knows in the area.

Frequently asked questions about

sampling

What is sampling? 

Why are samples used in research? 

What is probability sampling? 

What is non-probability sampling? 

What is multistage sampling? 

What is sampling bias? 

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Shona McCombes
Shona has a bachelor's and two master's degrees, so she's an
expert at writing a great thesis. She has also worked as an editor
and teacher, working with students at all different levels to improve
their academic writing.

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Population vs sample: what's the difference?

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about while a sample

is the specific group that you will collect data from.

370
An introduction to simple random sampling
In simple random sampling, researchers collect data from a random subset of a
population to draw conclusions about the whole population.

305

Sampling bias: What is it and why does it matter?

 Table of contents
Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely
to be selected in a sample than others.

146

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