MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Schools of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering

LECTURE NOTES IN PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATIONS

Prepared and compiled by:

Alejandro H. Ballado Jr.
Marianne Martine-Sejera
 Lesson 1

COMMUNCIATION CIRCUITS

1.1 Pad / Attenuator

 A passive Circuit That variably reduces the amplitude or power of a signal without

considerably distorting its waveform.

 Fixed attenuators which are called pads are used to lower voltage, dissipate power and

improve impedance matching in circuits.

Insertion loss, (IL) – a measure of attenuation introduced by the system in dB

Power Ratio, N

Current Ratio, k
Decibel (dB) Notation

The dB does not express exact amounts; Instead, it represents the ratio of the signal level

at one point in a circuit to the signal level at another point in a circuit.

Classifications of Pad / Attenuator

A) According to configuration

L-Type

T-Type Bridged-T
Pi-Type O-Type

H-Type Bridged-H
k-Derived Equations

Resistance values for a designed attenuator/pad

B) According to Symmetry

 Symmetrical

T-Pad, Pi-Pad, O-Pad, H-Pad, and Bridged-T, and Bridged-H are all symmetrical n

networks.

 Asymmetrical

L-Pad is an example of a asymmetrical network.

C) Balanced/unbalanced

 Balanced

O-Pad, H-pad, and Bridged-H are examples of balanced network

 Unbalanced

L-Pad, T-Pad, Pi-Pad, and Bridged-T are examples of unbalanced networks.

Network Impedances

Iterative Impedance – the impedance which when used to terminate one end of a two-port

network will make the impedance seen on another end equal.

Adjusting the source impedance or the load impedance, in general, is called impedance

matching.

Iterative Impedance

Characteristic Impedance

For a symmetrical network, the characteristics impedance can be calculated as

Where:
1.2 Filters

 A filter is a frequency-selective designed to pass some frequencies and reject others.

 In filters, the range of frequencies that have a high output is called passband, and the

range of frequencies between a passband and a stop band is called cut-off frequency. The

rate of transition from passband to stopband and vice versa, given dB/decade or

dB/octave, is called the roll-off rate.

Cut-off Frequency

A cut off frequency is also the frequency at which the output power is 50% of the maximum or

the output amplitude is 70.7% of the maximum. Other terms for cut-off are critical frequency,

corner frequency, break frequency, and half-power point frequency.

Where:
Frequency Response

 A graphical representation of the output with respect to frequency.

Filter Construction

A) Based On Configuration

B) Based on Order

 One method of creating a more selective filter is to cascade filter stages.

 C) Based on Materials Used

Passive

 Composed of only passive components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors), and

provides no amplification.

 At higher frequencies (above 100-kHz), it is more common to find LC filters made of

inductors and capacitors.

Active

 Typically employs RC networks and amplifiers with feedback and offers a number of

advantages.
 D) Based on Design

Butterworth

 Butterworth filters are termed maximally-flat-magnitude-response filters, optimized for

gain flatness in the passband and have slow transitions.

Bessel

 Bessel filters are optimized for maximally flat time delay (or constant-group delay).

Chebyshev

 Chebyshev filters are designed to have ripple in the passband, but they have a steeper

roll-off after the cut-off frequency.

Elliptic

 Has an almost perfect frequency response (very fast transition) but has variations on both

the passband and stopband.

 The response Curves of the Major Families of Filters

NOTE:

E) Based On Frequency Response

Low-Pass Filter

 Passes frequency below a critical frequency called the cut-off frequency and attenuates

those above.
High Pass filter

 Passes frequencies above critical frequency but rejects those below.

Bandpass filter

 Passes only frequencies in a narrow range between the upper and lower cut-off.

Bandstop Filter

 Rejects or stops frequencies in a narrow range but passes others.

Interval is the ratio between the frequencies at two signals. An interval of 10:1 is termed as

decade while an interval of 2:1 is termed as octave.

 Audio Octaves with an interval of 2:1

10Hz fundamental

20Hz 1st octave

40Hz 2nd octave

80Hz 3rd octave

 Audio Decades with an interval of 10:1

10Hz fundamental

100Hz 1st decade

1kHz 2nd decade

10kHz 3rd decade

Low-Pass Filter Circuits

Notice the placement of the elements in the RC and the RL low-pass filters.

 Consider the RC low-pass filter circuit and determine the following:

a) Output Voltage, Vo,

b) Voltage gain ratio, Vo/Vs,

c) Cut-off frequency, fc

Solution:

a) Using the voltage divider principle

To simplify the equation, multiply a factor of 1 equivalent to:

b) Voltage gain, Vo/Vs becomes

c) To determine the cut-off frequency, remember that the gain at cut-off is equal to 70.7%

of the maximum so that

The maximum gain for passive filter is 1, so the equation is reduced to

At cut-off, the voltage gain equation becomes

Simplify and evaluate Xc at the cut-off of frequency.

The equation is reduced to Xc = R

High-Pass Filter Circuits

 Consider the RC high-pass filter circuit and determine the following:

a) Output voltage, Vo,

b) Voltage gain ratio, Vo/Vs,

c) Cut-off frequency, fc
Solution:

a) Using the Voltage Divider Principle,

To simplify the equation, multiply a factor of 1 equivalent to

b) Voltage gain, Vo/Vs becomes

 c) To determine the cut-off frequency, remember that the gain at cut-off is equal to 70.7%

of the maximum so that.

The maximum gain for a passive filter is 1, so that the equation if reduced to

At cut-off, the voltage gain equation becomes

Simplify and evaluate Xc at the cut-off frequency.

The equation is reduced to Xc =R

Band Pass Filter Circuit

The bandpass filter circuit frequency response as shown is a combination of high pass filter and

low pass filter frequency response where f1 and f2 are cut-off frequencies.

Assumption:

Consider frequencies that are very low, and since becomes open and the circuit

is now a high pass filter.

Cut-Off frequency becomes

Now, consider frequencies that are very high and since becomes shorted and

the circuit is now a low pass filter.

The cut-off frequency becomes

Shape Factor

 The shape factor of a filter is the ratio of -60 dB bandwidth to its -3dB bandwidth
Band Reject Filter (Wien Bridge)

1.3 Resonance

 At any given coil and capacitor, as the frequency increases, the reactance of the coil

increases, and the reactance of the capacitor decreases. Because of these opposite

characteristics, any LC combination should have a frequency at which the inductive

reactance of a coil equals the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. This condition in an

AC circuit where equals Xc is called resonance.

 Resonant circuits are the basis of all transmitters, receivers, and antenna operations.

Without these circuit, radio communication would not be possible.

Resonant Frequency

 The frequency at which the opposite reactance are equal.

Where:

Series Resonance

 The series-resonant circuit across an AC source

 In any circuit, the same value of current flows in all parts of the circuit at any instance.

However, the inductive reactance leads by 90° compared with the zero-reference angle of the

resistance, and the capacitive reactance lags by 90°.

Therefore, XL and Xc are 180° out of phase.

Minimum impedance at series resonance

 Since reactance cancel at resonant frequency, the impedance of the series circuit is

minimum and equal to the low value of the series resistance. This minimum impedance at

resonance is resistive, resulting in a zero-phase angle.

Maximum Current at Series Resonance

 The amount of current is greatest at the resonant frequency since impedance is at its

lowest resonance. The response curve of the series resonant circuit shows that the current

is small and below resonance, rises to its maximum value at resonant frequency, and then

drop off to small values above resonance.

Resonant Rise in Voltage across L or C

 Since the Current is the same in all parts of a series circuit, the maximum current at

resonance produces the maximum voltage IXc across C and an equal IXL voltage across L

for the resonant frequency.

Unity Power Factor

 Since the circuit acts as a purely resistive (zero-reactance) load to the source at

resonance, power factor is therefore equal to 1.

Parallel Resonance

 The parallel-resonant circuit across an ac source

In the parallel turned circuit, the same voltage is across both the coil and the capacitor. In

the inductive branch, the circuit lags the source voltage by 90°. In the capacitive branch, the

current leads the source voltage by 90°.

Because the line current is ideally zero at resonance, it should be possible to disconnect

the source and the current should continue the oscillate back to forth between the coil and the

capacitor indefinitely. This exchange of energy between the inductor and the capacitor is called
the flywheel effect and produces a damped sine wave at the resonant frequency. The primary

purpose of the parallel tuned circuit is to form a complete ac sine wave output.

Maximum Line Impedance at Parallel Resonance

 Since reactance are equal at resonance, it follows that susceptance are also equal and they

cancel at resonant frequency; the admittance of the parallel circuit is therefore minimum

and thus produces maximum impedance. The maximum impedance at resonance is

resistive, resulting in a zero-phase angle.

Minimum Line Current at Parallel Resonance

 The amount of current is least at the resonance frequency since impedance is at its

maximum at resonance. The responsive curve of the parallel resonant circuit shows that

the current is high below resonance, drops to its lowest value at a resonant frequency, and

then rise again

above

resonance.

Resonant Rise in Current through L and C

 The current through each reactance is equal to I = V/X and will usually be greater than

the source current.

Unity Power Factor

 Since the circuit acts as a purely resistive (zero-reactance) load to the source at

resonance, power factor is therefore equal to 1.

Quality Factor

 Q of a circuit is defined as the ratio of reactive power to the true power or

PQ
Q=
PR

 Q is also a measure of the bands pass filter’s selectivity. A high Q indicates that a filter

selects a smaller band of frequencies (more selective). The quality factor Q is defined as

the ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth or

fR
Q=
B

Q of a Series Circuit

 When the resistance is in the series with any reactance (like in the case of a series

resonant circuit), an increase in the resistance produces a lower Q.

PQ IX L
Qs = =
P R IR

X L 2 πf R L
QS =
R R

2 πL
QS =
R∗2 π √ LC

L/C
QS = √
R
Q of a Parallel Circuit

 When a resistor is connected across a coil or capacitor reactance (like in the case of a

parallel resonant circuit), the effective Q of the circuit will vary directly with the value of

the resistance.

PQ V 2/ XL
Q P= =
PR V 2 / R

R R
Q P= =
XL 2π f R L

R∗2 π √ LC
Q P=
2 πL

R
Q P=
√ L /C
 A shunt resistor is often connected across a parallel LC circuit to lower its Q. This makes

the circuit less sensitive to being resonant at any one frequency and broadens the

frequency response.

Bandwidth

 The frequency range over which a signal is transmitted or which a receiver or other

electronic circuit operates. One method of measuring the bandwidth is to measure the

width of either the voltage or the current response curve between points at 0.707

maximum. Since power is proportional to voltage or current squared, the 0.707 point is
 also the half-power point (0.707² = 0.5) or down 3dB. Thus, the bandwidth is normally

measured between half-power points, or -3dB points.

fR
BW =
Q

Where:

f R = Resonant Frequency, (Hz)

Q = Quality Factor

BW = Bandwidth, (Hz)

1.4 Review on Amplifiers

AF and RF Amplifiers

 The fundamental difference between the audio frequency amplifier and the radio

frequency amplifier is the band of frequencies they are expected to amplify. True “high-

fidelity” sounds would require circuits capable of handling audio frequencies from as low

as 15 to over 1500 Hz without distortion. Most RF amplifiers amplify only a relatively

narrow portion of the RF spectrum, attenuating all other frequencies.

Power Amplifiers

 One or more low-level (low power) amplifiers may be required to drive the input of a

power amplifier adequately. The first stage of an amplifying system showed a low-noise

type because all following stages will be amplifying any noise that the system generates.
Class A

 A Class A amplifier is biased so that it conducts continuously for 360° of an input sine

wave. The bias is set so that the output never saturates or cuts-off. In this way, its output

is an amplified linear reproduction of the input. The Class A amplifier is used primarily

as a small-signal voltage amplifiers or for low-power amplifiers.

Class AB

 A Class AB amplifier is biased near cut-off. It will conduct for more than 180° but for

less than 360° of the input. It is used primarily in push-pull amplifiers and provides better

linearity than a Class B amplifier but with less efficiency.

Class B

 A Class B amplifier is biased at cut-off and conducts only one-half of the sine wave

input. This means that one-half of the sine wave is amplified. Normally, two Class B

amplifiers are connected in a push-pull arrangement so the both positive and negative

alternations of the input are amplified simultaneously.

Class C

 A Class C amplifier is one whose output conducts load current during less than one-half

cycle of an input sine wave. The total angle during which current flows is less than 180°.

The Class C amplifier, being the most efficient, makes a good power amplifier.
 Class Degree of Conduction Maximum Distortion

Efficiency
A 360° 25% low
AB Greater than 180° but less Between 25% to medium

than 360° 79%

B 180° 79% high
C Less than 180° 100% highest

Summary of Power Amplifier Characteristics

1.5 Practice Problems

1. Convert an absolute power ratio of 100 to a power gain in dB.

2. Convert a power level of 200mW to dBm.

3. Determine the iterative impedance of the T-pad and the H-pad.

4. What is the insertion loss, IL, in dB of a symmetrical T-network whose series arm is 50 Ω

and whose shunt arm is 200 Ω when inserted in a circuit, whose impedance is equal to the

characteristic impedance of the network?

5. Design an H-pad with an iterative impedance of 300 Ω and an insertion loss of 26 dB.

6. Determine the iterative impedance of the Pi-Pad and the O-Pad

7. Compute for the resistance value of an O-network for an iterative impedance of 600 Ω

and

insertion loss of 35dB.

8.

What resistor value, R, will produce a cut-off frequency of 3.4 KHz with .047µF capacitor?

9. Suppose that a low-pass filter has a cut-off frequency of 1KHz. If the input voltage for a

signal at this frequency is 30mV, what is the output voltage?

10. Calculate the cut-off frequency, fc, and Vout at fc. Assume Vin = 10 Vpp for all

frequencies

11. Calculate the cut-off frequency, fc, and Vout at fc. Assume Vin = 10 Vpp for all

frequencies.
12. Calculate the resonant frequency for a 2µH inductance and a 3pF capacitance.

13.

What value of inductance, L, resonates with a 106pF capacitor at 1000 KHz?

14. If C is increased from 100 to 400 pF, L should be decreased from 800 µH to ______ for

the same f R ?

15. For an f r of 500 KHz and a bandwidth of 10Khz, calculate Q.

1.6 Multiple Choice Questions

1) The phase angle of an LC circuit at resonance is

a) 0°

b) +90°

c) 180°

d) -90°

2) Below resonance, a series LC circuit appears

a) Inductive

b) Resistive

c) Capacitive

d) None of the above

3) Above resonance, a parallel LC circuit appears

a) Inductive

b) Resistive
 c) Capacitive

d) None of the above

4) A parallel LC circuit has a resonant frequency of 3.75 MHz and a Q of 125. What is the

bandwidth?

a) 15 KHz

b) 30 KHz

c) 60 KHz

d) None of the above

5) What is the resonant frequency of an LC circuit with value of L = 100 µH and C = 63.3

pF?

a) 1 MHz

b) 8 MHz

c) 2 MHz

d) 20 MHz

6) In an RC low-pass filter, the output is taken across the

a) Resistor

b) Inductor

c) Capacitor

d) None of the above

7) On logarithmic graph paper, a 10 to 1 range of frequencies is called a (n)

a) Octave

b) Decibel

c) Harmonic
 d) Decade

8) The cut-off frequency, fc, of a filter is the frequency at which the output is

a) Reduced by 50% of its maximum

b) Reduced by 70.7% of its maximum

c) Practically zero

d) Exactly equal to the input voltage

9) The decibel attenuation of a passive filter at the cut-off frequency is

a) -3 dB

b) 0 dB

c) -20 dB

d) -6 dB

10) To increase the cut-off frequency of an RL high-pass filter, one can

a) Decrease the value of R

b) Decrease the value of L

c) Increase the value of R

d) Both B and C
 Lesson 2

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

Communication is defined as the basic process of exchanging information. Most humans

communicate through spoken word but a considerable amount of communication in nonverbal.

Consequently, the two major barriers in human communication is language and distance.

The Line of Milestones in Human and Electronic Communication.

Year Milestones
1830 Professor Joseph Henry transmitted the first practical
electrical signal.
1837 Samuel Morse invented the telegraph.
1876 Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson invented
the telephone.
1887 Heinrich Hertz discovered radio waves.
Guglielmo Marconi demonstrated wireless radio waves
propagation.
1901 Guglielmo Marconi accomplished the first transatlantic
transmission of radio signals.
1903 John Fleming invented the two-electrode vacuum-tube
rectifier.
1906 Lee De Forest invented the triode vacuum tube.
1923 Vlidamir Zworykin invented and demonstrated television.
1948 William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen
invented the transistor.
1959 The integrated circuit was invented.
1965 The first commercial communications satellite was
launched.
1983 The cellular telephone network was first introduced in the
United States.
2.1 Electronic Communications Systems

Electronic Communications refers to the transmission, reception, and processing of information

using electronic circuits. The basic elements of a communication system include the transmitter,

the communications channel, or a medium, and the receiver.

Source of Information

 Sources of information may be coming from an analog source or from a digital source so

the intelligence signal may be either an analog or a digital. Analog signals are something

continuously changing with respect to time and with infinite amplitude values while

digital signals are something discrete and whose amplitude is of finite value.

Transmitter

 The transmitter is a collection of electronic devices of circuits designed to convert the

information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communications medium.

 The components of a transmitter are the amplifiers, modulator, oscillator, and antenna.
Communications Channel and Medium

 The communications channel provides the means of transporting signals between a

transmitter and a receiver. The two general type of communications media are guided

(wired) and unguided (wireless). Examples of guided media are coaxial cable, fiber optic

cable and waveguide.

 Although the medium supports the transmission of information, it also attenuates it and

causes the received signal to appear much lower in amplitude, considerable amplification

of the signal is required to successful communication.

Receiver

 Receivers are a collection of electronic devices or circuits that accept the transmitted

message from the channel and convert them into a form understandable to humans.

 The components of a receiver are the amplifiers, demodulator, and antenna.

Limitations of Communication Systems

The two limitations in the electronic communication systems are noise and bandwidth.

 Noise is any unwanted form of energy that tends to interfere with the proper and easy

reception and reproduction of design signals.

 Bandwidth is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal. It is also

the frequency range over which an information signal is transmitted or over which a

receiver or the other electronic circuit operates.

Specially, the bandwidth is the difference between the upper and the lower frequency limit

BW =f upper limit−f lower limit

Information Capacity

 A measure of how much source information can be carried through the system in a given

period of time.

Hartley’s Law

 States that the information capacity is directly proportional to bandwidth and

transmission time.
 Information Capacity α Bandwidth x Transmission Time

2.2 Modes of Transmission

Electronic Communications may be either one-way or two-way. One-way communication is

called simplex or broadcasting. Two-way communication is called duplex. In half-duplex

communication, only one of the two parties can transmit at a time. In a full duplex, both parties

may transmit and receive simultaneously.

 Simplex (SX).

Transmitter Receiver

Examples: AM and FM Radio broadcasting, TV broadcasting, Cable television, Wireless Remote

Control, Paging Services, Navigation, and Direction-Finding Services

 Half-duplex (HDX)

Transmitter Receiver
 Examples: Two-way Radio, Amateur Radio, Citizens Radio, Radar, Sonar

 Full duplex (FDX)

Transmitter Receiver

Examples: Telephones, Data-Communications, Local Area Networks

 Full/full Duplex (FDX) transmits and receives simultaneously but not necessarily

between the same two locations.

2.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

  The electromagnetic frequency spectrum refers to the entire range of usable frequencies.

It

extends from a few Hz to cosmic rays.

Frequency

 Frequency is the number of times an alternating current goes through its complete cycle

per second. The international unit of measurement of frequency is hertz, abbreviated as

Hz.
 LESSON 2: Introduction to Electronic Communications

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) Band Designations

Frequency Range Designations

30 - 300 Hz ELF (Extremely Low Frequencies)
0.3 - 3 kHz VF (Voice Frequencies)
3 - 30 kHz VLF (Very Low Frequencies)
30 - 300 kHz LF (Low Frequencies)
0.3 - 3 MHz MF (Medium Frequencies)
3 - 30 MHz HF (High Frequencies)
30 - 300 MHz VHF (Very High Frequencies)
0.3 - 3 GHz UHF (Ultra High Frequencies)
 3 - 30 GHz SHF (Super High Frequencies)
30 - 300 GHz EHF (Extremely High Frequencies)
0.3 - 3 THz Infrared
3 - 30 THz Infrared
30 - 300 THz Infrared
0.3 - 3 PHz Visible Light
3 - 30 PHz Ultraviolet
30 - 300 PHz X-rays
0.3 - 3 EHz Gamma Rays
3 - 30 EHz Cosmic Rays

Extremely Low Frequencies, 30 – 300 Hz

 Includes ac power line frequencies as well as the low end of human hearing range.

Voice Frequencies, 30 – 3000 Hz

 This is the normal range of human voice. Although human hearing extends from 20 to

20,000Hz, most intelligible sounds occur in this range.

Very Low Frequencies, 3 – 30 kHz

 Includes the higher end of the human hearing range by up to 20 kHz. Many musical

instruments also make sounds in this range.

Low Frequencies, 30 – 300 kHz

  Frequencies in this range are used in primary communication services such as

aeronautical and marine navigation.

Medium Frequencies, 300 – 3000 kHz

 The major application of frequencies in this range is AM Radio broadcasting (535 – 1605

kHz). Marine and aeronautical communications also take place in this range.

High Frequencies, 3 – 30 MHz

 These are frequencies generally known as short waves. All kinds of two- way radio

communication take place in this range.

Very High Frequencies, 30 – 300 MHz

 Used by many services including mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications,

FM radio broadcasting (88 – 108 MHz), television channels 2 to 13. Frequencies above

1GHz are generally known as microwaves.

Ultra High Frequencies, 300 – 3000 MHz

 A widely used portion of the frequency spectrum including television channels 14 to 83,

land mobile communications and cellular telephones.

Super High Frequencies, 3 – 30 GHz

 These are microwave frequencies that are widely used for satellite and radar

communications.

Extremely High Frequencies, 30 – 300 GHz

 Only a limited amount of activity occurs in this range including satellite communications

and some specialized radar.

Infrared, 0.3 – 300 THz

 Infrared refers to radiation generally associated with heat. Infrared is used in astronomy

to detect stars, remote control units, guidance of weapon systems and optical devices.

Visible Spectrum, 0.3 – 3 PHz

 Generally referred to as light. Used in various communication systems, fiber optics and

laser technology.

Wavelength, λ

 When dealing with ultra-high frequency electromagnetic waves such as light, it is

common to use units of wavelength rather than frequency. Wavelength is the length that
 one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space. The length of a wavelength

depends on the frequency of the wave and the velocity of light. Mathematically,

C
λ=k
f

Where:

k = Velocity factor (equal to 1 in free space)

C = Speed of light in free space, 3 x 108 m/s

F = Frequency, (Hz)

 At high frequencies, the wavelength is too short and is usually expressed as Angstrom.

1
1 Å ( Angstrom )= μm
10000
2.4 Multiple Choice Questions

1) Light frequency below 400 microns is

a. infrared

b. visible light

c. ultraviolet

d. none of the above

2) In a given bandwidth, more channels are available for signals in the range of

a. VHF

b. SHF

c. EHF

d. UHF

3) Equipment that represents the signal in the frequency domain is the

a. oscilloscope

b. spectrum analyzer

c. laparoscope

d. function generator

4) A complete communication system should include

a. a transmitter, a receiver and a spectrum analyzer

b. a multiplexer, a demultiplexer and a channel

c. a transmitter and receiver

d. a transmitter, a receiver and a channel

5) The bandwidth required for a modulated carrier depends on

a. the signal-to-noise ratio

 b. the baseband frequency range

c. the carrier frequency

d. none of the above

6) The baseband bandwidth for a voice-grade (telephone) signal is

a. at least 5 kHz

b. 20 Hz to 15,000 Hz

c. approximately 3 kHz

d. none of the above

7) A simultaneous two-way communication is called

a. simplex

b. full-full duplex

c. full duplex

d. half duplex

8) Recovering the originally transmitted signal is called

a. modulation

b. demodulation

c. multiplexing

d. duplexing

9) Short waves fall under

a. ELF

b. MF

c. VHF

d. HF
10) Microwaves start at

a. UHF

b. MF

c. VHF

d. SHF
 Lesson 3

NOISE

 Any unwanted form of energy tending to interfere with the proper and easy reception and

reproduction of wanted signals

 Any undesired voltage or current that ultimately ends up appearing in the receiver output

Results of Noise

 hiss/static

 snow/confetti

 bit errors

 signal loss

3.1 Kinds of Noise

 Correlated Noise – mutually related to the signal and cannot be present in a circuit unless

there is an input signal and is produced by nonlinear amplification. No signal, no noise.

 Harmonic Distortion – unwanted harmonics of signal

  Intermodulation Distortion – the generation of the unwanted sum and difference

frequencies (cross products) when two or more signals are amplified in a

nonlinear device.

Uncorrelated Noise – present regardless of whether there is a signal present or not.

 External Noise – generated outside the device or outside the receiver circuit.

 Internal Noise – generated within the device or within the receiver circuit.

Types of External Noise

 Atmospheric Noise – naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within

Earth’s atmosphere

 Extraterrestrial Noise – consists of electrical signals the originate from the outside the

Earth’s atmosphere

 Solar Noise – directly from sun’s heat

 Cosmic Noise – from the starts

 Man-made Noise – produced by manufactured equipment such as automotive ignition

systems, electric motors and generators

Types of Internal Noise

 Shot Noise – caused by the random arrival of carriers (holes and electrons) at the output

element of an electronic device

 Transit-Time Noise – shows up as a kind of random noise within the device and is

directly proportional to the frequency operation

 Thermal Noise – associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons within a

conductor due to thermal agitation

3.2 Noise Computations

Noise Power

 The average noise power is proportional to the absolute temperature of the conductor and

to the bandwidth or spectrum of the thermal noise.

P N ∞ TB

P N =kTB

where: P N = noise power, (W)

T = temperature of the conductor, (K)

B = bandwidth of the noise spectrum, (Hz)

K = Boltzmann’s Constant = 1.38 x 10−23 J / K

Noise Voltage

Consider the noise source equivalent circuit

For maximum power transfer of the noise source

VN
R L=R N ; V L=
2

P N =¿ ¿

Since,

P N =TBK

gives,

(V N )2
TBK =
4 RN

solve the noise for the voltage

V N = √ 4 kTBR

where: V N = RMS noise voltage, (V)

R = equivalent noise resistance, (Ω)

 T = temperature of the conductor, (K)

B = bandwidth of the noise spectrum, (Hz)

RMS Noise Voltage Due to Several Sources

 Series Combination

R N =R N + R N +…+ R N
T 1 2 n

V N =√ V N +V N + …+V N
T 1 2 n

where: R N T
= total resistance, (Ω)

VN T
= total RMS noise voltage, (V)

VN 1
= noise voltage of the first resistor, (V)

VN 2
= noise voltage of the second resistor, (V)
  Parallel Combination

1 1 1
= + …
RN RN RN
T 1 2

V N = √ V 2N + V 2 N …
T 1 2

Power Spectrum Density or Noise Density

 average noise power per Hertz of bandwidth

 a figure that determines the amount of noise contained in a specified bandwidth

PN
No= =kT
B

where: N o = noise density, (W/Hz)

PN = noise power, (W)

B = bandwidth of the noise spectrum, (Hz)

VN 2
= noise voltage of the second resistor, (V)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio

 a relative measure of the desired signal power to the noise power

S PS
=
N PN

In decibel form

PS VS
( NS )=10 log P =20 log V
N N

where: PS = signal power, (W)

PN = noise power, (W)

VS = signal voltage, (V)

VN = noise voltage, (V)

Noise Factor

Si/ Ni
F=
So/ No

where: Si = input signal power, (W)

Ni = input noise power, (W)

So = output signal power, (W)

 No = output noise power, (W)

Noise Figure

S i /N i
NF =10logF =10 log
S o /N o

 For an ideal noiseless network

( NS ) i>( NS ) o

F=1

 For a network that produces noise

( NS ) i<( NS ) o

F> 1
Reactance Noise Effects

 The significant effect of reactive circuits on noise is their limitation on frequency

response.

 The equivalent bandwidth to be used in noise calculations with reactive circuits is

π
Beq = B3 dB
2

where: B3 dB = half power bandwidth, (Hz)

Beq = effective bandwidth, (Hz)

Equivalent Noise Temperature

T eq=T o (F−1)

where: T eq = equivalent noise temperature, (K)

To = reference absolute temperature, 290° K

F = noise factor

Noise Due to Amplifiers in Cascade

Friss Formula

 Over-all noise factor of n stages

 F 2−1 F 3−1 F n−1
F eq=F 1 + + + …+
G1 G 1 G2 G 1 G2 …G n−1

 Over-all noise temperature of n stages

T2 T3 Tn
T eq=T 1 + + +…+
G1 G1 G2 G 1 G 2 … G n−1

 Over-all noise resistance

R2 R3 Rn
Req =R1 + 2
+ 2 2
+ …+
A 1 A 2 … A 2n−1
2 2
A 1 A 1A 2

where: A = voltage gain

G = power gain

Shot Noise

 a form of internal noise which is due to the random variations in current flow in active

devices such as tubes, transistors, and diodes

i N =√ 2 BIq

where: i N = rms noise current, (A)

q = charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10−19 C

B = bandwidth over which the noise is observed, (Hz)

I = dc bias current in the device, (A)

3.3 Practice Problems

1) For an amplifier operating at a temperature of 30°C with a bandwidth of 10 kHz,

determine the total noise power in Watts and dB μ.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

2) A 50-Ω resistor operates at room temperature (25°C). How much noise power does it

provide to match a load over the bandwidth of?

a) an AM radio channel (10kHz)?

b) a TV channel (6 MHz)?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

3) Determine the noise current for a diode with a bias current of 20 mA, observed over a

30-kHz bandwidth.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
4) The signal level at the input of the amplifier is 120 µV, and the noise level is 6 µV.

Calculate the noise of the amplifier if the signal-to noise ratio at the output is dB.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

5) Compute the noise figure of a receiving system with a noise temperature of 150°C.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

6) What is the equivalent noise resistance when the measured noise voltage is 500 µV,

the temperature is 20°C, and the bandwidth is 5 kHz?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

7) What is the noise voltage when the equivalent resistance is 1 kΩ, the bandwidth is 4

kHz, and the temperature is 80°C?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
8) Two resistors, 25 kΩ and 75 kΩ, are at room temperature (290 K). For a bandwidth

of 80kHz, calculate the thermal noise voltage, a) for each resistor, b) for the two

resistors in series, and c) for the two resistors in parallel.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

9) A signal measuring circuit is equivalent to a parallel combination of an unknown and

a 0.05 -µF capacitance. What is the value of the resistor if the effective noise

bandwidth is 1kHz?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

10) A mixer stage has a noise of 25 dB, and this is preceded by an amplifier that has a

noise figure of 10 dB and an available power gain of 20 dB. Determine the overall

noise figure referred to the input.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
11) Determine the noise current and equivalent noise voltage for a diode with I dc = 1.15

mA. The noise is measured in a bandwidth of 50MHz.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____

12) What is the shot noise current for a diode with a forward bias of 1.15 mA over a 50-

kHz bandwidth?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

13) An amplifier operating over a frequency of range of 455 kHz to 460 kHz has a 200

kΩ input resistance. What is the RMS noise voltage at the input to the amplifier if the

ambient temperature is 17°C?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

14) Two resistors, 5 kΩ and 20 kΩ, are at 27°C. Calculate the thermal noise power and

the voltage for a 10 kHz bandwidth a) for each resistor, b) for their series combination

and c) for their parallel combination.

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

15) Three matched amplifiers are available to amplify a low level signal. The have

following characteristics:

Amplifier Power Gain Noise Factor

A 6 dB 1.5

B 12 dB 2

C 20 dB 4

The amplifiers are to be connected in cascade. Calculate the lowest overall noise

factor obtainable noting the order in which the amplifiers should be connected.

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________
3.4 Multiple Choice Questions

1) A shot noise is generated in the

a. resistor

b. resistor and diode

c. copper wire

d. all of the above

2) A noise figure is a measure of

a. how much noise is in the channel

b. how much noise does an amplifier adds to a signal

c. how much noise is in a communications system

d. signal-to-noise ratio in dB

3) It is a kind of noise that is mutually related to the input and is produced because of nonlinear

amplification

a. External noise

b. Internal noise

c. Uncorrelated noise

d. Correlated noise

4) A naturally occurring disturbance that originates from the earth’s atmosphere

a. Solar noise

b. Cosmic noise

c. Atmospheric noise
 d. Man-made noise

5) “Man-made” noise can come from the

a. temperature

b. equipment that sparks

c. static

d. all of the above

6) Most internal noise come from the

a. Shot noise

b. Transit time noise

c. Skin effect

d. Thermal agitation

7) The ideal noise figure is

a. 1 dB

b. 0 dB

c. Infinity

d. None of the choices

8) An amplifier has an output S/N that is half of its input S/N. What is the noise figure?

a. 3 dB

b. -3 dB
 c. 2 dB

d. None of the above

9) Determine the noise current of a device for a current of 5 mA and a bandwidth of 3.2 kHz

a. 1.6 ⴣ

b. 3.2 nA

c. 1.6 nA

d. None of the above

10) What is the equivalent noise temperature for a noise figure of 3dB?

a. 17 °K

b. 145 °K

c. 290 °K

d. 580 °K
 Lesson 4

Amplitude Modulation

Modulation

>Modulation is the process of altering a characteristic of the carrier accordance with the

instantaneous value of the intelligence signal.

>The characteristics of the carrier that can be varied are amplitude, frequency, and phase.

Demodulation is the process of recovering the intelligence signal from a modulated carrier

signal.

Consider a sine-wave carrier:

Carrier Signal

Mathematically,

ec  Ec sin(c t   )
Where:

e = instantaneous carrier amplitude

c

E c = peak carrier amplitude

c = carrier radian frequency

 = carrier phase

Reason for modulation

>For minimizing interference

> For frequency assignment

>For making antenna size practical

>For multiplexing

FCC Emission Designation

First Symbol Second Symbol Third Symbol

A- Amplitude Modulation, 0- No modulating signal A- Telegraphy (manual)

Double Sideband Full

1- Digitally keyed carrier B- Telegraphy (automatic)
Carrier
2- Digitally keyed tone C- Facsimile
B- Independent Sideband
3- Analog (voice, music) D- Telemetry (data)
C- Vestigial Sideband
7- Multiple Digital Channel E- Telephony (Sound
D- Simultaneous/ Sequence
Broadcasting)
8- Multiple Analog Channel
AM and FM 9- Channel with analog and F- Television (video signal)

digital
F- Frequency N- No Information

G- Phase Modulation W- Combination of above

H- Single Sideband Full

Carrier

J- Single Sideband

Suppressed Carrier

K- Pulse Amplitude

Modulation

L- Pulse Width Modulation

M- Pulse Position

Modulation

N- Unmodulated Pulses

R- Single Sideband Reduce

Carrier

V- Combination Of Any

Pulse Modulation

W- Combination of any two

or more forms

X- Cases not Covered

> In FCC Emission designation, the first symbol signifies the type of modulation of the main

carrier; the second symbol signifies the nature of the modulation; and the third symbol signifies

the type of information being transmitted.

4.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

> Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the simplest way of superimposing the characteristics of

intelligence signal onto a carrier. The AM signal is produced by varying the amplitude of the

carrier signal in proportion to the instantaneous of the intelligence signal.

The trace of the peaks in the AM wave is called the envelope which has the same shape as the

modulating signal

Mathematically, the instantaneous value of the am signal is

e AM  A sin c t ,

Where: A  Ec  em

eAM (Ec em)sinct

e
Where = instantaneous value of intelligence signal

em  Em sin m t

Substituting e m , the AM equation becomes

e AM  ( E c  E m sin  m t ) sin  c t
e AM  E c sin  c t  E m sin  m t sin  c t

Applying the trigonometric identity

1
sin A sin B  (cos( A  B )  cos( A  B ))
2
Let A  c t B  mt

The complete AM expression is,

eAM  E

The expression is composed of three signals, the carrier,the lower sideband and the upper

sideband.

Modulation Index
 > the term that describes the amount of amplitude change in wave form is called the index

modulation.

>It is also called Coefficient of Modulation, Modulation Factors, or Modulation Depth.

Em
m
Ec

The Graph show that,

Vmax and Vmin  Ec  Em

Thus the modulation index can be expressed as

Em Vmax  Vmin
m 
Ec Vmax  Vmin

Where:

= peak voltage of intelligence signal, (V)

Ec = peak voltage of the carrier signal, (V)

Vmax = maximum point in AMwave, (V)

Vmin = minimum point in AM wave, (V)

m = modulation index

Percent Modulation, %M

%M= m x 100%

Classification According to Degree of Modulation

Undermodulation

Overmodulation
Perfect Modulation

AM Spectrum
Bandwidth for AM

BW= 2 f m

BW= ( f c  f m )  ( f c  f m )

BW= 2 f m

4.2 Power Calculation

>Unmodulated Carrier Power, Pc

2 2
VCRMS E
Pc   c
R 2R

>Lower Sideband Power, PLSB and Upper Sideband Power, PUSB

2
VLBS RMS Pc m 2
PLSB  PUSB  
R 4

>Total Transmitted Power, PT

PT  PC  PLSB  PUSB
  m 2 
PT  PC 1  
 2 

Where:

EC  peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier, (V)

R= load resistance, (R)

m= modulation index

PC  unmodulated carrier power

PT  total transmitted power, (W)

PUSB = upper sideband power,

PLSB  lower sideband power, (W)

POWER SPECTRUM
Percent power in the carrier,

PC PC
% PC  
PT m2
PC (1  )
2

Percent Power in the sideband, % PSB

m2
PC
P 2
% PSB  SB 
PT m2
PC (1  )
2

Among the three-signal compressing AM, only the sideband contain the information. The

information found in the upper sideband is identical with the lower one. Notice that 100%

modulation, 66.67% of the total power is

contained in the carrier and only 33.33% is in the sideband. Thus, it is wasteful to transmit the

carrier and it is redundant to transmit both sidebands.

Voltage Calculation

>Peak Voltage of the Modulated Carrier, ET

m2
E T  Ec 1 
2

Current Calculations
 >Peak Current of the Modulated Carrier, I T

m2
IT  I c 1 
2

Where:

I c = peak current of the unmodulated carrier, (A)

= peak current of the modulated signal, (A)

ET =peak voltage of the modulated signal, (V)

EC = peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier, (V)

4.3 Simultaneous Modulation

f m3  f m2 2  f m1
If , then

BW  fUSB  f LSB
BW  f c  f mN  ( f c  f mN )
BW  2 f mN
Where:

f mN
= highest modulating frequency, (Hz)

Modulation Index for Simultaneous Modulation

mt  m12  m22  m32  ...  mN2

Where:

mt = Total effective modulation index

m1 = Modulation index of the first tone

m2 = Modulation index of the second tone

mN = Modulation index of the nth tone

4.4 Practice Problem

1. What is the modulation index for an AM having Vmax and Vmin of 2.6V and 0.29V,

respectively?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

2. An AM signal has the equation:

e AM  (25  5 sin( 44 103 t )) sin( 46.5 106 t )V

a) Find the carrier frequency

b) Find the frequency of the modulating signal

c) Find the value of m.

d) What are the frequencies comprising the AM signal?

e) Sketch the signal in the time domain and the frequency domain.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Determine the bandwidth of an AM signal modulated by a 5-kHz tone.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

4. What is the bandwidth of an AM signal whose carrier is modulated by 1 kHz, 3-kHz and 5-

kHz, simultaneously?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

5. An AM transmitter is modulated by two audio tones at 1 kHz and 2.5 kHz, with modulation

depth of 0.25 and 0.50, respectively. Find the effective modulation index.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

6. Three audio waves with 100, 200, 300 volts simultaneously modulated a 450-V carrier. What

is the total percent of modulation of the AM waves?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________
7. A 1000W carrier is modulated to a 95% level. Determine the total transmitted power?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

8. An AM transmitter 100W at 100% modulation. How much power is required for the carrier?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

9. An AM broadcast station operates at its maximum allowed total output of 50kW and at 85%

modulation. How much of the transmitted power contains the intelligence?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

10. if a transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when its unmodulated, what is the total radiated

power when it is modulated at 30%.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

11.For an AM DSBFC transmitter with an unmodulated carrier power, Pc = 500W that is

modulated simultaneous by four tones, m1  0.1 , m2  0.2 , m3  0.4 , m4  0.5 , determine

a.) the total modulation index

b.) the total sideband power

c.) the total transmitted power

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________12. The antenna current of an AM

transmitter is 11 A when unmodulated but increases to 14 A when modulated. Find the %M.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________13. An AM transmitter has a

carrier voltage of 50 VRMS at a carrier frequency of 10 MHz. It is modulated at 75% by a 1 kHz

sine wave. What is the total RMS voltage transmitted?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

14,The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8A when only the carrier is sent but it increases

to 8.93 A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the percent modulation. If

80% modulation is desired, what should be the modulation index of the second wave? What is

the antenna current then?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________

15. A certain transmitter radiates a 9 kW when the carrier is unmodulated and 10.75 kW when

modulated. If another sine wave, corresponding to 30% modulation, is transmitted

simultaneously, what is the percent change of the total power?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________

4.5 Multiple Choice Question

1. An antenna transmits an AM signal having a total power content of 15 kW. Determine the

power being transmitted at each of the sidebands when the percent modulation is 85%.

a. 1101.9 W

b. 1990 W

c. 3981 W

d. 1019 W

2.In the designation of the bandwidth and the emission, what letter in the first symbol represent

an ISB signal?

a. J

b. B

c. A

d. C

3. An Modulator circuit performs what mathematical operation on its two inputs?

 a. Addition

b. Multiplication

c. Division

d. Subtraction

4. An AM transmitter is modulated by two sine waves at 1 kHz and 2.5 kHz, with modulation of

25% and 50%, respectively. What is the effective modulation index?

a. 0.56

b. 0.65

c. 0.75

d. 0.25

5. A 2000 Hz audio signal having amplitude of 15V amplitude modulates a 100 kHz carrier,

which has a peak value of 25V when not modulated. Calculate the modulation factors of the

modulated waves.

a. 0.4

b. 0.5

c. 0.6

d. 0.7

6. In the previous problem, what frequency would show up in a spectrum analysis of the AM

wave?
 a. 98 kHz, 100 kHz, 102 kHz

b. 90.8 kHz, 100 kHz, 102.8 kHz

c. 98.8 kHz, 100 kHz, 102.2 kHz

d. 198 kHz, 200 kHz, 202 kHz

7. What is the required bandwidth to transmit the AM signal in the previous problem?

a. 2KHz

b. 4Khz

c. 200KHz

d. None of the above

8. A bandwidth of 12 MHz becomes for available assignment. If assigned for TV broadcast

service, only two channel could be accommodated. Determine the number of AM stations that

could be broadcast simultaneously if the maximum modulating frequency is limited to 5 kHz.

a. 1000

b. 1200

c. 800

d. 1600

9. Which is true about modulation

a. A modulating voltage is less than a carrier voltage

b. The modulating voltage is equal to the carrier voltage

 c. Over modulation produces a distortion at the demodulated output

d. None of the above

10. The percentage of the modulation for a maximum amplitude of information transmission is

_____%.

a. 0

b. 50

c. 75

d. 100
 Lesson 5

Single Sideband System

- There are three methods of generating a signal sideband signal, namely, filter method, phase
shifting method and weaver method. Each method employs a balanced modulator to suppress the
carrier.

- With the SSB system, the amount of power used can be minimized and more importantly, the
bandwidth is narrowed to half.

Percentage Power Saving, %PS

5.1 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier AM

- In the conventional AM, transmitting the carrier the whole time is a waste of power. Moreover,
it increases the chance of interfering with other signals. Information is present only in the
sidebands, so it is sensible to transmit only the sideband and to reinsert the carrier at the receiver
by using an oscillator. This is called “Double sideband transmission with suppressed Carrier
“abbreviated as DSBSC.
- Balanced modulator are circuits used to produce double sideband by effectively cancelling the
carrier at the output.

- The DSBCS is not much used in practice because it is not easy to reinsert the carrier correctly.
The difficulty using two sideband is that if the phase of reinserted carrier is incorrect, the two
reinserted signals could cancel each other out, either one of the sidebands together with the
replacement carrier, can recover the original operating signal.

Balanced Ring Modulator

- Essentially, diodes D4 to D4 are electronic switches that determines whether the modulating
signal is passed from the input transformer to output transformer as is or with a 180° phase shift.

Power Spectrum of DSBSC AM

5.2 Single Sideband System

Single Sideband Full Carrier, H3E

 A form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is transmitted at full

power but only one of the sidebands is transmitted
 The SSBFC requires less bandwidth than the conventional double sideband
AM, but also produces a demodulated signal with a lower amplitude.

SSB Waveform at 100% Modulation

Power Spectrum of the SSBFC

In a perfectly modulated SSBFC, the carrier power constitutes 80% of the total

power and only 20% is in the sidebands. Although the SSBFC requires less total

power than the DSBFC, it actually utilizes a smaller percentage of that power for

the information- carrying portion of the signal.

At 100% modulation, 16.67% of power is saved by suppressing one of the

sidebands.

Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier, J3E

 A form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is totally suppressed

and one of the sidebands is removed.

 The SSBSC requires half as much bandwidth as the conventional double

sideband AM and less transmitted power

 SSBSC Waveform

Power Spectrum of SSBSC

In SSBSC, the sideband power constitutes 100% of the total power. The SSBSC

requires less total power than the conventional AM. At 100% modulation, 83.3%

of power is saved by suppressing the carrier and one of the sidebands.

Comparison of the common AM Transmission Systems

Single Sideband Reduced Carrier, R3E

 A form of amplitude modulation in which one of the sidebands is totally

removed and the carrier voltage is reduced to approximately 10% of its

unmodulated amplitude

 To produce a reduced carrier component, the carrier is totally suppressed

during modulation and then reinserted at reduced amplitude.

Independent Sideband, B8E

 A form of amplitude modulation in which a single carrier frequency is

independently modulated by two different modulating signals

 The ISB is a form of double sideband transmission in which the

transmitter consists of two independent single-sideband suppressed

carrier modulators. The outputs of the two modulators are combined to

form a double sideband signal.

ISB Transmitter

AM Vestigial Sideband, C3F

 A form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier frequency and one

complete sideband is transmitted, but only part of the second sideband is

transmitted.

 The most widely known VSB is the picture portion of an analog

commercial television broadcasting signal.

Comparison of Frequency Spectrum and Relative Power Distribution
5.3 Single Sideband Generation

 Filter Method

 Phase Shift Method

 ¿ {Single }¿ mathbf {Sideband }¿ mathbf {Transmitter }¿ mathbf {Rating }

¿ {PEP ¿¿ ¿ ¿ {¿{(}{¿ {¿ {Vpk }}{¿ ¿ {2 }}¿{)}}¿ {2}}{¿{ R }}

Where:

PEP = peak envelope power, (W)

Vpk = peak voltage, (V)

R = load resistance, (Ω)

 5.4 Practice Problems

1) For an AM DSBFC wave with a peak unmodulated voltage of 10 V and a load

resistance of 1082, the given modulation index is 0.5. Determine the

following:

a) The carrier and the sideband power

b) The total power

c) The percent power of the information

d) The power spectrum

2) Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier and one of the
 sidebands is suppressed in an AM signal if the modulation index is a) 100%

and b) 25%.

3) For a 500-W carrier modulated to a depth of 80%, find the total power and

the % P.S in each of the following forms of AM.

а) ЈЗЕ

b) H3E

c) DSB
4) An AM wave has a total transmitted power of 4 kW when modulated at 85%.

How much total power should an SSB wave contain in order to have the same

power content as that in the two sidebands?

5) If a transmitter power of 100 W is sufficient for reliable communication over a

certain path using the SSB, approximately what power level would be required

using the H3E?

6) What is the maximum modulating signal frequency that can be used in a J3E

system with a 50-kHz bandwidth?

7) A filter-type SSB generator uses an ideal bandpass filter with a center

frequency of 5.000 MHz and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz. What frequency should

be used for the carrier oscillator if the generator is to produce a LSB signal

with a baseband frequency response having a lower limit of 280 Hz?

8) An SSBSC signal has a suppressed carrier frequency of 2MHz. It is modulated

with two audio tones having frequencies of 1500 and 2200 Hz. The receiver is

mistuned so that the BFO is at 1.9995MHz. What will be the output

frequencies of the demodulator if the signal is LSB?

9) A J3E transmitter operating at 16 MHz has a frequency stability of 1 part per

million. If its transmission is reproduced by a receiver whose frequency

stability is 8 parts per million, what is the maximum frequency error of the

output of this receiver in reproducing this transmission.

10) The CB radio was developed using a full-carrier DSB AM. It operates using

40 channels, each 10 kHz wide. When the SSBSC is used, the same carrier

frequencies are used as with the conventional AM, but the transceivers are

switchable to either a lower or an upper sideband. How many channels are

available when the SSB is used?

11) What is the power saving of a double sideband full carrier AM signal at 50%

modulation, if the emission used is J3E?

12) What is the maximum modulating signal frequency that can be used with a

H3E system with 50-kHz bandwidth?

13) An AM transmission 1000W is fully modulated. Calculate the power

transmitted if it is transmitted as a SSB signal.

14) A SSB transmission drives 110-Vpk into a 75-22 antenna. Calculate the PEP.
15) An SSB transmitter has a PEP 10 kW, what is the average power?
5.5 Multiple Choice Questions

1) An AM wave has a total transmitted power of 4kW when modulated 85%.

What is the total transmitted power if J3E was used instead?

a. 1061.5W

b. 530.76W

C. 2123W

d. 2938.5W

2) CB radios were developed using the full-carrier DSB AM. It operates using 40

channels, each 10KHz wide. When the SSBSC is used, the same carrier

frequencies are used as with the conventional AM but the transceivers are

switchable to either lower or upper sideband. How many channels are

available when the SSB is used?

a. 40

b. 60

C. 80

d. 120

3) The type of AM signal that is used in TV broadcasting is called

a. B8E

b. C3F

C. R3E

d. НЗЕ

4) Which of the following statements is not true about single sideband

transmission?
 a. SSB transmission saves power

b. It occupies less bandwidth

c. Less Complex

d. None of the above

5) If a transmitter power of 100W is sufficient for reliable communication over a

certain path using the SSB, approximately what power level would be

required using the DSB?

a. 300W

b. 600W

C. 100W

d. 200W

6) If a transmitter power of 100W is sufficient for reliable communication over a

certain path using the SSB, approximately what power level would be

required using DSB? What is the power required for a full-carrier AM?

a. 600W

b. 100W

C. 200W

d. 800W

7) Anticipating single sideband AM, what percentage of the total power is saved

by suppressing the carrier and one sideband while transmitting the other

sideband only for m=0.75?

a. 66.7%

b. 89%
 C. 100%

d. 45%

8) If the carrier of a 100% modulated AM wave is suppressed, the percentage

power saving will be

a. 50

b. 150

C. 100

d. 66.66

9) One of the following cannot be used to remove the unwanted sideband in

SSB. This is the

a. filter system

b. phase-shift method

c. detector

d. Weaver Method

10)To provide two or more voice circuits with the same carrier, it is necessary to

use the

a. ISB

b. carrier reinsertion

C. SSB with a pilot carrier

d. lincompex
 Lesson 6

RADIO RECEIVERS

Basic Functions of a Receiver

 The receiver should be capable of changing the range of frequencies to be

received

 The receiver should be able to detect and convert the received RF signal

to the original source information

 The receiver should be able to provide sufficient amplification

6.1 Receiver Parameters

Selectivity

 A measure of the ability of a receiver to accept a given band of

frequencies and to reject all others

 A measure of the extent to which a receiver can differentiate

between the desired information signals and the disturbances or

information signal at other frequencies

 Can be expressed as a bandwidth and as the ratio of the bandwidth at the

receiver at some predetermined attenuation factor (commonly -60dB) to

the bandwidth at the -3dB (half-power) points

Bandwidth Improvement

 The noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the bandwidth

Noise Figure Improvement

NFimprovement = 10 log BI

Sensitivity

 The minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input to the

receiver and still produce a usable demodulated information signal

Dynamic Range

 The difference in decibels between the minimum input level necessary

to discern a signal and the input level that will overdrive the receiver

and produce distortion

 The range of input power over which the receiver is useful

DR = 10 log (Pmax/Pmin)

Fidelity

 A measure of the ability of a communications system to produce, at

the output of the receiver, an exact replica of the original source

information

Insertion Loss

 The ratio of the power transferred to the load to the power at the
 source

IL = 10 log (Pin/Pout)

6.2 Types of Radio Receivers

 Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver

Advantages

 Enhanced sensitivity
 Simple circuitry

Disadvantages

 Poor selectivity
 Instability
 Requires multistage tuning

 Superheterodyne Receiver

Heterodyning means mixing two frequencies together in a non-linear

device.
 Advantages

 Good selectivity
 Sufficient image frequency rejection

Disadvantages

 Moderate sensitivity (relatively poor compared to the TRF)

 Complex circuitry

6.3 Sections of a Superheterodyne Receiver

RF Section

 Generally consists of a preselector and an amplifier stage

Preselector

 Provides enough initial bandlimiting to prevent a specific unwanted radio

frequency (image frequency) from entering the receiver

RF Amplifier

 Determines the sensitivity of the receiver

Advantages of including RF amplifiers in a Receiver

 Greater gain, thus better sensitivity

 Improved image-frequency rejection
 Better signal-to-noise ratio
 Better selectivity

Mixer/Converter Section

 Includes a local oscillator and a radio-frequency oscillator stage.

Heterodyning takes place in the mixer stage and the radiofrequencies are

down converted to intermediate frequencies (IF).

Image Frequency, fsi

 The frequency other than the desired which when mixed with the

local oscillator will produce the same intermediate frequency

Where:

fs = desired signal frequency, (Hz)

fi = intermediate frequency, (Hz)

fsi = image frequency, (Hz)

fo = oscillator frequency, (Hz)

Image Frequency Rejection Ratio

 The ratio of the gain at the signal frequency to the gain at the

image frequency

IFRR ¿ √ 1+Q 2 ⍴2

IFRR dB = 20 log IFRR

where: Q = quality factor of the tuned circuit.

fsi fs
⍴= −
fs fsi
IF Section

 Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and bandpass filters and is often called

the IF strip. Most of the receiver gain and selectivity is achieved in this

section

Detector

 Converts the IF signal back to the original source information

Audio Section

 Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers

6.4 Single Sideband Receivers

Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)

 Produces a frequency input to beat (mix) with the IF signal and results in
 a difference and sum frequencies with the result being the original audio
 Should have at least the tuning range of 1.5 kHz above and below the

center of the IF passband

 Non- Coherent BFO SSB Receiver

 Coherent BFO SSB Receiver
6.5 Practice Problems
1) A TRF receiver is to be designed with a single tuned circuit using a 20- µH inductor.
a) Calculate the capacitance range of the variable capacitor required to tune from 535-
1605 kHz.
b) The ideal 10- kHz bandwidth is to occur at 1000kHz, Determine Q.
c) Calculate the bandwidth of this receiver at 535 kHz and at 1605 kHz.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2) For an AM receiver that uses high-side injection and has a local oscillator frequency of
1445 kHz, Determine the IF carrier upper side frequency and lower side frequency for an
RF signal that is made up of a carrier , an upper and lower side frequencies of 1000
kHz, 1005 kHz, 995 kHz, respectively.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________

3) A receiver tunes the 300 kHz to 3 MHz MF band in one range, using an IF of 35.75 MHz.
Calculate the range of oscillator frequencies and the range of image frequencies.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________

4) What is the local oscillator frequency range in the commercial AM broadcast if the IF is
equal to 455 kHz?
 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5) Determine the image frequency of a broadcast band receiver using a 455 kHz IF tuned
to 630 kHz – DZMM.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

6) Determine the local oscillator frequency of a broadcast band receiver using a 455-kHz IF
tuned at 630 kHz.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

7) For a receiver with IF, RF, and local oscillator frequencies of 455 kHz, 630 kHz and 1085
kHz, respectively, Determine the:
a) Image frequency
b) IFRR for a pre-selector Q of 80.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

8) A superheterodyne receiver is tuned to a frequency of 10 MHz when the local oscillator

frequency is 12.5 MHz.
a) What is the IF?
b) Which type of injection is in use?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________

9) One receiver has a sensitivity of 1 µV and another has a sensitivity of 10 dB f under the
same measurement condition. Both receivers have an input impedance of 75Ω. Which
receiver is more sensitive?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________

10) A receiver has a sensitivity of 0.75 µV and a blocking dynamics range of 80 dB. What is
the strongest signal that can be present along with a 0.75-µV signal without any
blocking/desensitization taking place?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________

11) For an AM receiver tuned to a station at 590 kHz with IF= 455 kHz, calculate the image
frequency rejection in dB. Assume that the input filter consists of one tuned circuit with
a Q of 40.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

12) A superheterodyne receiver having an RF amplifier and an IF of 10.6 MHz is tuned to

90.7 MHz. Calculate the Q’s of the RF and a mixer input tuned circuits, both being the
same , if the receiver’s overall image rejection is to be 100.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

13) Determine the net receiver gain for an Am receiver with an RF input power of -88 dB m
and an audio signal of 12 dB m.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________

14) A receiver signal at 150 MHz uses a 10.7 MHz IF and low tracking. Calculate the LO
frequency and the image frequency.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________

15) A receiver intended for the aircraft to control tower signal at 110 MHz uses double
conversion, with 10.7 MHz and 455-kHz Ifs. Calculate the following if the receiver
employs low tracking :
a) LO frequencies
b) Frequency after the 1st mixer
c) Output of the 2nd mixer
d) Image frequency

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______
6.6 Multiple choice question

1) What is the major advantage of the superheterodyne receiver over the tuned radio
frequency receiver?

a) Enhanced sensitivity
b) Good selectivity
c) Simple circuitry
d) All of the above

2) One of the functions of the RF amplifier in a superheterodyne receiver is to

a) Provide improved tracking

b) Permit better adjacent-channel rejection
c) Increase the tuning range of the receiver
d) Improve the rejection of the image frequency

3) Indicate the false statement. The superheterodyne receiver replaces the TRF receiver when
the latter suffers from.

a) Gain variation over the frequency coverage range

b) Insufficient gain and sensitivity
c) Inadequate selectivity at high at high frequencies
d) Instability

4) a superheterodyne receiver is tuned to a frequency 50 MHz when the oscillator frequency is

6.66 MHz. What is the IF

a) 0.65Mhz
b) 1.65MHz
c) 5MHz
d) 11.65MHz

5) The intermediate frequency for an AM broadcasting system per FCC rules is

a) 155kHz
 b) 255kHz
c) 355Khz
d) 455kHz

6) What parameters enables a receiver to detect the weakest possible signal level?

a) Sensitivity
b) Selectivity
c) Fidelity
d) Dynamic range

7) A superheterodyne receiver with an IF of 400kHz is tuned to a signal at 1200kHz. The image

frequency is

a) 750kHz
b) 900kHz
c) 1650kHz
d) 2100kHz

8) What is the local oscillator frequency needed in the previous problem to produce an IF of
450kHz?

a) 1650KHz
b) 750KHz
c) 900KHz
d) 2100KHz

9) Which section of a superheterodyne receiver convert that the IF signal to the original source
of information?

a) RF section
b) Mixer
c) IF section
d) Detector
10) Most of the gain and selectivity in a superheterodyne receiver is obtained in the?

a) RF section
b) IF section
c) Mixer
d) Detector

Lesson 7

Angular Modulation

 A modulation technique wherein the amplitude of carrier is kept constant while the
angle or the argument of the carrier is varied in accordance with the intelligence signal.
Kinds of Angular Modulation

 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation

7.1 Frequency Modulation

 A form of angle modulation where the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous value of intelligence signal

Mathematically,

e fm=E c sinθ

Where,

θ=ωc t+ mt sin ω m t

Which give an FM equation of

e fm=E c sin ⁡(ωc t+m t sin ω m t)

 Where:

e fm = instantaneous value of the FM signal, (V)

ω c = angular velocity of the carrier, (rad/s)

ω m= angular velocity of the intelligence, (rad/s)

m t = modulation index

Ec =¿peak amplitude of the carrier, (V)

Frequency Deviation

The amount of change in the carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal

δ Directly proportional to the peak intelligence amplitude

δ =k E m

Where:

δ = frequency deviation (Hz)

k = deviation sensitivity

Em = peak intelligence signal amplitude (V)

  In FM, the intelligence amplitude, Em , determines the amount of carrier frequency
change and the intelligence frequency, f m determines the rate of change of the carrier
frequency.

Modulation Index

 Ratio of frequency deviation over modulating frequency

δ
mf =
fm

Where:

m f = intelligence frequency,

δ = maximum frequency shift caused by the intelligence signal, (Hz)

f m = modulation index

FM Percent Modulation

δ actual
% mf = x 100
δ max

Where: δ actual = actual carrier deviation, (Hz)

δ max = maximum carrier deviation, (Hz)

% mf = FM percent modulation

Deviation Ratio

 Whenever the maximum allowable frequency deviation in the maximum modulating

frequency is used in computing the modulation index
 Expression of the worst-case modulation index
δ max
DR=
f m max

Where: δ max = maximum carrier deviation, (Hz)

DR = deviation ratio
 f m max = maximum allowable intelligence frequency, (Hz)

FCC rules

FM δ max = 75 kHz

f m(max ) = 15 kHz

TV sound δ max = 25 kHz

f m(max ) = 15 kHz

Public safety service δ max = 5 kHz

f m(max ) = 3 kHz

Amateur Band Ratio δ max = 3 kHz

f m(max ) = 3 kHz

e fm can be rewritten using the Bessel function

Where:

J 0 (Mf ) = carrier component

J 1 (Mf ) = 1st set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by fm

J 2 (Mf ) = 2nd set of side frequency displaced from the carrier by 2fm

J n (Mf ) = 3rd set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by nfm
  The amplitude of the side frequencies, Jn, is given by the equation

 It is seen that the FM signal consist of carrier and theoretically an infinte number of
pairs of sidebands, each proceeded by J coefficients, but only those sidebands with
significant amplitudes are transmitted.

FM spectrum
Bandwidth of FM

 Practical bandwidth using Bessel Function

BW =f USB−f LSB =( f c + Nf m ) −( f c −Nf m )
BW = 2fm x Number of sidebands
 Carson’s formula
BW =2 ( f m +δ )=2(1+mf )f m

 The number of sidebands selected should be the minimum number that will
result in the transmission of no less than 99% of the total power
 Significant sidebands considered are greater than 2% of the center
 Narrowband
Bw=2 f m

π
 For an FM signal where m f ≤
2
 Wideband
BW =2 δ
π
 For an AM signal where m f >
2

Observation on FM

 Unlike AM, where there are only three frequencies (the carrier, and the first two
sidebands), FM has a carrier and an infinite number of sidebands. The sidebands are
separated from the carrier by fm, 2fm, 3fm… and thus have a recurrence frequency of
fm.
 The J coefficient eventually decrease in value as n increase.
 The modulation index determines how many sidebands components have significant
amplitudes.
  The sidebands at equal distance from fc have equal amplitudes, so that the sidebands
distribution is symmetrical about the carrier frequency. The J coefficient occasionally
have negative values, signifying a 180 degree phase change for that particular pair of
sidebands.
 As Mf increases, so does the value of a particular J coefficient. Mf is inversely
proportional to the modulating frequency ; we see that the relative amplitude of a
distant sidebands increases when modulation frequency is lowered
 In AM, increased depth of modulation increased the sidebands power and therefore the
total transmitted power. In FM, the total transmitted power always remains constant,
but with an increased depth of modulation, the required bandwidth is increased. To be
quite specific, what increases is the bandwidth required to transmit a relatively
undistorted signal. This is because an increased depth of modulation means an
increased deviation, and therefore an increase modulation index so that more distant
sidebands acquire significant amplitudes.
 The theoretical bandwidth required in FM is infinite. In practice, the bandwidth used is
one has been calculated to allow all significant amplitudes of sidebands component
under the most exacting conditions. This means ensuring that, with a maximum
deviation by the highest modulating frequency, no significant sideband components are
looped off.
 In FM, unlike in AM, the amplitudes of the carrier components does not remain
constant. Its J coefficient is Jo, which function of Mf. Keeping the overall amplitudes of
the FM wave constant would be very difficult if the amplitude of the carrier were not
reduced when the amplitude of the various sidebands is increased.
 It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to disappear completely. This
happens in certain value of modulation index called eigen values. The graph shows that
these are approximately 2, 4, 5.5, 8.6, 11.8, and so on. These appearance of the carrier
of specific value of Mf form a handy basis for measuring deviation.

Advantages of FM over AM

 Better noise immunity

  Rejection of interfering signal because of “capture effect”
 Better transmitter efficiency

Disadvantages of FM over AM

 Large bandwidth
 More complex and expensive circuits
 Limited reception

FM Varactor Modulator

FM Receiver Circuit

Pre-Emphasis cicuit
  A circuit that boosts the high audio frequencies in modulation at the transmitter, uses to
improved the signal-to-noise ratio.

t=R1 C=75 μs

1 1 R1 + R2
f 1=
2π R C1
=2122 Hz f 2= ( )
2π R 1 R 2 C
>15 kHz

De-Emphasis Circuit

 A circuit that attenuates the high audio frequencies (at the receiver) in the same
amount that it is boosted to compensate for the effect of the pre-emphasis circuit.

7.2 Phase Modulation

 A form of angle modulation where the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
Mathematically,

e fm=E c sin ( ω c t +m p sin ω m t )

Where:

e fm = instantaneous value of the PM signal, (V)

 Ec = peak amplitude of the carrier, (V)

ω c = carrier angular velocity, (rad/s)

m p = modulation index for PM; also, the maximum phase shift caused by the intelligence
signal

ω m = intelligence signal angular velocity, (rad/s)

Comparison between FM and PM

7.3 Practice Problem

1) Determine the peak frequency deviation and modulation index for a frequency
modulator with a deviation sensitivity of 10 kHz/V and a modulating signal of
5cos(2π(2500)t).

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

2) An FM signal is defined by the equation

e fm=50 sin ( 95 x 106 t +10 sin 5000t ) V

a. Find the carrier frequency

b. Find the modulation frequency
c. Find the modulation index
d. Calculate the frequency deviation

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

3) What is the modulation index of an FM transmitter whose frequency deviation is 50 kHz and
its audio frequency is 10 kHz?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

4) Determine the practical bandwidth of an FM signal Modulated by a 15-kHz tone whose

frequency deviation is 45 kHz. What is the approximate bandwidth for this system using
Carson’s formula?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________

5) When the modulating frequencies in an FM system is 500 Hz and the modulating voltage is
2.6 V, modulation index is 40. Find the maximum deviation. What is the modulation index when
the modulating frequency is raised to 800 Hz and the modulating voltage is simultaneously
reduced to 1.3V?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______

6) what is the approximate frequency how the modulating signal having a band with
15 kHz and a frequency division of 6 kHz?

7) what is the deviation ratio of an FM signal if the maximum allowable deviation is

12 kHz, and the maximum intelligence frequency is 4 kHz?

8) the audio section of a TV transmission employees frequency modulation with a

maximum allowable deviation of 25 KHZ. Find the deviation ratio if the highest
intelligence frequency it can handle is 15 kHz.
9) An FM broadcast station operates with a peak-to-peak deviation of 120 KHZ.
Calculate the percentage modulation.

10) What is the amount of carrier swing necessary to produce an 80% modulation for
FM broadcasting?

11) A modulating frequency range from 30kHz is permitted in an FM system together

with a maximum deviation of 50kHz. What will be the minimum and maximum
possible values of the modulation index?
12) What is the BW required for an FM signal in which the modulating frequency is
2kHz and the maximum deviation is 10kHz? 8 pairs sidebands are included.

13) For a modulation index of 1.5, find the power at the sidebands of the total power
dissipated is 20kW.

14) In an FM system, when the audio frequency is 500 Hz and the AF voltage is 2.4V,
the deviation is 4.8kHz. If the AF is now increased to 7.7V, what is the new deviation?
If the AF dropped to 200 Hz and the AF voltage is raised to 10V, what is the new
deviation? Find the modulation each index each case.
15) A frequency modulated signal which is modulated by a 3-kHz sine wave reaches a
maximum frequency of 100.02 MHz and a minimum frequency of 99.98Mhz. (a)
Determine the carrier swing, (b) Find the carrier frequency, (c) Calculate the
frequency deviation of the signal (d) Find the modulation index of the signal.
7.4 Multiple Choice Questions

1) On an FM signal, maximum deviation occurs at what point on the modulating

signal?
a. Positive peak amplitude
b. Negative peak amplitude
c. Both positive and negative peak amplitude
d. None of the above
2) In PM, a frequency shift occurs while of the modulating signal
changes?
a. Amplitude
b. Frequency
c. Phase angle
d. Angle
3) The maximum frequency deviation of a PM signal occurs at
a. Positive peak points
b. Negative peak points
c. Zero crossing points
d. None of the above
4) In PM, carrier frequency deviation is not proportional to the
 a. Carrier amplitude
b. Carrier frequency
c. Carrier amplitude
d. Intelligence amplitude

5) To compensate for increases in the carrier frequency deviation with an

increase in the modulating signal frequency, what circuit is used between the
modulating signal and the phase modulator?
a. Low-pass filter
b. High-pass filter
c. Band-stop filter
d. Band-pass filter
6) The FM produced by pm is called
a. Direct FM
b. Indirect FM
c. Direct PM
d. Indirect PM
7) If the amplitude of the modulating signal applied to a phase modulator is
constant, the output signal will be
a. The modulating frequency
b. The carrier frequency
c. The intelligence frequency
d. The carrier amplitude
8) A 100MHz carrier is deviated 50kHz by a 4kHz signal. The modulation index is
a. 250
 b. 0.08
c. 2
d. 12.5
9) The maximum deviation of an FM carrier is 2 kHz by a maximum modulating
signal of 400 Hz. The deviation ratio is
a. 5
b. 0.2
c. 800
d. None of the above
10)A 70 kHz carrier has a frequency deviation of 4kHz with a 1000 Hz signal.
How many significant sideband pairs are produced?
a. 17.5
b. 0.25
c. 7
d. None of the above
 Lesson 8

MULTIPLEXING

 Multiplexing is the process of combining signals from multiple sources for

transmission across a sing link.

 Path refers to the physical link

 Channel is a portion of the path that carries a transmission between a given
pair of devices

Categories of Multiplexing

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

  Wave-division multiplexing (WDM)
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM

8.1 Frequency-Division Multiplexing

 An analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of the link is
greater than the combined bandwidths of the signal to be transmitted.

Basic Concepts

 The signals generated by each sending device modulated a different carrier

frequency.
 The modulated signals are combined to a single composite signal that can be
transported by the link.
 Carrier frequencies are separated by enough bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal. The bandwidth ranges are the channels where the various
signals travel
 Channels are separated by trips of unused bandwidth to prevent signals from
overlapping.
 FDM Process

 Each telephone generates a signal frequency range.

 The multiplexer modulates these similar signals to different carrier
frequencies
 Resulting modulated signals are combined into a single composite signal
that is sent out over the media link (plus the extra bandwidth for the guard
bands).

Demultiplexing

 Uses a set of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
components signals
 Signals are passed to a demodulator separates them from their carriers and
passes them to the waiting receivers
FDM Multiplexing and Demultiplexing in Frequency Domain

8.2 FDM Analog Hierarchy

LEVEL NUMBER OF VOICE BAND (VB)

 CHANNELS

Basic Group 12

Basic Supergroup 60 (5Groups)

Basic Master group 600 (10 supergroups)

Jumbo group 3600 (3 master group)

Super jumbo group 10800 (3 jumbo group)

Wave-division Multiplexing

 Conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and the
demultiplexing involve light signals transmitted through fiber optic channels.

Time-division Multiplexing (TDM)

 The technique of combining signals coming from low-speed channels to share

time on a high-speed path
8.3 Introduction to Pulse Modulation

 Pulse Modulation is the process of converting the analog signal into digital
pulses.

pulse Modulation Techniques

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

 the pulse width is made proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

 The position of a constant width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied
according to the amplitude of the analog signal

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

 The amplitude of a constant width; constant position pulse isa varied

according to the amplitude of the analog signal.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

  The analog signal is sampled and converted to a fixed length, serial binary
number for transmission.

8.4Multiple Choice Questions

1) It refers to the portion of a link that carriers a transmission between a given
pair of lines.
a. Guard bands
b. Channel
c. Bandwidth
d. Group
2) How many voice channels are there in a master group?
a. 12
b. 60
c. 600
d. 3600
3) It is the basic building block of the FDM hierarchy.
a. Message channel
b. Group
c. Baseband channel
 d. None of the above
4) It usually accomplishes frequency modulation in frequency division
multiplexing systems.
a. VCO
b. PLL
c. Rectifier
d. Reactance modulator

5) The process of receiving a single signal that multiple channels simultaneously.

a. Multiplexing
b. Demultiplexing
c. Modulation
d. Demodulation
6) Which statement is correct?
a. Multiplexing uses multiple channels to transmit a single signal.
b. Multiplexing uses a single channel to transmit multiple signals.
c. Multiplexing uses multiple channels to transmit a multiple signal.
d. All of the above
7) It’s the most significant circuit in a demultiplexer.
a. VCO
b. Bandpass filter
c. PLL
d. Discriminator
8) An analog multiplexing technique where the optical fiber data rate is higher
than the data rate of the metallic transmission cable. It is also used to
combine optical signals.
a. FDM
b. WDM
c. CDMA
d. TDM

9) CDMA stands for:

a. Code-Division Multiple Access
b. Carrier Division Multiple Access
c. Compact Digital Multiplex Arrangement
d. None of the above
10)Which of the following is not a common FDM application?
a. Telephone
b. Stereo broadcasting
c. Secure communications
d. Telemetry
References