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CAMBRIDGE
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CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS

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NOTICE TO TEACHERS IN THE UK

It is illegal to reproduce any part of this work in material form (including
photocopying and electronic storage) except under the following circumstances:
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 Contents

Content
How to use this book: a guided tour iv
Introduction vi
1 Data, information, knowledge and processing 1
2 Hardware and software 23
3 Monitoring and control 54
4 E-safety and health and safety 61
5 The digital divide 71
6 Using networks 78
7 Expert systems 95
8 Spreadsheets 102
9 Database and file concepts 136
10 Sound and video editing 175
11 Emerging technologies 188
12 The role and impact of IT in society 200
13 Networks 210
14 Project management 232
15 System life cycle 249
16 Graphics creation 270
17 Animation 280
18 Mail merge 285
19 Programming for the web 295

Glossary 308
Answers 313
Acknowledgements 333

Index 334
 "

How to use this book: a guided tour

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

define the differences between data, information and knowledge

define static and dynamic data
compare static information sources with dynamic information sources
define direct and indirect data sources
understand the advantages and disadvantages of gathering data from direct and indirect data sources
understand how the accuracy, relevance, age, level of detail and completeness of information can affect its quality
describe the coding of data and discuss its advantages and disadvantages
evaluate the need to encode data and analyse different methods for encoding data
define encryption and describe different methods of encryption
evaluate the need for encryption and how it can be used to protect data
discuss encryption protocols
define validation and analyse a range of validation methods
define verification and analyse verification methods
explain the need for both validation and verification
define proof reading

Learning Objectives
- setthe scene of each chapter; help with navigation
Data: raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or images
without meaning through the book and give a reminder of what's
Information: data with context and meaning important about each topic.
Knowledge: information to which human experience has
been applied
\

TASK
Key Terms
Look at the BBC website www.bbc.co.uk - identify
- clear and straightforward explanations are
which data is static and which data is dynamic (updates
provided for the most important words in each automatically).
topic..
Task
o DISCUSSION POINT
Some people get a little confused with dynamic data
- exercises for the student to test their knowledge
and understanding.
because they think it can be any data that changes at any
time. For example, some people think that any website
includes dynamic data. However, if you look at QUESTION
http://www.bbc.co.uk/contact the information on this page
A company creates websites using style sheets.
is mainly static with links to other pages. Although it can be
changed, it can only be done by changing the actual 1 Identify one item of data that will be used by the
data on the page, whereas dynamic data changes company.
because the original source has changed. If you look 2 Describe how this item of data can become
at www.bbc.co.uk/click, you will see that most of the information.
information on this page is sourced from programme
3 Describe the term knowledge.
schedules and programme information which will be stored
in another database - this makes it dynamic data because it
will update when a new programme has been shown.
Questions
- supporting questions that the
student should be
Extension activities and Discussion points able to answer to demonstrate understanding at
- additional lesson activities. this level..
 How to use this book: a guided tour

© Remember
JavaScript is a programming language that can
EXAMPLE

be used to add interactivity to web pages. Its The confectionary shop could use various indirect
code can be integrated into a HTML file to: create sources including:
buttons, create text boxes, change content etc.
It can be integrated with a range of other web- • giving out a survey to customers who have
based programming languages such as PHP. purchased sweets from the other shops (the price
JavaScript is often use with HTML forms, where was given to the customer for the purpose of
it can validate data or perform actions such as selling the sweet which may have been a different
when a button is pressed. date or may have been discounted)
• looking at till receipts from the shop (the price
Remember was printed on the till receipt for the purpose of
- these are pieces of vital information to remind providing proof of purchase, not for identifying
you about key facts and highlight important points. prices)

o Tin Examples
Take a blank notepad and draw a shape in the bottom - offer students contextualised explanation
right-hand corner, then draw the same shape but in a
slightly different position on the next page. Repeat this on a of critical points
number of pages. You can then create a basic animation by
flicking through the page of the book.

Tip
- quicksuggestions to help you to understand
important concepts.

Review Questions
1 Give an example of data (1).
2 Describe the term knowledge (1).

A news and sports website includes both static and dynamic data.
3 a Compare static and dynamic data (4).
b Identify and describe two factors that affect the quality of information on the website (4).
c Give an example of coded data related to the news and sports website (1).

The website streams news and sports videos.

d Explain why the video is compressed when it is encoded (2).
e Identify three factors that will affect the size of a video file (1).
f Identify and describe two factors that affect the file size of images on the website (4).

Users can pay for premium services on the website using their credit card. Review Questions
4 a Explain why the website uses https at the beginning of the website address instead - final set of questions
of http (4).
to test student
b Describe symmetric encryption (1).
comprehension and to
The journalists working for the website encrypt their emails. give any extension tasks.
c Describe how asymmetric encryption is used with emails (2).

When the users subscribe to premium features, they have to choose a password.
d Describe how verification can be used when entering the password (1).
There is a form on the website that can be used to submit news stories. When data is entered
onto the form, it is validated.
5 a Describe the purpose of validation (1).
b Using an example related to submitting a news story, identify and describe one method
of validation (3).
Introduction
This full-colour, illustrated textbook has been written by experienced authors specifically for the
Cambridge International AS and A Level Information Technology syllabus (9626).
The qualification replaces A-Level Applied ICT. The new syllabus develops a broad range of IT skills.
Throughout the book there are examples of IT in practice, tasks for students to complete, discussion E
points or extension exercises to provoke further thought and discussion and questions that will
test students’ knowledge and understanding. Whenever a task is presented, we would encourage ;
students to carry it out before progressing further.
The syllabus defines three assessment objectives: A01 Recall, select and communicate knowledge
and understanding of IT, A02 Apply knowledge, understanding and skills to produce IT-based
!
solutions and A03 Analyse, evaluate, make reasoned judgements and present conclusions. Each
chapter defines a set of learning objectives which closely match these assessment objectives and
a series of key concepts (hardware and software, network, the internet, system life cycle, new i
technologies) recur throughout the syllabus. This coursebook has been written to reflect these, in
particular in the following chapters: the impact of information technology (Chapter 12); hardware
and software (Chapter 2); network (Chapter 13); the internet (Chapters 4 and 19); system life cycle
(Chapter 15); new technologies (Chapter 11). It is not necessary to work through the book in order
:
from start to finish.
The content of the syllabus is geared towards current practice and practical applications of
computers in everyday life. To reflect this, the practical elements of the book are not concerned
with, for example, providing step-by-step advice on howto use particular software, but rather with
helping students to discover what is available and have the confidence to apply their knowledge to
different types of software. This will help to prepare students for the many different aspects of using
computers that they will encounter in life, and notjustforan exam.

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Chapter 1
Data, information, knowledge
and processing
!
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

m define the differences between data, information and knowledge

define static and dynamic data
compare static information sources with dynamic information sources
define direct and indirect data sources
understand the advantages and disadvantages of gathering data from direct and indirect data sources
understand how the accuracy, relevance, age, level of detail and completeness of information can affect its quality
describe the coding of data and discuss its advantages and disadvantages
evaluate the need to encode data and analyse different methods for encoding data
define encryption and describe different methods of encryption
evaluate the need for encryption and how it can be used to protect data
discuss encryption protocols
define validation and analyse a range of validation methods
define verification and analyse verification methods
explain the need for both validation and verification
define proof reading

I r
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I
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

1.01 Data, information and Information

knowledge When data items are given context and meaning, they
become information. A person reading the information will
then know what it means.
ft
Data: raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or images
Data is given context by identifying what sort of data it is. This
without meaning still does not make it information but it is a step on the way to
Information: data with context and meaning it becoming information as shown in the next example.
Knowledge: information to which human experience has
been applied

Data Data Context Comment

Data is raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or images P952BR A product This is a product code
with no meaning. code but it is still not known
what it is a product code
for so it is still data.
@bbcclick A Twitter This is an address used
P952BR
handle for Twitter but it is not
@bbcclick information unless it is
359 known to be a Twitter
handle or used within
23557.99
Twitter software. It’s

*1 359 Price in
also not known whose
address it is.
This is a currency value
Pakistani but it is not known what
Rupees the price is for, so it is
still data.

For the data to become information, it needs to be given

meaning. Information is useful because it means something.

Figure 1.01- Example of raw data.

The data P952BR could have several meanings. It could Data Context Meaning
possibly be: P952BR A product A product code for a can
• a product code code of noodles.
• a postal /ZIP code @bbcclick A Twitter The Twitter address
handle for the BBC’s weekly
• a car registration number.
technology show, Click,
As it is not known what the data means, it is meaningless. which is worth watching
on BBC World News and
BBC2 to keep up to date
DISCUSSION POINT with technology._
When answering a question such as ‘Give one item of data’, 359 Price in The price of a mobile
do not try to explain what the data means because it then
becomes information. Just give the raw numbers, letters,
Pakistani phone cover.
symbols or image. rupees
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

Knowledge 1.02 Sources of data

Knowledge is basically what a person knows. This
is known as their knowledge base. A knowledge base
gets larger over time as a person gains experience or
Static data: data that does not normally change
learning. Knowledge requires a person to understand
what information is, based on their experience and Dynamic data: data that changes automatically without user
intervention
knowledge base. Crown Prince Salman was appointed
Direct data source: data that is collected forthe purpose for
Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia on 18 June 2012, This is
which it will be used
information. Knowing that he had been Crown Prince
Indirect data source: data that was collected for a different
for 2 years on 1August 2014 is knowledge. Knowledge purpose (secondary source)
allows data to be interpreted. In computing terms,
knowledge is also what a machine knows through the
use of a knowledge base consisting of rules and facts,
often found in knowledge-based systems, modelling and Static data
simulation software.

* **

Information Knowledge
lOOkm/h is the speed Travelling at 120km/h on
limit on expressways in expressways in Pakistan
Pakistan. is illegal. _
A red traffic light means
a car should stop.
Figure 1.03 - A good example of static data.

Static means ‘still’. It is data that does not normally

change. Static data is either fixed or has to be changed
manually by editing a document.

Figure 1.02 - A red traffic

light. _
359 Pakistani rupees The price of a mobile
is the price of a mobile phone cover is more • title of a web page
phone cover. expensive than a cup of • magazines
coffee.
• CD-ROMs
• column headings for a football league table
(e.g. P, W, D, L, F, A, GD)
• instructions on a data entry screen.
A company creates websites using style sheets.
1 Identify one item of data that will be used by the
company. Dynamic data
2 Describe how this item of data can become information. Dynamic means ‘moving’. It is data that updates as a result
3 Describe the term knowledge. of the source data changing. Dynamic data is updated
automatically without user intervention.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

*i* UK weather map A X Static information sources compared with

dynamic information sources

•Weather
• Rainfall

Forecast for 1200 Wed

4 Static information
source
Dynamic information
source
The information does not Information is updated
change on a regular basis. automatically when the
original data changes.
& The information can go out It is most likely to be up
of date quickly because to date as it changes
L it is not designed to be automatically based on the
changed on a regular basis. source data.
The information can be An internet or network
K viewed offline because live connection to the source
data is not required. data is required, which can
0

**3
be costly and can also be
slow in remote areas.
It is more likely to be The data may have been
accurate because time will produced very quickly and
have been taken to check so may contain errors.
the information being
published, as it will be
Updated: 0900 on Wed 23 Dec 2015 available for a long period
Get detailed forecast map for City of London of time.

Figure 1.04 - This weather map, from the Met Office Table 1.01 - Static and dynamic information sources.
website, is an example of dynamic data.

DISCUSSION POINT
Some people get a little confused by dynamic data
because they think it can be any data that changes at
• live sports results on a website (when a goal is any time. For example, some people think that any
scored, the scores will update on the website) website includes dynamic data. However, if you look at
www.aljazeera.com/contactus, the information on this
• news feeds on a mobile phone app (when the news page is mainly static, with links to other pages. Although
is changed in the main database, the news feed will it can be changed, it can only be done by changing the
be updated on the phone) actual data on the page, whereas dynamic data changes
because the original source has changed. If you look at
• availability of tickets for a concert (when somebody www.aljazeera.com/programmes, you will see that most of
books a ticket, the ticket is no longer available) the information on this page is sourced from programme
schedules and programme information, which will be stored
• product prices for a till/point of sale (if a price is in another database. This makes it dynamic data because it
reduced or increased in the database, this new will update when a new programme is scheduled.
price will be used the next time the barcode is
scanned)
• train expected arrival times (these will update
automatically based on the train’s position) TASK

• profit for a product in a spreadsheet (profit = price Look at the Ai Jazeera website www.aljazeera.com and
- cost so when either the price or cost changes,
identify which data is static and which data is dynamic
(updates automatically).
then the profit changes too)
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

Direct data source Data collected from an indirect data source (secondary
source) already existed for another purpose. Although it

; 3 *1 can still be collected by the person who intends to use it, it

was often collected by a different person or organisation.

k
The sports shop could use various indirect sources
to find out what other shops are charging for

• j
?! trainers including:
• carrying out a survey of customers who have
purchased trainers from the other shops (the price
was originally given to the customer for the purpose
Figure 1.05 - Direct data source. of selling the trainers which may have been given
on a different date to when it is now being used or it
Data collected from a direct data source (primary
may have been discounted at the time)
source) must be used for the same purpose for whichI • looking at till receipts from the shop (the price is
was collected. It is often the case that the data will have printed on the till receipt for the purpose of providing
been collected or requested by the person who intends to proof of purchase, not for identifying prices).
use the data. The data must not already exist for another
purpose though. When collecting the data, the person
collecting should know for what purpose they intend to
use the data. TASK
Which of the following are direct data sources and which
are indirect data sources?
Data Reason collected Reason used
A sports shop wants to find out what other shops Names To record their To contact
are charging for trainers. There are various direct and email membership members by email
sources that this data can be collected from. These addresses of and to be able to to see if they will
could include: members of a contact them. donate some
political party money.
• visiting the other shops and noting down the prices Employee To identify when To allow a police
• visiting the other shops’ websites and noting down attendance employees officer to check an
the prices dates and attended work employee’s alibi if
times and to calculate a crime has been
• carrying out a survey of other shop owners to ask their their wages. committed.
prices (although they are unlikely to want to give these). Flight times To compare To decide the best
and prices the prices and flight to use for a
from airline times for a trip to trip to Florida.
Indirect data source websites Florida.
Names, ages Fora national To allow a marketing
and addresses census. company to find out
of people which areas have the
highest population
of children.
4 Weather To record the To showthe current
measurements current weather. temperature and
from a weather rainfall on a website.
station
Figure 1.06 - Indirect data source.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

o DISCUSSION POINT
Remember that direct data is usually used by the person The spreadsheet below is used to calculate the area of a
that collected it and for the purpose they collected it.
driveway.
However, it’s also possible for a person to collect data
from an indirect (secondary) source. For example, if a ABC
journalist is writing a news article and bases his story on 1 Area calculator
existing news articles, then he has used indirect sources 2 Length = 3m
rather than interviewing the people involved in the original 3 Width = 5m
story.
4 Area - 15 m2

Figure 1.07 - Part of a spreadsheet.

Advantages and disadvantages of gathering 4 Identify one item of data that is static.
data from direct and indirect data sources 5 Identify one item of data that is dynamic.
The general rule is that data collected directly for the The builder using the spreadsheet needs to know the
purpose for which it is intended is more likely to be length and width of a driveway for a customer.
accurate and relevant than data that is obtained from
existing data (indirect source). 6 Identify one direct source the builder could use to
find the length and width.
7 Identify one indirect source the builder could use to
find the length and width.
Direct data source Indirect data source
8 Give one advantage of using the direct source instead
The data will be relevant Additional data that is not of the indirect source to find the length and width.
because what is needed required will exist that may
has been collected. take time to sort through
and some data that is
required may not exist. 1.03 Quality of information
The original source is The original source may The quality of information is determined by a number of
known and so can be not be known and so it attributes.
trusted. can’t be assumed that it is
reliable. Accuracy
It can take a long time to The data is immediately Information that is inaccurate is clearly not good enough.
gather original data rather available. Data must be accurate in order to be considered of good
than use data that already quality. Imagine being told that you need to check in at the
exists. airport 45 minutes before the flight leaves, so you turn up
A large sample of statistical If statistical analysis is at 18:10 for a 19:05 flight only to find that you were actually
data can be difficult required, then there are supposed to check in one hour early.
to collect for one-off more likely to be large
purposes. samples available.
The data is likely to be Data may be out of date
up to date because it has because it was collected at Examples of inaccurate information include:
been collected recently. a different time.
• decimal point in the wrong place, for example
Bias can be eliminated by Original data may be $90.30 instead of $903.00 could suggest a product
asking specific questions. biased due to its source. is much cheaperthan it really is
The data can be collected The data is unlikely to be in
and presented in the the format required, which • misspelling such as ‘stair’ instead of ‘stare’, where
format required. may make extracting the words have completely different meanings
data difficult. • misplaced characters, such as a licence plate of
BW9EP3T instead of BW93PET.
Table 1.02 - Direct and indirect data sources.
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

Relevance
Information must be relevant to its purpose. Having
additional information that is not required means that A person orders a pizza. They ask for a large
the user has to search through the data to find what is pepperoni to be delivered. They forgot to say what
actually required. type of base they wanted and where it should be
delivered to. The pizza company does not have
enough information to fulfil the order.
A traveller needs to catch a train from Bhopal to
Kacheguda. They phone up to find out the time of
Examples of irrelevant information include:
departure and arrival, but they have to listen to all
• being given a bus timetable when you want to the times of the stations in between before they get
catch a train the arrival time at Kacheguda.
• being told the rental price of a car when you want
to buy the car Completeness
• a user guide for a mobile phone that All information that is required must be provided in order
includes instructions on how to assemble for it to be of good quality. Not having all the information
a plug. required means it cannot be used properly.

Age
Information must be up to date in order to be useful. A person has booked their car in for a service over the
Old information is likely to be out of date and phone. The mechanic tells them the name of the street
therefore no longer useful. When using indirect data but doesn’t give the building number.
sources, always check when the information was
produced.
TASK
Look at the invitation below.

Come and Celbrate

Examples of out of date information include:
• the number of residents in a town based on a
Emmanuel’s
census from 2011, but 500 new homes have been
built in the town since then
Bithday
11:00-1:30pm
• a rugby score that has not been updated for
5 minutes during which time a player scored. 1 8 Main Street

RSVP

There will be a magician. The magician

Level of detail was born on March 1st 1978 in Queen
Elizabeth hospital in Birmingham.
There needs to be the right amount of information for
it to be good quality. It’s possible to have either too
little or too much information provided. If there Figure 1.08 - Birthday party invitation.
is too much information, then it can be difficult to Describe how accuracy, relevance, level of detail and
find the exact information required. If there is not completeness affect the quality of information in the
enough information, then it is not possible to use it invitation.
correctly.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT
I

9 Identify three factors that could affect the quality of

information.
10 Describe how the age of information could affect
the quality of information within a user guide for a
mobile phone.

1.04 Coding, encoding and

u 2 day 4 checkup. He
said im fine but to
drink more water
LOL. btw ur picture
was funny - ROFL."
I

encrypting data

J
KEYTERMS

Coding: representing data by assigning a code to it for

classification or identification
Encoding: storing data in a specific format
Encryption: scrambling data so it cannot be understood
without a decryption key to make it unreadable if
intercepted
SSL: Secure Sockets Layer
TLS: Transport Layer Security
Io
Figure 1.09 - Text message on a mobile phone.
HTTPS: hypertext transfer protocol secure

Coding data
Using numbers for international dialling codes:
You are probably very familiar with coding data
already. When you send a text message or instant • 44 = Great Britain
message you probably code your data. You might use
• 33 = France
codes like:
• 49 = Germany
• LOL = laugh out loud • 34 = Spain
• ROFL= roll on floor laughing
• 93= Afghanistan
• FYI =foryour information
• BTW = by the way • 971= United Arab Emirates
• 2= to • 81= Japan
• 4=for Using abbreviations for international vehicle
• BRB= be right back. registration plates:
In a similar way, data stored on a computer can be coded. • GB = Great Britain
Coding is the process of representing data by assigning a
• F= France
code to it for classification or identification.
• D = Germany (Deutschland)
Often genders are coded as M for male and F for female.
Clothing can be coded by the type, size and colour: • E = Spain (Espana)

• DR = dress • AFG = Afghanistan

• 2XL = extra extra large • UAE = United Arab Emirates
• BL=blue • J = Japan
• DR2XLBL= a dress in size extra extra large and colour blue.
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

Advantages and disadvantages of coding data

DISCUSSION POINT
There are a number of reasons for coding data. In the
Can you see problems that might occur when these
examples used above, it would take a long time to use all numbers and letters are used in codes?
the letters of a country to dial a telephone number and
OoroorO
there would not be enough space on the rear of a car to
display the full country name. I or Lor lor i
Zor2
The advantages of coding data can be summarised as
shown in Table 1.03. 7orl

Presentation Data can be presented in small The disadvantages of coding can be summarised as
spaces, such as on labels or when shown in Table 1.04.
listing large amounts of data.
Storage Less storage space is required
Limited codes There may not be enough codes available
because less characters are used to
to use, meaning that more letters or
store the data.
numbers need to be added. For example,
Speed of input Data can be input more quickly with international vehicle registration
because only a few numbers or codes, E is already used for Spain and
letters need to be input instead of so Egypt has to use ET and Ecuador has
whole words or phrases._ to use EC. Now that Egypt has taken ET,
Processing Processors can process data more Ethiopia can’t use it and so has to use ETH.
quickly because they only have to Interpretation Codes may be difficult to interpret. For
process the coded data instead of example, with international vehicle
the whole word or phrase. registration codes, somebody might
Validation It’s possible to validate data by checking look at ET and assume it is Ethiopia or
it is a particular length or within a look at S and assume it is Spain. It’s
certain range or matching other rules. even more difficult when considering
For example, an international vehicle international dialling codes that are
registration code must be a maximum represented by numbers.
of three letters and not contain any Similarity Some letters and numbers can be difficult
numbers or symbols. to distinguish such as 0 and 0 or Z and
Confidentiality Sometimes data can be coded so 2, especially if handwritten. With codes,
that it only makes sense to people it’s difficult to guess what the value might
who know what the codes mean. be and so mistakes can occur. At least
Consistency If the correct codes are used then with words it’s possible to guess what the
data will be input consistently badly written letter might be.
without spelling errors, making it Efficiency If a user inputting codes does not know
easier to be searched or summarised. what code to use, then they will not be
able to enterthe data efficiently. Instead
Table 1.03 - Advantages of coding. they will have to look up the code.
Missing It’s possible that some information gets lost
information during the process of coding. For example,
TASK
if devices on a network are coded as L for
Create a coding system for clothing that includes the type
laptop, P for printer, D for desktop computer
of clothing, size, colour and other information that you
and M for mobile phone, then information
think is relevant. Show it to a friend. Can they interpret
about whether or not the mobile phone or
the code efficiently? Did you have any duplicate codes?
Do you think the sizes would be understood by potential laptop is touch screen is lost.
customers?
Table 1.04 - Disadvantages of coding.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

TASK 084 104 101 032 098 105 103 032 098
Create a coding system for the names of people in your 097 100 032 119 111 108 102 033
class. Show it to a friend. Can they interpret the code Visit the website www.unicode.org/charts or www.
efficiently? Did you have any duplicate codes? unicode-table.com.
Choose a language script and then choose a short
sentence (less than ten words). Encode your sentence
into UNICODE. Now show the Unicode to a friend
Encoding data and see if they can convert it back into the original
When data is encoded, it is stored in a specific format. sentence.
Computers do not recognise text, sound and images in the
same way we do. Computers use binary digits which are Is
and Os. One means on and zero means off. A typical binary
number would look like this: 11011010. Therefore, data Images
needs to be encoded into a format which the computer Encoding is also used to store images. At the most
understands. Codecs are programs that are used to basic level, images are encoded as bitmaps. A
encode data for images, audio and video. The codecs are Microsoft Windows bitmap includes the following
also needed to read the data. data when encoding an image (this is not the
complete list):
Text
Text is encoded as a number that is then represented by • width of bitmap
a binary number. A common encoding method is ASCII • height of bitmap
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange). • bit count which represents number of colours:
ASCII consists of 256 codes from 0 to 255. Here is a subset 1= monochrome
of the ASCII code table: 4 =16 colours
8 = 256 colours
Character Decimal number Binary number 16 = 65536 colours
@ 64 01000000 24= 16 million colours
A 65 01000001 • compression type (no compression, eight-bit
B 66 1000010 run-length encoding or four-bit run-length
C
encoding)
67 1000011
a 97 01100001
• horizontal resolution in pixels per metre
• vertical resolution in pixels per metre
b 98 01100010
• raster data (the actual shape of the image
c 99 01100011
in pixels).
Table 1.05 - ASCII code table.
For the raster data, we will assume a monochrome
image (black and white). Each bit will represent either
There are other encoding methods, too, such as extended
a black or white pixel. A byte consists of eight bits and
ASCII which allows for more characters to be used,
so will represent eight pixels. The encoding starts from
particularly for international languages. Other encoding
the bottom left of the image, works to the right-hand
methods include Unicode and EBCDIC but you don’t need
side and then up to the next row and again from left to
to learn about these.
right.

TASK
Visit the website www.ascii-code.com and look at the
ASCII code table. What sentence does the following ASCII First
code represent?
Figure 1.10 - Empty raster grid.
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

As the image gets bigger, it takes up a lot of storage sample rate, the higher the quality of the music, but also
space. Therefore a method called run-length encoding the more storage that is required. Each sample is stored
(RLE) can be used to reduce the amount of storage space as binary data. The sample rate is measured in hertz (Hz).
that is used. This is known as compression. RLE takes Typically, music on a CD will use a sample rate of 44.1kHz
consecutive values and combines them together. At a (kilohertz) whereas a simple telephone call would find 8 kHz
basic level, the image above has ten black pixels in a row. sufficient.
Instead of storing ten separate pixels, RLE would store the
The bit depth is the number of bits (Is and Os) used for
quantity and colour, for example ten x black or ten x 1111.
each sound clip. A higher bit depth will give a higher quality
Sometimes when files are compressed, they use lossy sound. CDs use a bit depth of 16 which means 16 bits (Os
compression, which means some of the original data is and Is) are used. 16 bits gives 65536 combinations of binary
removed and the quality is reduced. For example, Figure storage.
1.11 shows how the quality of an image can be reduced if
The bit rate is the number of bits that are processed every
lossy compression is used.
second. It is measured in kilobits per second (kbps). The
bit rate is calculated using this calculation:

Isiupu Current save settings bit rate = sample rate x bit depth x number of channels

a A CD sound file has a sample rate of 44.1kHz

rSiG (44 100 Hz), a bit depth of 16 bits and two channels
o
(left and right for stereo).
Compression qnnMy
o
bit rate = 44 100 x 16 x 2 = 1411200 bps = 1.4 mbps
* auawy. | H>-. |
(megabits per second)
That means that 1.4 megabits are required to store
every second of audio. Therefore, we can multiply
Figure 1.11- Lossy compression. the bit rate by the number of seconds to find the
file size. So for a 3 minute 30 second audio file (210
seconds):

TASK file size (in bits) =1411200 x 210 = 296 352 000
Images can be encoded into a variety of different file (296 megabits)
types. Find out what the purpose of each of the following There are eight bits in a byte and we use bytes to
file types is: measure storage, so the file size in bits is divided by
• JPEG/JPG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) eight:
• GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)
file size (in bytes) = 296 352, 000 + 8 = 37044000
• PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
megabytes =37 MB (megabytes)
• SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics)

Sound TASK
When sound is encoded, the sample rate, bit depth and Calculate the file size of a sound file with the following
bit rate are stored. When sound is recorded, it is converted properties:
from its original analogue format into a digital format, which • sample rate =8 000 bps
is broken down into thousands of samples per second.
• bit depth = 16
The sample rate, also known as the frequency, is the • channels = L
number of audio samples per second. The higher the
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

The encoding method above does not compress the file • 1024 x 768 (Extended Graphics Array (XGA) - often used
and a typical storage format is WAV (Waveform Audio File with digital projectors)
Format), which is used on PCs. Flowever, music files are • 1280 x 720 (Wide Extended Graphics Array (WXGA) -
often compressed to allow for efficient streaming across wide screen)
the internet and to enable lots of music files to be stored • 800 x 600 (Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA)) !
on a single storage medium. Compression reduces the file
• 480 x 320 (useful for mobile phones where the screen is
size. smaller and internet bandwidth could be low).
There are two types of compression: lossy compression The bit rate for videos combines both the audio and
and lossless compression. Lossless compression reduces frames that need to be processed every second. The
the file size without losing any quality, but it can only bit rate is the number of bits that need to be processed
reduce the file size by about 50%. every second. A higher frame rate requires a higher bit
Lossy compression reduces the file size by reducing the rate.
bit rate, which means that some of the quality is lost.
Most human ears won’t be able to detect the loss in Video settings
quality, but an experienced musician would notice. When
compressing an audio file, it is possible to choose the bit
Width: 1 1280 | pixels
rate. A bit rate of 128 kbps is equivalent to what would be
Height: 1 720 | pixels
heard on the radio. Bit rate: 1 8000 | kbps
Frame rate: 1 24 | fps

Audio settings

A CD file originally has a bit rate of 1.4 Mbps Audio format: 1 128 kbps, 48kHz, stereo
(1411200 bps). This is reduced to 128 kbps (128 000
kbps). The original file size was 37 MB. To calculate Estimated file size: 58.14 MB per minute of video
the change in file size, divide by the original bit rate
Figure 1.12 - Video and audio settings.
and multiply by the new bit rate.
Compressed file size = 37 1411200 x 128000 A one hour, eight-bit HD video with 24 fps would require
= 3.36MB. 334 GB (gigabytes) of storage. This would be far too
much data to download or even broadcast. Therefore,
In this example, the file size has been reduced to
compression is required. Compression usually involves
approximately 10% of the original size.
reducing the:
• resolution
Video • image size or
When video is encoded it needs to store images as • bit rate.
well as sound. Images are stored as frames. A standard These all result in lossy compression. A common lossy
quality video would normally have 24 frames per second compression format is MP4, which is a codec created
(fps). High definition (HD) uses 50 fps and 60 fps. The by MPEG (Moving Pictures Expert Group). There are also
higher the number of frames per second, the more lossless compression methods such as digital video
storage that is required, but the higher quality the video (DV).
will be.
The size of the image is also important. A HD video will
have an image size of 1920 pixels wide and 1080 pixels TASK
high. The higher the image size, the more storage that is Edit a short video using video editing software. Try saving
required. Other common resolutions include: it with different resolutions, different frame rates and
different audio formats. Compare the file sizes of each
• 7680 x 4320 (8K/ ultra high definition) video file that is created.
• 3840 x 2160 (4K/ ultra high definition)
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

Advantages and disadvantages Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) or Advanced Audio
of encoding data Coding (AAC) audio files)
Data has to be encoded in order to be stored and • quality of images, sound and videos is lost when files are
processed by a computer system. It is essential that data compressed using lossy compression
is encoded into binary digits (Is and Os). • text that has been encoded using ASCII or UNICODE needs
to be decoded using the correct format when it is opened.
One purpose of encoding data is often to reduce the file
If some international characters have been included using
size. The advantages of reducing the file size include:
UNICODE and the file is opened as an ASCII file, then the
• enabling real-time streaming of music and video over international characters will not be recognised.
restricted bandwidth (e.g. home broadband, mobile
broadband)
TASK
• reducing the time taken to download files
Compare the file types that can be opened and saved
• faster downloading of websites with images, music using different graphics software packages.
or video
• enabling more music and video to be stored on CDs,
DVDs, flash memory and other storage media.
Encryption
Another purpose of encoding is to enable different formats
One specific type of encoding is encryption. This is when
to be used. The advantages of different formats for images
data is scrambled so that it cannot be understood. The
include:
purpose of encryption is to make the data difficult or
• formats such as PNG and GIF enabling transparent impossible to read if it is accessed by an unauthorised user.
backgrounds Data can be encrypted when it is stored on disks or other
• formats such as GIF allowing animated images storage media, or it can be encrypted when it is sent across
• formats such as JPG allowing a very large colourdepth, a network such as a local area network or the internet.
meaning that the image will be of high quality Accessing encrypted data legitimately is known as decryption.
• formats such as bitmap image file (BMP) including
all the original uncompressed data so that the Caesar cipher
image is of the highest possible quality and can be A cipher is a secret way of writing. In other words it is
manipulated a code. Ciphers are used to convert a message into an
• formats that are designed for specific software such as encrypted message. It is a special type of algorithm which
Paint Shop Pro and Photoshop containing layers which defines the set of rules to follow to encrypt a message.
allow for various adjustments to be made to the image Roman Emperor Julius Caesar created the Caesar cipher
and being able to enable or remove those layers so that he could communicate in secret with his generals.
• vector formats such as SVG storing the shapes rather The Caesar cipher is sometimes known as a shift cipher
than the pixels so that graphics can be enlarged and because it selects replacement letters by shifting along
reduced without loss of quality due to pixelation. the alphabet.
The main disadvantage of encoding data is the variety of
encoding methods, resulting in a large variety of file types.
Problems include:
In this example the alphabet is to be shifted by three
• the required codecs may not be installed and so a file (+3) letters so that A = D, B = E and so on:
cannot be saved in the desired format
• the necessary codecs must be installed, in order to open Original Q S v.

an encoded file Enciypted J Q w c

• not all software is capable of opening different file So to encrypt the word ‘Hello’, we would use:
types
• some hardware such as music and video players only H = K, E = H, L=0, 0 = R
play files encoded in certain formats (for example, a which gives KHOOR.
CD player may only be able to play MP3 files but not
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

o DISCUSSION POINT
Symmetric encryption
This is the oldest method of encryption. It requires both I
the sender and recipient to possess the secret encryption
and decryption key. With symmetric encryption, the
secret key needs to be sent to the recipient. This could be
done at a separate time, but it still has to be transmitted
whether by post or over the internet and it could be
intercepted.

Sender Recipient

Encrypts using secret key Decrypts using the same

secret key

Figure 1.14 - Symmetric encryption.

Figure 1.13 - The Enigma machine.
Asymmetric encryption
The Germans used encrypted messages during World Asymmetric encryption is also known as public-key
War II using the Enigma machine. An operator would type cryptography. Asymmetric encryption overcomes the
in a message and then scramble it by using three problem of symmetric encryption keys being intercepted
to five notched wheels. The recipient would need
by using a pair of keys. This will include a public key
to know the exact settings of the wheels in order to
decipher the message. There were 159 x 1018 possible
which is available to anybody wanting to send data, and a
combinations. private key that is known only to the recipient. They key is
the algorithm required to encrypt and decrypt the data.
Encrypted messages from the Lorenz cipher machine led to
the development of the world’s first electric programmable The process works like this:
computer, Colossus, which helped British code breakers
read encrypted German messages.
Sender Recipient
The first major encryption algorithm for computers was
Encrypts using recipient's De< rypts using same
the Data Encryption Standard (DES) used in the 1970s. It public key algorithm using their
used a 56-bit (Is and Os) key. This offered 70 x 1015 possible matching private key
combinations, but the development of computers meant
that it eventually became possible to ‘crack’ the code. This
Figure 1.15 - Asymmetric encryption.
was replaced by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
which uses up to 256-bit keys. This can offer 300 x 10u
possible combinations. In the next example, Tomasz sends a message to Helene.
Tomasz encrypts the message using Helene’s public key.
Helene receives the encrypted message and decrypts it
using her private key.
TASK This method requires a lot more processing than symmetric
1 Using the Caesar cipher +3 example above, write an encryption and so it takes longer to decrypt the data.
encrypted message to a friend. Ask your friend to
decipher it. In order to find a public key, digital certificates are required
2 Choose how many letters you are going to shift by and
which identify the user or server and provide the public
write another encrypted message to a friend. Don’t key. A digital certificate is unique to each user or server.
tell your friend how many letters you shifted by. Your A digital certificate usually includes:
friend should try to decipher the code by working out • organisation name
which letters appear most commonly.
• organisation that issued the certificate
3 See www.math.uic.edu/CryptoClubProject/CCpacket.
pdf to create a cipher wheel and use it to encrypt and
• user’s email address
decrypt messages. • user’s country
• user’s public key.
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

to access the data will not be able to understand it. The

Tomasz
data is usually accessed by entering a password or using a
fingerprint to unlock the encryption.
Hello
Helene!
Encrypt w3 HTTPS

i
6EB69570
Helene’s
public key
Normal web pages that are not encrypted are fetched and
transmitted using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Anybody who intercepts web pages or data being sent
08E03CE4 over HTTP would be able to read the contents of the web
page or the data. This is particularly a problem when
sending sensitive data, such as credit card information or
usernames and passwords.
Helene Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the
\ r
Hello
Vh=ÿ"?
m
encryption standard used for secure web pages. It uses
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security
Decrypt
Helene! (TLS) to encrypt and decrypt pages and information sent
Helene’s
and received by web users. This is the encryption method
private key
that is used by banks when a user logs onto online
Figure 1.16 - Asymmetric encryption example. banking. A secure web page can be spotted by its address
beginning with https:// and in addition some browsers
When encrypted data is required by a recipient, the display a small padlock.
computer will request the digital certificate from the
sender. The public key can be found within the digital
certificate. A https://app.kashflow.eom/#dashboard
Asymmetric encryption is used for Secure Sockets
Figure 1.17 - The ‘s’ after ‘http’ and the padlock indicate
Layer (SSL) which is the security method used for
that this is a secure website.
secure websites. Transport Layer Security (TLS) has
superseded SSL but they are both often referred to as
SSL. Once SSL has established an authenticated session, When a browser requests a secure page, it will check the
the client and server wilt create symmetric keys for faster digital certificate to ensure that it is trusted, valid and that
secure communication. the certificate is related to the site from which it is coming.
The browser then uses the public key to encrypt a new
symmetric key that is sent to the web server. The browser
TASK and web server can then communicate using a symmetric
Watch the video about SSL at encryption key, which is much faster than asymmetric
http://info.ssl.com/article.aspx?id=10241. encryption.

Hard disk
Disk encryption will encrypt every single bit of data stored The web browser requests the certificate from the
on a disk. This is different to encrypting single files. In web server.
order to access any file on the disk, the encryption key will 1Browser requests certificate
Web browser Web server
be required. This type of encryption is not limited to disks
and can be used on other storage media such as backup
tapes and Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash memory. It is Figure 1.18 - Asymmetric cryptography.
particularly important that USB flash memory and backup
tapes are encrypted because these are portable storage The web browser then uses the web server’s public
media and so are susceptible to being lost or stolen. If key to encrypt a new symmetric key and sends that
the whole medium is encrypted, then anybody trying encrypted symmetric key to the web server. The
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

web server uses its own private key to decrypt the 256-bit AES encryption it is virtually impossible for
new symmetric key. somebody to decrypt the data and so it is effectively
protected from prying eyes.
Web Browser
New
symmetric Encrypt
© DISCUSSION POINT
Kev Most Wi-Fi access points and Wi-Fi routers use encryption.
Server's This serves two purposes. The first is to only allow people
who know the ‘key’ (usually a password) to access the
public key
network, so that any unauthorised users cannot gain
6EB69570 access. The second is to encrypt the data, so that it cannot
08E03CE4 be understood by somebody ‘snooping’ on the Wi-Fi
network.
Wi-Fi networks are particularly susceptible to ‘snooping’
because no wires are required to connect to the network.
Web Server It is possible to sit in a car outside somebody’s house
and see the Wi-Fi network. The ‘key’ stops that person
New from accessingthe network and also stops that person
symmetric
l.e,
Decrypt from understanding the data that is moving around the
Server's network.
private key Did you know that if you access a public Wi-Fi hotspot that
is ‘open’ and therefore not encrypted that anybody with
Figure 1.19 - Secure website identification.
the right software can see what you are sending over the
network, including your emails? This applies to laptops,
The browser and web server now communicate tablets and mobile phones or any other device using public
using the same symmetric key. Wi-Fi.

Encryption Decryption

Credit card Symmetric

D-%-0
Scrambled Symmetric Credit card QUESTIONS
data key data key data
11 Give two reasons for encoding data.
Figure 1.20 - Symmetric encryption. 12 Explain why encoding is necessary for text.
13 Identify two factors that affect the size of a sound
file.
14 Decipher the following text that has been encrypted
Email using the Caesar cipher with a shift of +4.
Email encryption uses asymmetric encryption. This means AIPP HSRI
that recipients of emails must have the private key that
matches the public key used to encrypt the original email.
In order for this to work, both the sender and recipient
need to send each other a digitally signed message that
will add the person’s digital certificate to the contact for 1.05 Checking the accuracy of data
that person. Encrypting an email will also encrypt any
attachments.
Validation: the process of checking data matches acceptable
rules
How encryption protects data Verification: ensuring data entered into the system matches
Encryption only scrambles the data so that if it is found, the original source
it cannot be understood. It does not stop the data from Proof reading: checking information manually
being intercepted, stolen or lost. However, with strong
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

Validation
Validation takes place when data is input into a computer
system. The purpose is to ensure the data is sensible and When filling in a 'contact us’ form on a website, it is
conforms to defined rules. A railway season ticket will have essential that an email address is entered.The following
an expiry date. The season ticket is valid until it expires. would be valid if only a presence check is carried out:
Once it expires it is invalid. The rule here is that the date
• a
the season ticket is used must be before its expiry date.
• a@b
When data is validated, if it conforms to the rules then it
• [email protected]
will be accepted. If it does not conform to the rules, then
• @
it will be rejected and an error message will be presented.
Validation does not ensure that data is correct. • 372823
Notice that none of these are correct but they pass
the rule that data must be present.
TASK
Create a flow chart to describe the process of validation.
You should include the following: Range check
• Start A range check ensures that data is within a defined range.
• End A limit check has a single boundary. This could be the
• Input of data highest possible value or the lowest possible value.
• Error message A range check includes two boundaries, which would be
• Data accepted
the lower boundary and the upper boundary. The following
symbols are used when comparing with a boundary:
• Data rejected
• Validation decision > greater than
There are a variety of different validation checks that < less than
can be used to check whether data is acceptable.
These different checks are the different types of rules >= greater than or equal to
that are used. <= less than or equal to

Presence check
A presence check is used to ensure that data is entered. If An opinion poll is taken and asksforthe respondent’s
data is entered, then it is accepted. If data is not entered, age. The respondents have to be at least 18 years old.
then the user will be presented with an error message The lower boundary is 18. There is no upper boundary,
asking them to enter data. so this is a limit check. This could be written as:
© • Please fill in the mandatory fields.
Age >= 18
Letters representing grades for an exam are
Login to your account Register new account entered. Only the letters A-E are valid grades. The
grade must be less than F. The upper boundary is E.
There is no lower boundary, so this is a limit check.
This could be written as:
ZipGodB*
Grade < F
BBSIB ESI The number of students in a class must be between
5 and 28. The lower boundary is 5 and the upper
boundary is 28, so this is a range check. This could
be written as:
Number of students >= 5 and <=28
Figure 1.21- Required data on a website.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Data that is within the boundaries is valid. Data that Format check
is outside the boundaries is invalid. Data that is A format check ensures data matches a defined format. It
valid and within the boundaries is not necessarily is sometimes known as a picture check and the data has
correct. A grade of C could be entered when a to follow a pattern.
grade A should have been entered. C is valid but
incorrect.

Type check An email address must include an @ symbol

A type check ensures that data must be of a defined data preceded by at least one character and followed
type. by other characters. The following data would be
valid:
• [email protected]
• [email protected]
• If an age is entered, it must be an integer.
• fdc@jb
• If a grade is entered, it must be text with no
A student ID must be four numbers followed by two
numbers.
letters. The following data would be valid:
• If a price is entered, it must be numerical.
• 3827BD
• If a date of birth is entered, it must be a date.
• 1111AA

Data that is of the correct data type is valid. Data that Data that matches the pattern is valid. Data that is valid
is valid and of the correct data type is not necessarily and of the defined format is not necessarily correct. An
correct. A date of birth of 28/12/2087 could be entered. email address of fdc@jb meets the rules above but is
The date is valid because it is a date data type, but it is clearly incorrect.
clearly incorrect.
Lookup check
Length check A lookup check tests to see if data exists in a list. It is
A length check ensures data is of a defined length or similarto referential integrity in Chapter9, but uses a list
within a range of lengths. defined within the validation rule.

When asking a user for their gender, they Can

• A password must be at least six characters long. respond with 'Male’ or ‘Female’. A lookup
validation rule would check to see that the values
• A grade must be exactly one character long.
are within this list. Students taking a qualification
• A product code must be at least four characters could be issued grades of pass, merit and
and no more than six characters. distinction. When inputting the data, a validation
rule could check that only ‘X’, ‘P’, ‘M’ or 'D' are
entered (‘X’ would be for fail).
Data that is of the allowed length is not necessarily
correct. For example, a valid date might require six
digits. Adate of 2ndFeb would be a valid length Consistency check
because it contains six characters, but it would not A consistency check compares data in one field with data
be correct because it does not follow the required in another field that already exists within a record, to see
format. whether both are consistent with each other.
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

When entering the gender of ‘M’ or ‘F’, a consistency

check will prevent ‘F’ from being entered if the title
ISBN 978-0-9573404-1 -©
is ‘Mr’ and will prevent ‘M’ from being entered if the
title is ‘Mrs’ or 'Miss’.
When entering data about dispatching products,
it would not be possible to mark an item as being
dispatched until after it has been packaged.

Check digit 9 780957 340410?

A check digit is a number (or letter) that is added to the Figure 1.23 - Unique Product Code check digit.
end of an identification number being input. It is a form of
redundancy check because the check digit is redundant The Unique Product Code (UPC) check digit is used
(not needed for the identification number, but just used for with 13 digit barcodes. It is the last digit shown on
validation). When the identification number is first created, a barcode. The algorithm for calculating the check
an algorithm (a series of calculations) is performed on it to digit is:
generate a check digit. When the identification number is 1 Add all the digits in even numbered positions
input, the same algorithm is performed on it The result of together.
the algorithm should match the check digit. If it matches,
then the data is valid. If it does not match then the data is 2 Multiply the result (1) above by 3.
invalid. 3 Add all the digits in odd numbered positions
together.
Original identification number = 20392
Algorithm is performed on 20392 4 Add results (2) and (3) together.
Check digit = 4
5 Divide the result (4) above by 10.
Data including check digit = 203924
6 Calculate the remainder (modulo 10) of result (5)
Valid Example
Identification number including check digit is entered into the computer: 203924 above.
Algorithm is performed on 20392
Result of algorithm = 4 7 Subtract (6) above from 10.
/
Result of algorithm (4) is compared with check digit that was entered (4).
They match.
Data is valid. Valid example
Invalid Example
In this example, the International Standard Book
Identification number including check digit is entered into the computer: 205924 Number (ISBN) is 978095734041-1 where the last
Algorithm is performed on 20592
1is the check digit. To calculate the check digit,
Result of algorithm
=J
Result of algorithm(7) is compared with check digit that was entered (4).
the following algorithm is performed on the ISBN
They do not match. (excluding check digit):
Data is invalid.
1 Add all the digits in even numbered positions
Figure 1.22 - Valid and invalid check digit calculations. together (978095734041) :7 + 0 + 5 + 3 + 0 +l= 16.
2 Multiply result (1) above by 3: 16 x 3 = 48.
There are a variety of calculations that can be
performed to determine what the check digit should be. 3 Add all the digits in odd numbered positions
The important thing is that the same calculation used to together (978095734041) :9 + 8 + 9 + 7 + 4 + 4 = 41.
create the check digit in the first place should be used to 4 Add results (2) and (3) together: 48 + 41= 89.
confirm the check digit when the identification number
is input. 5 Divide the result (4) above by 10: 89 + 10 = 8.9.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Visual checking
6 Calculate the remainder (modulo 10) of result (5)
above: 89 MOD 10 = 9. A method of verification can be for the user to visually
check that the data entered matches the original source.
7 Subtract (6) above from 10: 10 - 9 = 1. This can be done by reading the data displayed on
The result of the algorithm is 1. screen and comparing it with the original data. If the data
matches, then it has passed the verification process. If it
Invalid example
does not match, then it has failed the verification process
In this example, the ISBN has been entered and needs to be re-entered. Visual checking does not
incorrectly as two numbers have been transposed ensure that the data entered is correct. If the original data
(7 and 3) accidentally: 978095374041-1.
is wrong, then the verification process may still pass.
1 Add all the digits in even numbered positions For example, if the intended data is ABCD but ABC is on
together (978095374041) :7 + 0 + 5 + 7 + 0 +l= 20. the source document, then ABC will be entered into the
computer and verified, but it should have been ABCD in the
2 Multiply result (1) above by 3: 20 x 3 = 60.
first place.
3 Add all the digits in odd numbered positions
together (978095374041) : 9 + 8 + 9 + 3 + 4 + 4 = 37. Double data entry
4 Add results (2) and (3) together: 60 + 37 = 97. Another method of verification is to input data into
the computer system twice. The two items of data are
5 Divide the result (4) above by 10: 97 +- 10 = 9.7.
compared by the computer system and if they match, then
6 Calculate the remainder (modulo 10) of result (5) they are verified. If there are any differences, then one of
above: 97 MOD 10=7. the inputs must have been incorrect.
7 Subtract (6) above from 10: 10-7 = 3.

9 The result of the algorithm is 3. The result 3 is

compared with the check digit of 1that was
entered. They do not match. The ISBN entered is When changing a password, most systems will
invalid. ask the user to enter the new password twice.
This is because it is critical that the password is
entered correctly in order that the user can gain
access to the system in the future. If the new
passwords match, then the password will be
TASK
changed. If the new passwords don’t match, then
Use the website www.upcdatabase.com/checkdigit.asp one of the passwords must have been entered
to generate check digits for product codes.
incorrectly.

It is still possible to pass double entry verification and for

the data to be incorrect. If the data is entered incorrectly
DISCUSSION POINT twice, then the two values may match. For example, if the
The usual algorithm for UPCs is to multiply the odd digits CAPS key is left on by mistake then both entries would
by 3 rather than the even digits. It is only for 13 character
match.
barcodes that the even digits are multiplied by 3.
Find out how to calculate a check digit for 10 digit
barcodes. The need for both validation and verification
As you will have seen in the two sections above, it is
possible to enter valid data that is still incorrect. It is
also possible to verify incorrect data. By using both
Verification validation and verification, the chances of entering
Verification is the process of checking that the data incorrect data are reduced. If data that is incorrect
entered into the computer system matches the original passes a validation check, then the verification check is
source. likely to spot the error.
 Chapter 1: Data, information, knowledge and processing

The validation rule is that a person’s gender must 15 Describe the purpose of verification.
be a single letter. N is entered. This passes the 16 Identify three methods of validation.
validation check but is clearly incorrect. When 17 Explain using examples why validation and
verified using double entry, the user enters N first verification do not ensure data is correct.
followed by M the second time. The verification
process has identified the error.
However, it is still possible that the user could enter 1.06 Summary
N twice and both the validation and verification
processes would fail. Information has context and meaning so a person
knows what it means. The quality of information can be
affected by the accuracy, relevance, age, level of detail
Proofreading and completeness of the information. Proofreading is the
process of checking information.
Proof reading is the process of checking information.
For example, when this book was written it was Data are raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or
checked for spelling errors, grammar errors, formatting images without meaning. Knowledge allows data to be
and accuracy. Proof reading can take place for a interpreted and is based on rules and facts. Static data
document or when data is input. When proof reading does not normally change. Dynamic data updates as a
a document, it is best to have a proof reader who is result of the source data changing. Data collected from a
different from the original author of the document, direct data source (primary source) must be used for the
as they will be able to check the work objectively and same purpose for which it was collected. Data collected
identify errors. However, it is also possible for the from an indirect source (secondary source) already existed
original author to proof read their own document, but for another purpose.
they may not notice some of their own errors. When Coding is the process of representing data by assigning
data is input, it is usually proof read by the person a code to it for classification or identification. Encoding
inputting the data. is the process of storing data in a specific format.
Encryption is when data is scrambled so that it cannot be
understood.
TASK Validation ensures that data is sensible and allowed.
Check the information below by proof reading it. Validation checks include a presence check, range check,
I were walking along the road yesterday wen I spotted type check, length check, format check and check digit.
a dog without a lead I called the dog but it did not Verification is the process of checking data has been
respond, the dog ran away; transferred correctly. Verification can be done visuatty or
by double data entry.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Review questions
1 Give an example of data. [1]
2 Describe the term knowledge. [1]

A news and sports website includes both static and dynamic data.
3a Compare static and dynamic data. [4]
3b Identify and describe two factors that affect the quality of information on the website. [4]
3c Give an example of coded data related to the news and sports website. [1]

The website streams news and sports videos.

3d Explain why the video is compressed when it is encoded. [2]
3e Identify three factors that will affect the size of a video file. [1]
3f Identify and describe two factors that affect the file size of images on the website. [4]

Users can pay for premium services on the website using their credit card.
4a Explain why the website uses https at the beginning of the website address instead of
http. [4]
4b Describe symmetric encryption. [1]

The journalists working for the website encrypt their emails.

4c Describe how asymmetric encryption is used with emails. [2]

When the users subscribe to premium features, they have to choose a password.
4d Describe how verification can be used when entering the password. [1]

There is a form on the website that can be used to submit news stories. When data is entered
onto the form, it is validated.
5a Describe the purpose of validation. [1]
5b Using an example related to submitting a news story, identify and describe one method of
validation. [3]
 r *' KTj

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23

Chapter 2
Hardware and software
Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

m define hardware
evaluate internal and external hardware devices
explain the purpose of and evaluate storage devices
explain the purpose of input and output devices
evaluate input, storage and output devices for a given task
define soft ware
evaluate different types of soft ware
explain the purpose of system soft ware
evaluate application software
evaluate user interfaces
evaluate mental models
describe utility soft ware
compare custom-written and off -the-shelf soft ware
describe and evaluate a compiler and interpreter

ainiH
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

2.01 Hardware
Q Remember
The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of a
1 KEY TERMS computer. It is the part of the computer that carries out
calculations, executes instructions and processes data. It
Hardware: a physical component of a computer system includes the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU).
Device: a hardware component of a computer system
consisting of electronic components
Output device: a device used to communicate data or The ALU performs calculations and logical operations. The
information from a computer system CU runs the fetch-execute cycle which fetches instructions
Storage device: a device used to store data onto a storage from memory and executes them.
medium
Input data is taken from input devices (such as a
Input device: a device that allows data to be entered into a
computer system
keyboard) or storage and processed by the CPU, which
Storage medium: the medium On which data is stored
produces output data that can be stored or sent to an
output device (such as a monitor).
Volatile: data is lost when there is no power
Non-volatile: data remains When there is no power CPUs usually consist of multiple cores. Each core is
a separate processor, so a quad-core CPU has fpur
processors. Processors are measured by the number
Hardware of instructions they can process per second (hertz). A
3 GHz (gigahertz) processor can process up to 3 billion

© Remember
An item of hardware is a physical component that forms
part of a computer system. Items of hardware are often
instructions per second.

Motherboard
known as devices because they comprise electronic
components. Hardware devices can be internal to the
computer system (such as the central processing unit,
memory or motherboard) or they can be external to the
computer system (such as the monitor, keyboard or mouse). iv
Hardware is categorised into input, output and storage SB&
devices. Input devices allow data to be sent to a
computer (e.g. keyboard). Output devices allow the
v
communication of data/information from a computer (e.g.
monitor). Storage devices store data onto a storage
medium so that it can be used at a later time.
W
Internal hardware devices
Central processing unit
Figure 2.02 - A motherboard.

© Remember
The motherboard is a printed circuit board (PCB) which
connects the main components of a computer. Some
of these components may be an integral partofthe
motherboard. Such components can include Universal
Serial Bus (USB) ports, a network port and an integrated
graphics card. A motherboard will always include the main
bus which is used to transfer data between hardware
components.
Figure 2.01 - A central processing unit.

i
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

Other hardware components can be connected directly

to the motherboard, including random access memory TASK
(RAM), the CPU and expansion cards. Expansion cards Find out what is the purpose of programmable read only
offer additional functionality, such as enhanced graphics memory (PROM) and erasable programmable read only
processing and additional USB ports. memory (EPROM).

Random access memory

Graphics card

© Remember
Random access memory (RAM) is memory that is used
to store currently active programs and data. The more
A graphics card is also known as a video card, display
adapter or graphics adapter. It is a printed circuit board
that connects to one of the motherboard’s expansion
RAM that is available to the computer, the more data and slots. Its purpose is to generate the signals needed to
programs can be used at the same time. display the output image from the computer. Often the
graphics adapter is integrated into the motherboard and
does not require a separate card. However, by using a
This is particularly important in multitasking separate card, the graphics performance can be improved
environments, when several programs may be open at the as a separate processor can be used for graphics (a
same time. graphics processing unit).
When the RAM becomes full, programs or data that are
no longer active will be removed to make space for new
programs or data. Ifthe RAM becomes full and there are
no inactive programs or data to remove, then an area of
secondary storage (e.g. hard disc drive (HDD) or solid state
drive (SSD)) known as virtual memory is used to expand
the amount of memory available to the CPU. Virtual
memory is very slow because secondary storage access
times are thousands of times slower than RAM access
times.
RAM is volatile, which means the content of the memory
is lost if there is no power to the RAM. When you are using
a computer and experience a power cut, this is why the
data you are currently using is lost unless it has recently
been saved to secondary storage. Figure 2.03 - A graphics card.

Read only memory Graphics cards include a variety of options for output.
Read only memory (ROM) is memory that, once it has been Standard video graphics array (VGA) output to a monitor
written to, can no longer be changed. It is permanent and it is achieved through the RGB port which transmits red,
is non-volatile, which means that when there is no power green and blue signals to the monitor in an analogue
to the computer, the contents of the ROM will be retained. format. High definition display is achieved through a
This is because it is powered by a small long-life battery. high-definition multimedia interface (HDMI) port. Another
option is Digital Video Interface (DVI) which supports high
resolution displays using digital signals.

TIP Sound card

In a computer, there is usually some ROM that stores the The purpose of a sound card is to generate the signals
instructions to boot (start) the computer.
needed to output sound from the computer to a speaker
or set of speakers. It is often an integrated part of the
ROM is also used in small devices such as calculators motherboard and will include a single output for audio
where there is only one program or set of instructions. (green socket), a single input for a microphone (red socket)
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

and a single input for line level devices (blue socket). If Attachment (SATA) or Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
higher quality or surround sound is required, then it is cable.
usually necessary to have a separate sound card which
connects to one of the motherboard’s expansion slots.
This will enable multiple outputs for front, rear, centre and
sub-woofer speakers.
n
Hard disk drive
A hard disk drive (HDD) is the most common form of
secondary storage for a computer due to its relatively low 1>

cost per MB (megabyte). In 2015, hard disk drives could

store up to 8TB (terabytes) of data with access speeds of
6GB/s. The hard disk drive consists of two main parts: the
device that is the electronics which store the data, and the •°
disk that is the medium onto which the data is stored. The
device (or drive) includes a read-write head which sits at
the end of an access arm and magnetises sectors on the
disk (platter). Figure 2.05 - Multiple platters.

Access arm Disk (platter)

DISCUSSION POINT
Do you know where the phrase ‘my computer has crashed’
v» comes from? It relates to when the read-write head crashes
into a platter and causes damage to the hard disk, meaning
that data and programs can no longer be retrieved.

Solid state drive

A solid state drive (SSD) is another secondary storage
Read-write head device that is non-volatile. However, there are no moving
parts and the data is stored onto flash memory. It is also
not necessary to store data in the same cylinder in order
Figure 2.04 - A hard disk.
to maximise access speed as the data can be stored
anywhere on the flash memory and access speeds will
There is usually more than one platter and therefore not be affected. SSDs are also non-magnetic and so are
there will be several read-write heads for each side of not susceptible to damage from to close, strong magnetic
each platter as shown in Figure 2.05. Each platter will fields.
have tracks and each track will be split into sectors. The In 2015, SSDs could store up to 8TB, but due to the newer
tracks that are in the same position on each platter form technology were far more expensive than HDDs and were
a cylinder. Wherever possible, a computer will attempt to more common in capacities of 128, 256 or 512GB. SSDs
store data on a single cylinder as this requires the least
have access speeds of around 400-600 MBps (two to three
access arm movement and the access arm is the slowest times fasterthan a HDD). This means they are used in
part of the hard disk. higher performance computers. A frequent compromise
Data stored on a hard disk is non-volatile. This means between speed, capacity and price is to have a smaller
that when the computer is turned off and there is no SSD to store the operating system and software (for speed
power then the data will still be safely stored on the of access) and use a larger HDD to store data. SSDs also
hard disc. Hard discs can be internally connected to require a lot less power than HDDs and so are preferred in
the computer using a Serial Advanced Technology laptop and tablet computers.
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

Monitor
TASK
Although not an essential part of every computer
Have a look at the inside of an old computer. Identify system, a monitor is certainly an essential part of most
each of the main components that can be seen on the computer systems as it enables the user to visualise the
motherboard, the hardware devices that are connected output. It is connected to the computer using one of the
to it and any available connection ports.
ports on a graphics card. Monitor sizes are measured
diagonally and, apart from some very old ‘legacy’
monitors, they now have flat screens which minimalise
External hardware devices the amount of desk space that is used and they are
Cloud light enough to be mounted on a wall or a desk using a
bracket or on a shelf.
Cloud computing is a term that refers to anything where
computing services are hosted over the internet and A monitor will be limited by its resolution. This is
not in the same physical location as the computer being the number of pixels it can display and is measured
used. Data is stored on banks of servers that are accessed horizontally by vertically. For example, a high definition
remotely. The physical devices that store the data are (HD) monitor can display 1920 x 1080 pixels. Some monitors
owned by a hosting company rather than the person or also include a touch interface (known as a touch screen),
organisation using the data. which means that the user can select items by directly
interacting with the display on the screen. These are often
When data is stored in the cloud, the hosting company
integrated into tablet computers and mobile phones.
takes all responsibility for storing the data, managing the
data, securing the data and backing up the data, so that
Keyboard
people or organisations no longer have to be concerned
with this. As the data is stored remotely, it also means that
it can be accessed at any time in any place, so people do
* 't o
not have to be sitting at a specific computer or within an
organisation to access that data. •M
/ X
A *r
r- u
to X NX
'A A.
vi<S
Examples of cloud storage for personal use include: > V
• OneDrive 1
o’
• Google Drive
9-
• Dropbox -r A
• Box Figure 2.06 - A Chinese keyboard.

Akeyboard consists ofa number of buttons which are

The downside is that it takes longer to access the data as used to input text or to control parts of an interface. Its
access times are limited by the bandwidth available to the main limitation is the number of keys available. With a
hosting company and other users who may be accessing Roman alphabet, this isn’t too much ofa problem because
data on the same servers at the same time. It can also the alphabet only contains 26 letters and ten digits.
be quite costly to store large amounts of data on cloud However, some alphabets, such as Arabic or Chinese
storage. contain many more characters and so combinations of
Some cloud storage options allow synchronisation
keys have to be used.
to a computer, so the cloud acts as a backup to the A keyboard can be connected to a computer using a USB
data stored on the computer. It also means that when port, by wireless Bluetooth or by other wireless technology.
accessing the data from the allocated computer, Keyboards vary in style and shape, and ergonomic
access times will be faster than accessing from cloud keyboards are available to provide more comfort and
storage. protection for the user from repetitive strain injury (RSI).
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device which allows objects to be
selected and manipulated on the screen. The mouse
controls a pointer which is displayed on the screen. When
the mouse is moved, the pointer moves and objects
iU,

f *
such as menus can be selected on the screen using one
of the mouse buttons. Like a keyboard, a mouse can be
connected using a USB port, by wireless Bluetooth or by
other wireless technology.

Printer
A printer produces a hard copy (printout) from a
computer usually onto paper. A simplex printer can print
on a single side of paper, whereas a printer with a duplex Figure 2.07 - Modern inkjet plotter.
unit can print on both sides of each sheet of paper.
Some printers include additional functions such as a
scanner. Speakers
Speakers are used to provide sound output from a
Laser printer computer. These can be as simple as a pair of stereo
A laser printer negatively charges a cylindrical drum speakers or full surround sound.
which then attracts electrically charged toner (powdered
ink). The toner is then heated so that it melts onto the
paper. TASK
Find out the difference between mono sound, stereo
Inkjet printer sound, 5.1surround sound, 6.1 surround sound and 7.1
Cartridges full of ink in four different colours (black, cyan, surround sound.
magenta, yellow) are used to ‘squirt’ ink onto the paper to
form the required printout.

Dot matrix printer Camera

Before laser and inkjet printers, dot matrix printers A camera can be used to capture still or moving images
were commonplace. They are a type of impact printer (movies). When connected to the computer, the images
which means that the printout is achieved by hitting or movies can be transferred from the camera to the
the paper and the operation is very noisy. This is done computer’s storage. The images can then be viewed on
by a set of pins being driven onto a ribbon which then screen, manipulated and shared. A digital still camera is
transfers its ink to the paper. The main advantage of optimised for capturing still images but usually has the
dot matrix printers is that they can print on duplicate capability of capturing movies too, whereas a digital
and triplicate paper (carbon copies) due to the impact. video camera is optimised for capturing movies but can
They are also very robust printers and so last for a also capture still images.
longtime.

Plotter Webcam
In the 1990s, a plotter used to ‘plot’ lines onto large sheets A webcam is a camera that is connected to the computer
of paper by moving the paper backwards and forwards for the purpose of capturing still or moving images while
and drawing using pens to create vector drawings. Today, using the computer. It will not be as high quality as a
plotters are inkjet printers designed to be used with large dedicated digital camera or digital video camera. It will
sheets of paper, typically A2, A1 and AO. If only black and usually have an integrated microphone for capturing
white printouts are required, then light-emitting diode sound. Its main purpose is for users to engage in online
(LED) plotters are much faster and have cheaper running video chat or video conferences. They can also be used as
costs than inkjet plotters. security cameras.
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software
r

Laser Inkjet Dot matrix Plotter

Typical printing The laser printer is the Standard inkjet Very slow compared The time per page
speed fastest of all printers, printers can usually with other printers. to print is quite slow
with some industrial print around 15-20 because a much larger
models reaching 200 ppm in black and area needs to be
pages per minute white, but colour covered.
(ppm) and office speeds are a bit
printers achieving slower.
around 50 ppm.
Typical A laser printer is Inkjet printers are the These used to be Plotters are the most
purchase cost typically twice the cost cheapest of all printers very cheap, but are expensive type of printer
of an inkjet printer available, but they now more expensive due to their physical size
with similar features. vary depending on than an inkjet printer and the need to cope
the features that are because they are not with large sheets of
included. mass produced. paper.
Typical running Although toner Inkjet cartridges Very low as the ink The running costs are the
cost cartridges are more vary in price and ribbon lasts for a long same as inkjet printers,
expensive than inkjet ‘compatible’ versions time. but of course per page
cartridges, they last a can be purchased costs are higher because
lot longer and so the more cheaply than the page sizes are
cost per page is less original manufacturer larger. LED plotters have
than other printers. versions. cheaper running costs
than inkjet plotters.
Colour Most are monochrome Almost all inkjet It is very rare to find Plotters can print in
but colour laser printers can print in a dotmatrix printer colour.
printers are available. colour. that uses coloured
ribbons.
Quality The highest quality of A reasonably good Quality is usually Same issues as inkjet
all printers due to the quality, but ink can poor due to the printers, but if pens are
way it melts toner and show through thin bitmapped nature of used then the quality of
attracts it to the page. paper and smudges printing characters. line drawings is high.
can occur.
Typical uses Letters, bulk printing, Photographs, charts, Invoices or receipts Architectural drawings,
general office and small maps, general requiring duplicate large maps, canvas prints
home printing. office and home or triplicate paper, and signs.
printing. automated teller
machines (ATMs),
point of sale systems,
data logging, hot and
dusty environments.

Table 2.01- Different types of printer.

Scanner designed to take close-up images of 2D documents. Flat¬

A scanner is used to capture two dimensional (2D) bed scanners can capture a full-colour image and save
documents in the form of an image. They perform a the image as a file on the computer’s storage. If the image
similar function to a digital camera but are specifically contains lots of text, then it is possible to run optical
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

character recognition (OCR) to recognise the text. Some Magnetic ink is used to print numbers at the bottom of
flat-bed scanners include an automatic document feeder checks. The numbers are printed using the MICR E-13Bor
(ADF) that enables documents with multiple pages to be CMC-7 font. The ink contains iron oxide which means that
scanned in one operation. it is easily detected when using a magnetic ink character
reader (MICR) and the characters can be understood.
It is important that mistakes aren’t made and so MICR
provides a much better level of accuracy than OCR.

Optical mark reader

An optical mark reader (OMR) detects the marks
that are made on a multiple choice document
such as a multiple choice answer paper for an
examination. A scanner-like device is used to
Li* 4 reflect a beam of light onto the marked sheet and
detect where the marks have been made. Software
is then used to translate the position of the mark
to the information that it represents. OMR devices
are only realty suitable for multiple choice
Figure 2.08 - Flat-bed scanner with an ADF. responses as they cannot interpret letters that
form words.

Optical character reader

s
An optical character reader (OCR) is a device that
enables characters on a document to be identified
and understood by the computer as letters, numbers,
characters and words. This isn’t really a device in itself,
but is a scanner combined with software that performs
optical character recognition (also OCR). The picture of the \
document is analysed and characters are recognised by
the software and turned into a document so that the text
can be searched or edited.

Magnetic ink character reader

Figure 2.10 - Multiple choice OMR exam paper.

Barcode reader
A barcode reader is used to detect the width of lines and
gaps that form a barcode. A laser beam is shone onto the
barcode and a photodiode is used to measure the amount
of light that is reflected back. Black lines will not reflect
any light but white gaps will. A barcode represents letters
and numbers which usually identify something, such as
A a book or other product. The barcode scanner usually
includes its own hardcoded circuitry so that it can send
the letters and numbers directly to the computer without
Magnetic ink
the need for additional software.
Figure 2.09 Checkbook with magnetic ink.
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

A standard Blu-ray disc is read only and used to distribute

DISCUSSION POINT HD movies. However, it is possible to buy recordable (Blu-
Barcodes are limited in terms of the amount of data that ray) discs that can be written to once and are useful for
can be stored, which is why quick response (QR) codes are
archive and backup purposes, or rewritable (Blu-ray) discs
now being used for items of data beyond a string of letters
and numbers.
which can be rewritten to and erased making them useful
for both backup and data transfer purposes.

Pen drive DISCUSSION POINT

A pen drive is a nickname for a USB flash drive. It is a small Find out about the next advancement in optical storage,
the holographic versatile disc (HVD).
data storage device about the size of a thumb which
stores data on flash memory and includes an integrated
USB interface. The USB interface means that the flash
drive is recognisable on all computers with a USB port Memory card
and therefore data can be transported easily between A memory card is flash memory on a small card. They are
computers. Flash memory is very fast and so the limiting typically used in digital cameras, digital video cameras
factor is the speed of the USB port. As a flash drive does and mobile phones. They take up very little space so are
not have any moving parts it is safe to transport, although well suited to fitting into a small device, as well as being
its size means that it can be easily lost. It also does not rely portable so that data can be transferred to a computer.
on magnetising and therefore is not susceptible to damage There are many different formats of cards, but most
if it comes in contact with a strong magnetic field. devices favour Secure Digital (SD) and microSD cards.
MicroSD cards are only 15 x 11 x 0.1mm in size.
Portable hard disk drive
Hard disk drives were introduced earlier in this chapter. As
well as an internal HDD, it is possible to have an external TASK
HDD. An external HDD can be connected to the computer Categorise each of the internal and external hardware
using a USB or External Serial Advanced Technology devices into input, output and storage devices.
Attachment (eSATA) port. An external HDD can store
a lot more data than a USB flash drive, but it is more
susceptible to damage due to it having moving parts and
its vulnerability to strong magnetic fields.
Storage devices

Blu-ray disc drive

A Blu-ray disc is an optical storage medium. It is the same
Q Remember
The main purpose of a storage device is to store data or
software that can be used by a computer. A storage device
size and shape as a compact disc (CD) and digital versatile
is known as secondary storage, which is non-volatile and
disc (DVD). The Blu-ray disc was introduced because it can so data is not lost when the computer is turned off.
store HD video and therefore a whole film can be stored
on the Blu-ray disc. A single layer Blu-ray disc can store
25GB of data and a dual-layer Blu-ray disc can store 50 GB There are many reasons why a user may want to save data
of data. This compares to a DVD which can store 4.7 GB to secondary storage:
of data and a CD which can store 700 MB of data (or 80
• when creating a document, a user is likely to want
minutes of audio). to make changes to that document in the future
A Blu-ray disc drive is required to read data from or and therefore it is necessary to save it to secondary
write data to a Blu-ray disc. It uses lasers to read data storage
that has been written in 'pits'. A basic Blu-ray disc • the user may want somebody else to edit or read the
drive can read data at 4.5 MB/s, whereas a 16x Blu-ray document and so it will be saved to secondary storage
drive can read data at 72 MB/s. This is much slower to allow the person to do that
than a HDD but the discs are very cheap to purchase • users are likely to want to keep documents for archive
compared with a whole HDD. purposes so they can be referred to in the future
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• when using a database, each new record or change Compact Digital versatile Blu-ray
to a record will be saved to the database in secondary disc (CD) disc (DVD) disc
storage
• the user may want to back up thedata so that a spare Capacity 700 MB 4.7 GB 25 GB
copy is available. (single
layer)
Other reasons for secondary storage include:
Original Music Films HD films
• each program will be stored on secondary storage ready purpose
to be loaded into RAM when the program is opened
• the computer will use secondary storage to save a Table 2.02 - Types of optical storage.
virtual memory file which extends the amount of RAM
available, albeit making the virtual part of the memory In addition to distributing music and films, optical storage has
very slow. been a popular medium to distribute software due to the low
cost of each disc, the fact that read-only versions of each disc
Magnetic tape drive exist and the low cost of posting them. Using recordable and
Magnetic tape is used for backing up and archiving data. rewriteable versions of optical discs makes them suitable for
Data is stored serially which means one item after another. backups and archives. It is quickerto restore a single file from
The tape is wound through the tape drive and as it an optical disc backup ratherthan a tape backup because
winds through data is written to it. The low cost and high the file can be accessed directly ratherthan havingto read
capacity of tapes makes them ideal for backing up and through a whole tape. This also makes optical discs more
archiving data because the data is simply stored in suitable for archived data because files can be found quickly.
a sequential manner. The capacity of optical discs is much less than tapes, which
When retrieving data, it does take a while to find the means they are only suitable for backing up a selection of
data that is required because the tape has to be files rather than the whole of secondary storage.
wound to the exact position where the data is
stored. This makes it unsuitable for everyday use. Hard disk drive
Backups and archives are not intended for everyday HDDs were introduced earlier in this chapter. Their principal
use. If data does need to be restored from backup, purpose is to act as the main secondary storage device for
it may take a while but it is at least available when a computer. Data and programs are stored on the HDD so
needed. If the whole of a computer’s secondary that they can be accessed as and when required. External
storage needs to be restored, then this can be done HDDs can also be used to back up data (although this is
by reading the tape sequentially. an expensive way of doing it) or to transfer data to another
computer. Moving parts within a HDD make it vulnerable to
Tapes are ideal for backing up the whole of secondary
damage if dropped.
storage for a computer or server because they can hold
several terabytes (TB) of data. In 2014, Sony developed a
Solid state drive
tape capable of storing 185TB of data.
SSDs were introduced earlier in this chapter. Similar to a
HDD, a SSD can store the data and programs that are used
TASK
by a computer. SSDs are faster than HDDs, but also more
expensive. SSDs require less power than a HDD so they are
Find out how the grandfather-father-son backup
often used in tablet computers and high-end laptops to
rotation system works using magnetic tapes. How many
tapes would be needed if the monthly backups were
extend the battery life. Storing the operating system and
kept for three months at a time? programs that are used most on a SSD instead of a HDD
will significantly improve the performance of a computer.

Optical TASK
Optical storage was introduced earlier in this chapter Compare the prices of SSDs and HDDs. Work out an
under the heading Blu-ray. In 2015, there were three main approximate cost per megabyte (MB) for each.
types of optical storage.
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

Hard disk Solid state Cloud Pen Drive

Cost of purchase The cheapest cost More expensive per MB Usually a subscription Designed for
per MB for everyday than a hard disk (e.g. charge that varies portability and so
storage (e.g. $0.06 per $0.10 per GB). depending on cost per MB varies
GB). supplier. depending on size.
Running Requires constant Does not require Running costs are Power only required
cost / power supply of electricity constant source of included within a when in use.
consumption when the disk is spinning power as only needed subscription charge. Portability means that
but if not in use can be when in use. they may get damaged
temporarily turned off. and need replacing.
Moving parts mean that
it may fail in the future.
Speed of access Depends on SATA Up to 30% faster Depends on Depends on whether
connection used. access speed than broadband using USB 2 or USB
hard disk. bandwidth of user 3 ports. USB 3 offers
and that offered by faster data transfer
supplier. than USB 2.
Interoperability If internal, can only If internal, can only Can logon from any Can be connected to
be used in device be used in device device including any device with a USB
connected to unless connected to unless mobile devices. port.
moved permanently, moved permanently,
but if external can be but if external can be
used in any device with used In any device :
a USB port. with a USB port.
Typical use In a desktop computer. Laptop and tablet Collaboration with For transferring data
computers. other users, backups, between devices.
sharing of files and
general storage.

Table 2.03 - Comparing storage devices.

TASK Input I Processing I *) Output

Complete a tablesimilar to that shown in Table 2.03 for
memory cards, magnetic tape drives and Blu-ray disc drives.
0
Storage
Input and output devices

o TIP
Input devices allow data to be sent to a computer (e.g.
Figure 2.11 - IPOS diagram.

Data that has been stored can also be processed and then
output from the computer.
keyboard). Output devices allow the communication of
data/information from a computer (e.g. monitor). When
data is input into a computer, it is processed and then
either output from the computer or stored for later use as
EXAMPLE
J
Multiple choice answers from an examination are
shown in Figure 2.11and is known as an input-process-
output-storage (IPOS) diagram. scanned using an OMR and the answers for each
student are stored. Once all the answers have been
 '

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

scanned, the stored answers are checked and the It may be important to know who or what needs the
marks calculated for each student. The marks are device and you should refer to the school in your answer:
printed out. • It’s important to know the data is being backed
Figure 2.12 shows this process. up from servers because this tells you that a large
capacity will be required.
Multiple choice
answers Irom
Answers stored
(Process)
Answers checked
(Process)
Results Printed
(Process)
• Knowing the data is a backup means you know
OMR (Input)
immediate access to the data is not essential.
t I

1
Itoragr
Results printed
on printer
• The fact that data has to be kept off site is essential
because this means the device used must be able
to be moved away from the school.
Figure 2.12 - Multiple choice IPOS diagram.
Here is an example of how the question could be
answered:
Answer: An external HDD is lightweight and
Evaluate different input, storage or output portable meaning that it will be easy for the school
devices for a given task to take the backup off site.
Based on your understanding of a variety of input, storage As the HDD contains moving parts, the heads could
and output devices, you will now need to evaluate the crash causing data to be lost when transporting it off site.
suitability of a device for a given task. When evaluating,
you need to consider both the reasons why the device The HDD will have a reasonably large capacity which
would be suitable and also the reasons why the device could be around 8TB. This may be enough to store all
of the data from a small school’s server, but a larger

a
would not be suitable. You should then make a conclusion.
In real life, this is what you would do to advise somebody school would require more than one external HDD.
which device they should use. As it is a school, some of the data being backed up is
likely to be personal data which must be kept secure
You could also be asked to evaluate the use of a given
according to the Data Protection Act. When taking the
device for a given task. In this situation, you would only
data offsite, it is possible that it could be lost orstolen
need to give positive reasons why that device would be
due to its size. However, encryption could be used to
suitable.
make the data unreadable if it was lost or stolen.
When analysing and evaluating, you should consider
Storing the backup on a single external HDD means
which features of the device make it suitable for the
that it would have to come back to the school each
specific task that has been presented to you. To do this, day, which defeats the object of keeping it off site.
you will need to identify the important aspects of the task
Therefore, several external HDDs would be required
and relate the useful features of the device to each aspect
to ensure that there is always a backup offsite and
of the task.
this could become very expensive.
In conclusion, although the external HDD can be taken
offsite, I would suggest that it is not suitable due to the
cost of multiple drives and because the capacity may
Question: A school needs to back up data from its not be sufficient. Using tapes would be more cost-
servers every day and keep the backup data offsite. effective and would overcome the cost issue.
Evaluate the use of an external hard disc drive for Note how the answer makes reference to the
this task. scenario and links to the features of an external HDD.
The first thing you should do is identify the important
aspects of the scenario that will give you clues as to
whether the external HDD is suitable or not: TASK
A school needs to back up data from its servers every Analyse and discuss the use of the following devices for
day and keep the backup data off site. Evaluate the each scenario given. Remember that you only need to
use of an externalhard drive forthis task. give positive reasons.
 -——==22*!

I
Chapter 2: Hardware and software

System software
Device Scenario Programs that are designed to maintain or operate the
Plotter An architect is preparing drawings for a new house computer system are known as system software. The
that is to be built. Different colours will be used to software that operates the computer hardware is known
identify electricity, water and gas services. as the operating system. Programs that are used to
Digital An employee travels regularly as part of maintain a computer system (e.g. anti-malware software)
camera her job. She is required to keep a record of are known as utility software.
expenses and to email copies of all receipts to
the finance department. Operating systems
Pen
drive
A church records the preacher’s talk each week.
The computer that is used is not connected to the
internet, butthetalk needs to be uploaded to a
Q Remember
An operating system manages the hardware within a
website after the church service. computer system. When a computer is turned on and
after the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) has loaded,
Turn your answers into evaluations by also looking at the operating system is the first piece of software that will
reasons why each device would not be suitable for each toad. It sits between hardware and applications software
task and give a conclusion. and manages any communication between the two.

QUESTIONS
Application
1 Define the term hardware.
2 Describe the role of the central processing unit (CPU).
3 Describe the role of a graphics card.
4 Contrast random access memory (RAM) and a
storage device.
5 Compare and contrast a digital camera to a scanner.
6 Evaluate the suitability of an optical mark reader
(OMR) and an optical character reader (OCR) for Hardware
marking exam papers.

Figure 2.13 - Operating system.

2.02 System, application and user An operating system manages hardware by carrying out
interface tasks such as:
• allocating memory to software
• sending data and instructions to output devices
Software: programs which give instructions to the computer • respondingto input devices such as when a key is pressed
User interface: communication between the user and the
• opening and closing files on storage devices
computer system
• giving each running task a fair share of processor time

o
• sending error messages or status messages to
applications or users
TIP • dealing with user logons and security.
Software is also known as programs, such as word
processing, spreadsheet, anti-malware or operating
TASK
system. Each program consists of programming code
which gives instructions to the computer in order to Microsoft Windows is an example of an operating system.
carry out a task. The code that is passed to the hardware Find at least two other operating systems used by
is in binary format which consists of instructions in the desktop computers and at least three operating systems
form of lots of ones and zeros (e.g. 101011101110). used by mobile phones or tablets.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Device drivers be distributed to resellers, customers and individual

While the operating system can manage the general computers. As it is in an executable format, it can only
instructions to deal with hardware such as displaying run on operating systems for which the compiler has
graphics on a screen, it requires the use of device drivers to translated it. For example, programs that have been
deal with specific makes and models of hardware. A device compiled for Windows will not work on Linux unless
driver is the software that comes with an external hardware they are compiled again for Linux. The same situation
component and sends customised instructions to that exists with mobile phone and tablet operating systems.
specific component. By using common device drivers,
software applications are able to issue generic commands
such as ‘print’ to the operating system without having to Program file (source file)
know the different instructions required for every different
make and model of external hardware components.

Application Compiler

Operating system
Executable file (object file)

Execution
by CPU

Hardware Figure 2.15 - Compiler diagram.

Interpreters
Figure 2.14 - Device driver.
Interpreters also translate a program written in a high-
level programming language into machine code, but
Utilities use a different method, instead of translating the whole
Utilities are part of system software. They are designed to source code at once, it is translated one line at a time.
perform functions which maintain the computer system. This can be less efficient than a compiler because
Utilities are discussed later in this chapter. it takes time to do the translating as the program is
being executed and also because statements within
Compilers programming loops (e.g. FOR, REPEAT, WHILE) have to be
A compilertranslates a program written in a high-level analysed each time round.
programming language into machine code which a
Interpreters are often used to translate macros or
computer can understand. The file containing the
application-based script languages (e.g. Visual Basic
machine code is known as an executable file because it
for Applications), which can be particularly useful
can be executed by the processor. It can also be referred
when a document needs to be opened on a variety of
to as the object file. The original high-level programming
operating systems. Interpreters are also used when
language file is known as the source file.
testing programs so that parts of the program can
When a program is compiled, the whole source code is be executed without having to compile the whole
translated into the executable file at once and can then program.
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

o DISCUSSION POINT
Java uses both a compiler and an interpreter. The original
Not all modules are always needed and a linker is able to
select which modules will form part of the executable file.

Java source code (files with a .java extension) is compiled

into Java bytecode (files with a .class extension) which is
Application software
an intermediate code. In order that the Java program can Programs that are intended for productivity or to carry
work on any operating system, a Java Virtual Machine out a task for the user are known as application software.
installed on the computer is used to interpret the bytecode Examples include word processor, games, web browser
at the time of execution.
and graphics software. On a mobile phone or tablet, this
Java interpreter type of software is usually referred to as an app.
for Mac OS

You are likely to be asked to analyse or evaluate the use of a

Java Java Java interpreter
source code
Compiler bytecode for Windows
particular piece of software for a given task. You will need to
look at the details of the task and relate appropriate features
Java interpreter of the software that are likely to help solve parts of the
for Linux
task. You will also need to consider whether there are other
Figure 2.16 - Java diagram. software options available, consider how they could be used
to complete the task and then provide a conclusion.
When making reference to software always use the name
Linkers of the type of software (e.g. word processor) rather than a
Computer programs often consist of several modules trade name (e.g. Microsoft Word).
(parts) of programming code. Each module carries out a
specified task within the program. Each module will have Word processing
been compiled into a separate object file. The function
of a linker (also known as a link editor) is to combine the
object files together to form a single executable file. In
o
T TIP
The function of a word processor is to primarily process words.
addition to the modules used, the program may make
reference to a common library. A common library contains
code for common tasks that can be used in more than It is therefore appropriate for tasks such as:
one program, such as mathematical functions, memory
management, open and save dialogues, progress bars • writing a letter
and input/output. The linker is able to link modules from a • producing a report
library file into the executable file, too. • producing coursework
I Source Source Source Source
• creating a menu
• mail merging
file file file file • writing a book.
I 1 Features of word processing software include:
Compiler • tables
i f • headers and footers
• footnotes and endnotes
Object Object Object Object
file file file hi.' • sections
• formatting text
• styles
• spellchecker
• bullets and automatic numbering
Runtime Executable • automatic contents page
Linker
library program • tracking changes
• frames for images
Figure 2.17 - Linker diagram. • text alignment
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• text wrap Spreadsheet

• indentation and tabs.
A B C
1 Starting distance Ending distance Distance travelled
TASK 2 20,035 19,829 =A2-B2
If you are unfamiliar with any of the features above, 3
then find out about them and try using them. A website
that may help you with this iswww.teach-ict.com/ Figure 2.18 - Spreadsheet formula.
videohome.htm or the official Microsoft video tutorials
on Microsoft’s Office support site.
A B C
1 Starting distance Ending distance Distance travelled
2 20,035 19,829 206
3
Question: Give reasons forthe use of word processing
software for creating a menu for a restaurant. Figure 2.19 - Spreadsheet calculation.
Think of the features you would expect to find on a
menu and how it might be produced. Then relate
them to the features of word processing software Spreadsheet software is used mainly for performing
that could be used to create the menu. calculations and modelling. Spreadsheets are often used
Answer: Alignment could be used to centre the for financial and statistical information. Spreadsheets
name of the restaurant and the word ‘Menu’ at the work on the basis of input-process-output whereby
top of the page. data is input, then formulae and functions process that
data to generate an output. When input data changes,
The name of the restaurant could be formatted the output data automatically changes because the
using a different font in a larger size to the rest of the formulae and functions are automatically recalculated.
text and in a different colour. This allows users to experiment with values and ask
Frames could be used to include images of each 'What-if questions such as 'What will happen if we try to
dish on the menu. sell another 10000 cars this month?’
Text wrap could be used so that text wraps around Spreadsheets contain cells which form the intersection
the images of each dish. of rows and columns. In Figure 2.19, cell C2 contains the
value 206.
Automated numbering could be used to give each
dish a numberthatcan be used when ordering.
The spellchecker could be used to ensure that all TASK
descriptions of the dishes have been spelt correctly. O CD 2.01 Lease pricing model
Footnotes could be used to identify dishes which Open CD 2.01 Lease pricing model.xlsx and
contain nuts or are vegetarian options. experiment with changing the input values in the
yellow cells in the Pricing Model spreadsheet. This
Styles could be used so that subheadings are kept spreadsheet calculates the total cost of a hire car
consistent by applying a style rather than manually based upon different variables including the list price
formatting each subheading. and carbon dioxide (C02) emissions of the vehicle.
1 Watch what happens to the total cost of the lease
when you adjust the input values.
2 Compose a list of at least three ‘What-if’ questions
TASK that could be asked usingthis spreadsheet model.
Give reasons forthe use of word processing software for
writing a book.
You will learn more about spreadsheets in Chapter 8.
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

Database management systems • cloning parts of an image

• softening (blurring) and sharpening an image.
© Remember
Database management systems (DBMS) are used for
viewing and editing data within a database. A database is
Features for vector graphics manipulation software can
include:
a structured collection of data in the form of tables which • filling a shape with colour
are related to each other. For example, an invoicing
database would include tables for customer, products,
• changing features of the border of a shape such as
orders and order-lines (orders for each product). thickness and colour
• combining shapes together into a group
• moving a shape or group of shapes
A DBMS can provide features including:
• resizing a shape or group of shapes
• data entry screens / forms for inputting data • aligning objects.
• filters and queries for selecting data that meets specified Using graphics manipulation software requires a lot of skill
criteria and advanced features are usually more appropriate for
• reports for displaying information in an easily readable serious artists.
format
You will learn more about graphics manipulation in
• graphs for analysing data
Chapter 16.
• security features so that users can only access the parts
of the database they have been authorised to access
• relationships to link related tables. TASK
You will learn more about databases in Chapter 9. Investigate the features available in Paint.NET, IrfanView
and CorelDRAW.
Graphics manipulation software

Photo editing software

TIP
As its name suggests, graphics manipulation software is
designed to manipulate graphics. This can be either bitmap
graphics or vector graphics.
© Remember
Photo editing software is a specific type of graphics
manipulation software that is focused on editing
photographs. This can be used by professional
The features included in graphics manipulation software photographers and enthusiasts to enhance photographs
or by people at home to make minor changes.
vary depending upon the complexity of the software.
Features for both bitmap and graphics manipulation
Features of photo editing software include:
software can include:
• cropping parts of the photo
• drawingshapes
• adjusting the brightness or contrast
• changing the canvas size
• resizing the canvas
• resizing the image • removing red eye
• adding layers
• changingthe colour balance
• addingtextto an image
• cloning parts of the photo
• selecting a colour based on picking an existing colour.
• identifying common areas of an image (e.g. background)
Features for bitmap graphics manipulation software can using a 'magic wand' tool
include: • applying effects such as black and white or sepia
• filling an area with a colour • softening (blurring) and sharpening a photo.
• moving part of the image Photo editing software requires a large amount of RAM
• resizing part of the image and complex operations can use up a lot of processing
• erasing parts of an image time.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Video editing software same time. During an audio conference it can be difficult to
know whose turn it is to speak. Video conferencing expands
Q Remember
When videos are recorded, they are known as 'raw1 video
upon audio conferencing by including real-time video of the
people involved in the conference.
files (footage). There are many enhancements that can be
Email clients provide users with a larger range of
made to a raw video file and this is where video editing
software comes in useful. features than webmail and enable emails to be read and
composed while offline. This can be useful when no fixed
internet connection is available and 3G/4G coverage is
Features of video editing software include:
poor or non-existent.
• importing or capturing raw video Features of email clients include:
• clipping the beginning and end of a video
• clipping sections within a video • address book of contacts
• adding titles to the beginning or credits at the end • ability to send and receive emails
• overlaying videos with text or images • signatures
• speeding up or slowing down footage • prioritising of emails
• rotating footage • delayingdelivery of emails
• using more than one video track • delivery and read receipts
• transitioning between clips (e.g. fade) • rules that can be applied to email messages (e.g. moving
• add backing music, narration or other sound messages that contain a specific subject to a specific
folder)
• using picture-in-picture to show two video clips at once.
• using more than one email account at once
Video editing software does have some downsides and • adding attachments to messages
these include:
EH • digital signatures and encrypted messages
• usingupalotofprocessingtime • integration with a calendar
• requiring a large amount of RAM • inviting contacts to a meeting in the calendar and
• importing raw video files can take a long time receiving responses.
• encoding the final video takes a very longtime.
You will learn more about video editing in Chapter 10. TASK
Ifyou are unfamiliar with any of the features above, then
Communications software find out more about them. There are several freeware
email clients that you could download and use.

Q Remember
Communications software can covera range of tasks
Web authoring software
including instant messaging, audio conferencing, video
conferencing and email.

Instant messaging software allows a user to communicate

Q Remember
Web authoring software is used for the creation and
with another user by sending text-based messages which editing of websites.
are instantly sent and received. This can be a slow form of
communication because of the need for typing, but some There are now many online content management systems
people prefer it to having a real conversation. and other tools that are used to create and update
Audio conferencing allows users to speak and listen to
websites, but some web developers sometimes prefer to
use offline web authoring software such as Dreamweaver.
each other in a similar way to a telephone call. The main
difference is that more than two people can be included Web authoring software can be very complex to use
in the conference. This is usually achieved with voice over because of the vast number of configurations available
internet protocol (VOIP). A popular example is Skype. Making for web pages, which is why using an online tool like
conference calls over the internet is usually free of charge www.wix.com enables people with little experience of
but it does require every participant to be logged on at the websites to create a site quickly, although it can be difficult
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

to customise it to exact requirements. Web authoring • wind speed

software gives the most flexibility and websites can be • distance (measured by lasers)
configured exactly as required. • pH (acid/alkaline) levels.
Features of web authoring software include: Control software will control devices such as:
• common navigation bar • lights
• ability to publish individual files or sites to a web server • motors (e.g. to make windscreen wipers move)
• preview of web pages • speakers/sirens
• viewing and editing in either what you see is what you • heating.
get (WYSIWYG) view or Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) code view or a mixture of both Apps
• adding basic HTML features such as tables, horizontal An app is another name for a program. It is a piece of
lines and headings software that can run on a desktop computer, over the
• management of a web page’s metadata internet, on a tablet computer or on a mobile phone.
• designing templates that can be applied to all pages The most common reference to ‘apps’ is when referring
to software that is designed to work on mobile devices
• interactive features such as interactive buttons
such as tablets or mobile phones. In this case, apps are
• forms and form fields optimised to work with touch screen interfaces and
• validation of form fields. smaller screens. They will provide essential features
Control and measuring software that can be carried out using the limited interface of
mobile devices, but often lack more complex features

Q Remember
due to the need for more processing power or
Control software is used for controlling devices that are
not part of the computer system. Measuring software is
used to measure values in the real world.
accurate input devices such as a mouse and
keyboard.
Apps are also available over the internet and usually exist
within web pages. For example, webmail is an app that
m
allows a user to manage their emails. Other examples
include online games, online office software (e.g. Office
An automated house would require control software 365), content management systems, online banking and
to turn lights on and off, open a garage door, turn online shopping.
on the heating, open blinds and sound a burglar
alarm. The measuring aspect of the software would Applets
measure the level of light and time of day and turn An applet is a small program that is designed to carry out a
on the lights when appropriate. It would also detect specific task. An applet cannot run on its own but must be
whether security sensors were triggered before executed from within another piece of software. Applets
sounding the burglar alarm. Heating would only be are often known as add-ins, add-ons or extensions. They
turned on based on the measurement of the current can carry out additional tasks that the original software is
temperature. not capable of doing or they can simplify tasks within the
original software.
Control and measuring software is used in a wide variety
of situations including automated features of cars (e.g. TASK
automatic windscreen wipers), science experiments, Explore some of the extensions available to Google
weatherstations, pollution management and traffic lights. Chrome and add-ins available to Microsoft Excel.
Measuring software will measure values from sensors
including:
Evaluate application software for a given
• pressure (amount of pressure applied) task
• moisture Based on your understanding of a variety of software
• temperature applications, you will now need to evaluate the
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

suitability of a software application for a given task.

When evaluating, you need to consider both the reasons TASK
why the application would be suitable and also the A supermarket needs to decide how best to use
reasons why the application would not be suitable. You the space within the shop. More space should be
should then make a conclusion. In real life, this is what allocated to profitable items. Give reasons for the use of
you would do to advise somebody which application spreadsheet software to assist with deciding how much
they should use. space to allocate to each type of product.

You could also be asked to give reasons for the use of

a given application for a given task. In this situation,
you would only need to give positive reasons why that
application would be suitable. Introduction: A warehouse company needs to
keep accurate records of how many of each product is
When analysing and evaluating, you should consider currently in stock and to where each product has been
which features of the application make it suitable for the delivered. It also needs to know when new stock is due to
specific task that has been presented to you. To do this, arrive and ensure that stock levelsdo not fall too low.
you will need to identify the important aspects of the task
and relate the useful features of the application to each Question: Evaluate the use of a database
aspect of the task. management system (DBMS) for this task.
Start by identifying the important parts of the
question that you will relate to in your answer.
These should include warehouse, records, products,
stock and stock levels. Then consider what data
Question: Evaluate and discuss the use might be used in this database and relate features
of spreadsheet software for deciding what the of a DBMS to how that data might be used. You
best tariff is for a customer to use for a mobile should also consider the problems with using a
phone. DBMS or other software that would be appropriate.
Start by identifying the important parts of the Answer: A DBMS will be able to relate data stored
question that you will relate to in your answer. in tables for products, deliveries, destinations and
These should include tariff, customer and mobile sources. For example, a foreign key of ProductID in
phone. Then consider what data might be used the delivery table could relate to a primary key of
in this spreadsheet model and relate features of a ProductID in the product table.
spreadsheet to that data.
A query could be created in a DBMS to find all
Answer: Spreadsheet software will enable the the stock where stock levels are low so that more
customer to experiment with different variables stock can be ordered. This would be achieved by
(inputs), such as the purchase cost of the mobile using criteria to compare the current stock level
phone, number of minutes they normally use and with a field that stores the minimum stock level
the amount of data needed. that should be maintained. If the current stock
Formulae and functions can be used to calculate level falls below the minimum stock level, then
each tariff, including the total cost over the period the product will be included in a re-order query.
of the contract. A DBMS could produce graphs to show how much
Graphs could be used to compare the cost of stock has been delivered by the warehouse to each
buying a mobile phone up front with a SIM-only destination. For each record in the destination
tariff and buying a tariff which includes a mobile
table, the number of products that have been
phone. delivered to that destination would be counted.

A separate worksheet can be used to store a table However, spreadsheets can also be used to
of tariffs and another worksheet for the customer create graphs of the stock and the graphs can
interface. be customised in more detail when using a
spreadsheet such as deciding on axis
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

Different types of user interface

titles, grouping destinations based on their
An interface is the boundary between two systems. A
geographical location and choosing the intervals to
user interface is the boundary between the user and
display on axes.
the computer system. A user interface represents the
Databases can be very complex to set up whereas a communication between a user and the computer system.
spreadsheet could be set up quickly with worksheets This communication can take many forms.
for products, destinations and deliveries. Databases
require tables, field types, field lengths, primary keys, Command line interface
foreign keys, relationships, queries and reports all to A command line interface (CLI) allows a user to enter text
be set up following a very clearly defined structure. commands to which the computer system will respond.
Conclusion: Although the spreadsheet would The computer system will respond by producing results in
be simpler to set up, it would not be able to easily a text format.
manage the complex relationships needed for stock
control and deliveries and so a DBMS would be
appropriate for the warehouse in this case.
!:\Uindows>cd logs
l:\Uindows\Logs>dir
U lurne in drive C has no label.
*
Uo lume Serial Number is C8FD-8C8S
TASK
Directory of C:\Windows\Locfs
Give reasons for the use of the following applications for 29/01/2015 12:07 <DIR>
each scenario given. Remember that you only need to 29/01/2015
18/05/2015
12:07
03:12
<DIR>
<DIR>
give positive reasons. 09/12/2014 13:53 .
254,487 DirectX log
17/10/2013 17:00 <DIR> DISM
17/10/2013 18:10 <DI R>
22/ 08/2013 16:36 <DIR> Ho me Group
05/2014 00:09 <DIR> agon
Application Scenario 3/05/2014
2/08/2013
00:10
16:36
<DIR>
<DIR>
SK agon Software
SettingSync
9/10/2013 10:17 <DIR> SetupCl pTask
Word processor A charity sends out monthly 8/06/2015
9/01/2015
03:40
12:07
<DIR>
<DI R>
SystemResto
V/ indo ws Backup
newsletters. They require a 1 File<s>
12 Dir<s>
,487 byt
5,402,001,408 byt free
standard layout that will be C:\Uindows\Logs>copy dir
rectx.log f:\
used every month and they 1 file<s> copied.
would like each newsletter to be \Uindows\Loi
addressed personally to their Figure 2.20 - Command line interface.
supporters,
Web authoring A primary school wants to create In this example, the user has Changed the directory
software a website that can be updated (folder) to the logs directory (‘cd logs’). Then the user has
regularly. It must include a requested a listing of the directory (‘dir’). Finally the user
navigation bar with links to each copies the file directx.log to the root directory of the f
page and a contact form, as well drive (‘copy directx.log f:\’). The user gets a confirmation
as general information about the message that one file has been copied. The only prompt
school. that the user gets is information about which directory is
currently active (‘C:\Windows\Logs>‘)
Video editing A church records the preacher’s
software talk each week including the video.
There are three cameras used in CLIs use very little memory so they are useful in old systems
total plus a microphone for the or for maintenance of very small systems/devices (e.g. engine
preacher. management systems). They are also useful for technical
users who need to carry out complex operations which
Turn your answers into evaluations by also looking at cannot be performed using more user-friendly interfaces.
reasons why each application would not be suitable for However, CLIs can be difficult to learn and use because users
each task and giving a conclusion. have to learn and remember all the commands, and errors
are easily made when entering those commands.
 f' '•

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Graphical user interface GUIs are intuitive to use which means they are easy to
learn because commands are represented by pictures and
0 menus provide options that can be selected. However,
Edit View Window Help
they can be restrictive for some technical users who need
®
Open From Acrobat.com... ' 1©®
29
to carry out unusual tasks.
£5 Create PDF Online...
M Save Ctrl+S
Save As... Shift+Ctrl+S Dialogue interface
A dialogue interface refers to using the spoken word to
Figure 2.21 - Graphical user interface.
communicate with a computer system. A user can give
commands using their voice and the computer system
The most common type of interface that we use is can respond by carrying out an action or with further
a graphical user interface (GUI). GUIs are found on information using a synthesised voice.
desktop computers, tablet computers, mobile phones,
televisions, set-top boxes, photocopiers and some in-car
entertainment systems.
GUIs can include some or all of the elements shown in Give me directions
Table 2.04. to the Taj Mahal

Windows An area of the screen devoted to a

specific task, for example a software 4
application, a file within a software
application or a print dialog box. X
Icons An image that is used to represent a
program, file or task. The icon can be
selected to open the program, file or
task.
Menus Menus are words on the screen which
represent a list of options that can be
expanded into further sub-menus. Figure 2.22 - Dialogue interface.
Pointers This is the method of representing
movement from a pointing device such Dialogue interfaces are very popular with mobile devices,
as a mouse or the human finger on a including mobile phones and in-car entertainment
touch screen. The pointer is also used systems. Some cars will accept commands such as
to select and manipulate objects on the ‘Temperature 20’ or 'Call John Smith at home’. Mobile
screen. phones will accept commands and questions such as
‘What is the time in Islamabad?’ or ‘Give me directions
Table 2.04 - Graphical user interface elements. to get home’. Some automated telephone systems will
recognise voice, too, so that the user doesn’t have to use
The acronym WIMP is commonly used to remember these the dial pad to input information.
elements.
A big advantage of dialogue interfaces is that no hands
Complex GUIs require a lot of memory to operate, but are required, which makes them suitable for use in cars
simpler GUIs can be used where memory is limited. or when holding a telephone. In many circumstances,
Although CLIs don’t require much memory, simple GUIs words can be spoken by a user more quickly than a user
can be used instead of a CLI in small systems such as can type them. There is no need for a physical interface
embedded systems. It is commonplace to find simple with dialogue interfaces , so they are suitable for systems
web-based GUIsforthe maintenance of devices such as such as home automation where voice commands can be
routers, switches and printers. given from anywhere to control equipment such as lights,
 2: Hardware and software

entertainment systems and curtains. With entertainment One of the biggest problems with gesture interfaces is
systems such as televisions, the user does not have to accuracy. In order for a gesture interface to be effective,
find a remote control to use and anybody in the room can it needs to accurately interpret the movements made
give the command to increase the volume or change the by the human user. Tracking individual fingers, arms,
channel. eyeballs and legs requires highly accurate cameras or
sensors. This is why many virtual reality applications still
The main problem with this type of interface Is the
use sensors attached to various parts of the body in order
computer system’s ability to recognise the spoken word.
to improve accuracy. It can also be very difficult to control
Many things can make it difficult for the computer to
a pointer when a finger is in mid-air rather than when
understand, including accents, different voices, stammers
firmly fixed to a touch screen or holding a mouse.
and background noise (e.g. a car’s engine). Dialogue
interfaces also require the user to know what commands
are understood by the computer system as otherwise Colour, layout, font size, quantity of
the system will not know how to respond. Some dialogue information and controls in user interface
interfaces will give prompts telling the user from which design
options they can choose. Systems are not intelligent When designing a user interface, it is very important
enough to simply understand requests in any format that to ensure that it is accessible and efficient for the user.
the user chooses. Therefore the colour, layout, font size, quantity of
information and controls need to be considered when
Gesture-based interface designing the interface.
Gesture-based interfaces will recognise human motion.
Colour
This could include tracking eyes and lips, identifying hand
signals or monitoring whole body movement. Text must be legible. This means using a light font on a

There are many applications of gesture-based interfaces,

including gaming, which have led to the development of
other gesture-based interfaces. The original Nintendo
dark background or a dark font on a light background.
For example, black text on a white background works
well, but black text on a grey background is very difficult
Bi
to read. It’s also important to avoid usingforeground and
Wii enabled gamers to move their hands while holding a background colours that clash, such as red and green
remote controller and that movement would be mimicked which are indistinguishable to people who are colour
in games such as ten pin bowling and boxing. Microsoft’s blind. The focus must be on accessibility rather than
Xbox took this a stage further and was able to track making an interface look pretty. If an interface is difficult
whole body movement without any devices being held to read due to clashing colours, then it will take the user
or worn by the user. This enabled gamers to fully engage longer to complete tasks.
with a game using their whole body, so boxing could now
become kick-boxing and ten pin bowling could include a If an organisation has a house style then the corporate
run-up. colours should be used within the interface so that it
looks as if it belongs to the organisation. Users expect
Many computer systems, including mobile devices, hyperlinks to be in blue and so blue should he used rather
are now starting to accept hand gestures as a way of than another colour. Users expect green to mean ‘go’
controlling objects on screen. For example, a swipe of the or ‘good’ and so confirmation buttons and ‘OK’ buttons
hand across a screen may close a program, while pinching could use green, whereas ‘cancel’ and ‘no’ buttons could
fingers together in front of a screen may zoom outon an be red. It is important that text is also used so that colour
image. This can avoid greasy screens and could help with blind users can access the interface too. Colour can also
infection control in hospitals and specifically in operating be used to highlight information such as an important
theatres. message or instruction.
Gestures can be an essential form of interaction for
some disabled users who cannot use conventional input Layout
devices. A person who has no control from the neck Careful consideration should be given to the layout
downwards could control a computer system with their of information, icons and inputs on a screen. Similar
eyes because the computer can track the movement of information, icons or inputs should be grouped together.
each eye. For example, icons that perform a formatting function
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

should all be next to each other and inputs about contact Controls
details should be together. There should be sufficient Controls are used on forms. Table 2.05 shows some of the
space separating objects on the screen so that the user controls that are available to a user.
can identify those objects clearly, but at the same time
it’s important to try to fit all related objects on the screen
Mental models
together.
A mental model is a person’s understanding of how
Prompts for text boxes or other inputs should always be something works. That understanding may be different for
just above or to the left of those inputs when working different people depending on the different experiences
with languages that read from left to right. Similarly, text each person has had in life and the assumptions they
should be left aligned, numbers right aligned and decimals make about how something works.
aligned on the decimal point. Instructions should always
be at the beginning of a form or just before each input,
whereas confirmation and cancel buttons should be at the
end of a form. A person understands that a professional soccer
Essential information should always be displayed in player in a top league earns a lot of money. They
a prominent position. Additional information such as therefore may assume that all sportsmen in the top
detailed help can be available through a hyperlink or pop¬ leagues get paid a lot of money. But it may be that
up message, but should not use up valuable space on the cricket players and bowls players get paid a lot less.
main interface.
When it comes to designing an interface, the person is
Font size the user. The user has their own understanding of how a
The standard size of font for reading is 11 or 12 points computer system and its interface works and will make
which is legible for most users. This should be used their own assumptions based on their own experience.
wherever possible, with titles in slightly larger fonts. It The more experience a user has had with a computer,
is important that the font size is consistent throughout the more easily they will learn new interfaces and new
the interface so that it does not confuse users. A larger systems. But it is not just their computer experiences
font size should be used for young children. One of the that matter. Life experiences are also important.
biggest problems with interfaces is that they can vary
based on the size of screen and so what looks good
on a desktop monitor may not look good on a mobile
phone. It’s therefore important to test the interface on A mental model of how to access a paper document
a variety of screen sizes to see what happens to the may be something like:
legibility. Fonts that are too large take up too much 1 Find the appropriate filing cabinet.
space on screen meaning that not all information can
2 Find the appropriate folder from the folders stored
be seen at once, whereas fonts which are too small
in alphabetical order.
make reading difficult and so slow down productivity.
If all the required information cannot fit on one screen, 3 Look through the folder until the document is found.
then the information should be separated into more This concept has therefore been used for accessing
than one page.
documents on a computer system:
1 Find the appropriate storage area (e.g. My
Quantity of information
Documents, My Pictures, Shared Documents).
If too much information is provided to a user, then this
can cause information overload and may mean that much 2 Find the appropriate folder (usually stored in
of it is ignored. A user can typically remember seven alphabetical order but this can be changed).
items of information, so you should try to keep this as a 3 Look through the folder until the document (file)
maximum number of icons or inputs that are grouped is found (the order is dependent on the user’s
together. If necessary, more than one page/screen of preference, which is how a paper folder would work,
information should be used with forward and backward too).
buttons.
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

Control Description Example

Labels Labels are used as prompts or instructions to enter data. They

1
are text and cannot be edited by the user.
label 1

Iabel2

Iabel3

Figure 2.23 - Label.

Text boxes Text boxes are an area where the user can enter text such as nisiix]
their surname or credit card number. Errors can easily be made Texl

by the user when entering data into a text box, such as spelling
things incorrectly.

Figure 2.24 - Text box.

Tick boxes Tick boxes (also known as check boxes) allow the user to select
from a set of options. The user can choose as many options that a Cheeked
apply. For example, when printing, a user can choose to collate Q Tristate / Indeterminate
documents and to print on both sides. f~l Unchecked

Figure 2.25 -Tick box.

Option buttons Option buttons (also known as radio buttons) differ from tick
boxes in that only one option in a group can be selected at Yes
once.
O No
Figure 2.26 - Option button.

Drop-down Drop-down boxes aHow a user to select from a list that appears
boxes when the drop-down box appears on screen. Only one option can
| List item 3
List item 1
!H
m
be chosen. The user can usually start typing the option so that it is List item 2
List item 3
found more quickly. Drop-down boxes are more appropriate than List item 4 5J
option buttons when there are a large number of options to choose
from, as the drop-down box doesn’t take up as much space on the Figure 2.27 - Drop-down box.
screen.

Buttons Buttons can be used to navigate through an interface (forwards

and backwards), to confirm that inputs have been completed, L_2ÿ2_J
to clear inputs, to gain help and to access any other area of an Figure 2.28 - Confirm button.
interface.

Table 2.05 - Form controls.

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Product Save Photo

Solar wall light

£25.99
Select Supplier 1 V
|10
1
3
Address 1 10 Mews Place
Phone number 04321 <ÿ
Address 2
Supplier Chelsea

Address 3 London

Postcode SW12 4DR

Email [email protected]
Supplier name Kensington Lignting

Figure 2.29 - Badly designed input screen.

Sometimes it is not appropriate to follow the user’s

TASK mental model of the real world because it would make
Criticise the input screen in Figure 2.29 and suggest an interface inefficient. For example, when searching for
improvements that could be made. information in a text book, a student would turn to the
index and then look through the index until they found the
topic they were wanted. Then the student would turn to
If interfaces can be designed to be similar to the user’s
the page that is listed in the index.
mental model, then it will reduce the amount of time it
takes a user to learn howto use the interface because With a computer interface, this process can be improved
they will already understand some of the key concepts. by using a search option whereby the student can enter
Interfaces should reflect the preconceived ideas of the the topic they are searching for into a text box and the
majority of users, but at the same time allow options for computer will respond with some suggestions of where to
different users to follow different routes. These options find that information. This is not part of the user’s mental
could include menus, icons, shortcut keys and command model of the real world, but helps to make an interface
words. The same task can be achieved in more than one more efficient than the real world.
way, which fits with each user’s mental model. Some
users may prefer to click on the B icon to make text bold
whereas other users may prefer to use the shortcut Ctrl+B.
7 Describe the difference between system software
and application software.
8 Identify two functions of an operating system.
Examples of matching the user’s mental model:
9 Evaluate the use of word processing and web
• magnifying glass forzoom authoring software forthe development of a
website.
• envelope for email
10 Describe the purpose of an applet.
• recycle bin
11 Explain how colour should be used when designing a
• cut, copy and paste. User interface.
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

2.03 Utility software which folders and files will be backed up and can usually
decide where the backup will be stored.

G KEY TERMS

Utility software: software that performs some sort of

Data compression
Data compression utilities will reduce the original size of
maintenance on the computer system files so that they use up less storage space. This can be
Operating system: software that manages the hardware achieved on a file-by-file basis or for a set of files or even
within a computer system
a set of folders. It will be slower to open the compressed
file, but as it is smaller it will use up less storage and
can be transferred from one location to another more
Q Remember
Utility software is system software that performs some
quickly.

sort of maintenance on the computer system. Utility Disc defragmentation

software does not include the operating system, but
As a hard disc gets used, files are kept together in storage
an operating system may come pre-installed with some
utility software. on the same cylinder or adjacent cylinders. As files
grow in size, they use up more space on the disc and
this may no longer be on the same or adjacent cylinder.
The roles of different utility software The problem with this is that when opening the file, the
Anti-virus access arm of the hard disc drive has to keep moving to
Anti-virus software is sometimes referred to as anti¬ different locations which makes opening the file a slow
malware software as it deals with other threats such process.
as adware and spyware as well as viruses. It has two When files are deleted, gaps are left on the disc. When all
main functions. The first is an anti-virus monitor that
the cylinders have been used, the only space to store files
is continually monitoring the system for viruses and
is within the gaps. If the gaps are not bigenough, then files
malware. If the anti-virus monitor detects any unusual have to be split across gaps, meaning that they become
behaviourortell-tale signs of viruses or malware then it defragmented.
will prevent them from being executed so they cannot
cause damage to files or programs. The second function
is to check for viruses or malware that may already
be on a system. This is usually known as scanning the
system. If anything is found then the user will usually In Figure 2.30, files have been neatly stored on the
be given the option to disinfect the affected area, put it disc with file A, followed by file B, then file C.
into quarantine or ignore it. Ignoring it is very dangerous
[A [A IX B
lB 1B lc lc
because it means the virus or malware will be executed
and may have unexpected results. Disinfecting is the Figure 2.30 - Non-fragmented files.
safest option as it completely removes the threat from the The next diagram shows how each of the files has
system, but it does mean that any data or program that got bigger. First of all file A got bigger with an extra
had been affected would be deleted. The compromise is two sectors, then a new file D was added, then file
to put the affected area into quarantine. This is a safe area B got bigger by a sector, then file A again by a sector
where the virus or malware cannot be executed, but the and finally file C.
data or program remains isolated until it can be checked
more thoroughly. l» I* l» B
I» lc |c l« l« 1° l» l» |C I
Figure 2.31 - Fragmented files.
Backup
Backup utilities create a second copy of data and The files are fragmented and so they need to be
programs that are in storage. A backup utility can be defragmented as in Figure 2.32.
executed by the user, in which case the backup takes
place when the user asks it to, or it can be scheduled to IA lA lA B B lB |c |c |A |A | D |B |A |C 1
execute at a predetermined time so that the backup takes Figure 2.32 - Defragmented files.
place automatically. The user is usually able to select
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• Additional items 4 to 5 are added to the green file,

which are fragmented from the green file items 1
In Figure 2.33, files Q and S have been deleted.
to 3.
|p |p | |R |R 1? T |T |T |T • The orange file is then stored as items 1to 7.
Figure 2.33 - Non-fragmented files. • The blue file is then deleted.
A new file U needs to be stored but it requires four Now watch what happens as the purple file is
sectors. It could end up being stored as in Figure added as items 1to 2 where the blue file used to
2.34. be and the green file items 6 to 8 are added in a
fragmented manner.
[P [p IU4 I R [R [R T |T |T |T |ui |u2 |u3
Finally, watch how the file is defragmented
Figure 2.34 - Fragmented files. by moving files into blank spaces and then
Defragmentation can solve this problem by reorganising them so each file is kept together.
temporarily moving U4, moving all of R next to P,
moving all of T next to R and then moving all of U
next to each other, as shown in Figure 2.35. Formatting
When a disc is prepared for first time use, it needs to be
[p [p Iu4 |R [R [R TT Tr [T IUI IU2 IU3 formatted. Formatting is the process of organising the
Figure 2.35 - Defragmented files. tracks on the disc into sectors. Each sector is where data
will be stored. A used disc can also be formatted, in which
A defragmentation utility will reorganise all the files so case all data will be lost and the tracks prepared again as
that each file is contiguous (kept together). It will do this if the disc was being used for the first time.
by moving fragmented parts of files and small files to free
space on the disc and creating space on whole cylinders File copying
or adjacent cylinders. It will then move the defragmented Files can be copied using features within an operating
files to a place where the whole file is kept together. system’s own interface. However, this can be slow and
This can significantly improve the performance of a options are limited. File-copying utilities enable users to
computer system, especially if program files have become have more control over which files are copied and how
fragmented and can be defragmented. they are copied. For example, a user may only want to
copy word processing documents that are within a series
of folders and they may want all the files to be copied to a
TASK single folder on the destination storage. It is also possible
O CD 2.02 FragmentationDefragmentation to synchronise files across multiple storage locations or
even multiple computer systems, so that when a change is
Open CD 2.02 FragmentationDefragmentation. made to a file in one location, it will then be updated in all
In the grid, each colour represents a file, and each other locations.
cell represents an item.
Deleting
• The red file is originally stored as items 1to 7.
Some files become locked by an operating system and
• The blue file is then stored as items 1to 4. it becomes almost impossible to delete them. Deleting
• Additional items 8 to 10 are added to the red file, utilities can overcome this problem by deleting locked
which are fragmented from the red file items 1to 7. files and folders. When files are deleted using normal
deletion methods, the data is still on the disc although the
• The green file is then stored as items 1 to 3.
user can’t see it. Therefore another function of deleting
• The cyan file is then stored as items 1to 5. utilities is being able to delete files permanently so that
• Additional items 4 to 5 are added to the blue file, they cannot be restored or accessed. Some deletion
which are fragmented from the blue file items1to 3. utilities will remove temporary files that are no longer
needed by the computer system, or files that are no longer
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

used but haven’t been deleted when a program has been customised to the needs of the client and will meet the
uninstalled or a user profile removed. requirements of the client.
When software already exists and is purchased online or
from a shop, it is known as off-the-shelf software. The
software will have been written for a general purpose
12 List two utilities.
that is likely to be useful to a large market. Anybody can
13 Describe the role of anti-virus software. purchase the software for a specified price.

2.04 Custom-written versus off- 14 Describe off-the-shelf software.

the-shelf software 15 Describe two drawbacks of custom-written
software.

Custom-written: software that is written especially to meet

the requirements of a client
Off-the-shelf: general purpose software' available to a large
2.05 Compilers and interpreters
market
O KEY TERMS

Compiler: translates high-level programming language into

When a client requires a software solution that will carry an executable file in machine code
out a specific purpose that is unique to their organisation, Interpreter: translates high-level programming language into
they will ask for the software to be written for them. This machine code, one line of source code at a time
is known as custom-written software because it is

Custom-written software Off-the-shelf software

The entire development cost of custom-written The development cost of off-the-shelf software is spread
software is met by the client for whom it is written, between all the customers who purchase it at a specified
which makes it very expensive. price, which means the cost is much lower.
Custom-written software takes a long time to develop, Off-the-shelf software is immediately available, so the
so the client will have to wait before being able to use customer can start using it straight away.
the software.
The requirements of the client can be met precisely Some tasks that the customer needs to carry out may not be
with no additional features that are not necessary. possible and there will be lots of features that the customer
never uses.
The developers of the software will ensure that the The software may not be compatible with existing hardware,
software is compatible with the hardware, software and software and data used by the customer.
data used by the client.
As the software will not have been used before, apart The software will have been used by thousands of customers
from testing, it is likely that bugs will be found within and bugs will have been identified and fixed, and patches will
the software as it gets used by the client. be released as more bugs are found so that the software runs
as expected.
The client will have access to support from the Customers will be able to get support from a wide range of
company that developed the software. sources including telephone support, discussion forums and
online training.

Table 2.06 - Custom-written software versus off-the-shelf software.

 1

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Compilers were introduced earlier in this chapter. 2.06 Summary

Interpreters were introduced earlier in this chapter.
Hardware devices are the physical components of
a computer. Internal hardware includes the CPU,
Compiler and interpreter differences motherboard, RAM, ROM, graphics card, sound card,
hard disc drive and solid state drive. External hardware
Compiler Interpreter components include a monitor, keyboard, mouse,
Translates source code Translates source code printer, camera, webcam, scanner, OCR, MICR, OMR,
into object code all into object code one line barcode reader, flash memory drive, portable hard disc
at once in advance of at a time, drive, Blu-ray disc drive and memory card. Input devices
execution. allow data to be sent to a computer and output devices
allow the communication of data/information from a
Compiled object code Source code Can be computer.
will only work on the translated into object
operating system it has code for more than one Software are programs that run on the hardware,
been compiled for. operating system. System software includes operating systems,
device drivers, utilities, compilers, interpreters
Object code is ready to be Object code has to be and linkers. Application software includes word
executed without delay. generated, so additional processing, spreadsheets, database management
time is added to the systems, graphics manipulation, photo editing, video
execution time. editing, communications, web authoring, control
Compiling can take a Only the required code and measuring, apps and applets. Utility software
long time, which is not needs to be interpreted, can include anti-virus/anti-malware, backup, data
appropriate for on-the-fly so this is efficient for on- compression, disc defragmentation, formatting, file
i
testing. the-fly testing. copying and deleting. Off-the-shelf software is software
that already exists and can be purchased online or
!
Table 2.07 - Compiler and interpreter differences. from a shop and custom-written software is written
especially for an organisation to meet their specific
requirements.
Different user interfaces include a command line interface,
16 Describe the function of a compiler. graphical user interface, dialogue interface and gesture-
17 Describe two advantages of an interpreter over a based interface. When designing a user interface, the
compiler. following should be considered: colour, layout, font size,
quantity of information and controls.

Review questions
Geraldine has purchased a new computer. It includes a motherboard, CPU and RAM.
1 a Describe the purpose of a motherboard. [1]
1 b Some of the data needs to be available when the computer is turned off. Identify a
suitable device that will fulfil this function. [1]
1 c Explain why Geraldine will need a graphics card. [2]

Geraldine has been advised that she should keep a backup of the data stored on her computer.
2 Givereasonsfortheuseofcloudstorageforthispurpose. [4]
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software

A local council with over 500 employees and several servers backs up its data using magnetic
tape. :
3 Explain why magnetic tape is used for this backup. [6]

The council carries out regular surveys of residents.

4 Explain why an optical mark reader (OMR) would be appropriate for inputtingthe results of
the surveys. [4]

The council needs some new software for waste management that will link in with their website
where residents can log problems such as missed collections.
5 Evaluate the use of a custom-written software solution for this purpose. [6]

The council uses video editing software to prepare public information videos.
6 a Identify two features of video editing software. [2]
6 b Give two examples of how the council could use those two features. [2]
 Chapter 3

- Monitoring and control

Learning objectives
I

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

m identify a range of different sensors

describe how sensors are used in monitoring and control technologies
evaluate using monitoring and control technologies in everyday life

w
 Chapter 3: Monitoring and control

3.01 Sensors • The sensorwill constantly monitorthe surrounding

environment
• The data readings from the sensorwill normally be
Sensor: a device that records data about the surrounding
analogue. Therefore, they will be converted to a digital
physical environment signal for a computer system to process. This is done by
Input device: a device that allows data to be entered into a an analogue to digital converter
computer system • The digital signal is then sent to a microprocessor. The
Analogue: this is the smooth stream of data that we process microprocessor processes the value and compares it to
on a daily basis a pre-set value or range of values
Microprocessor: an integrated circuit used in monitoring and • If the value is outside the acceptable range, the
control technologies microprocessor will send a signal to an actuator to
Actuator: this is a type of motor that controls a mechanism or trigger any action that needs to be taken.
system
Infrared: a wave of light emitted by an object that is invisible A real-life example of a control technology in operation
to the naked human eye would be an automated street light. This may include the
Microwave: an electromagnetic wave of energy following stages:
Piezoresistance: a specific level of electrical charge that is
• A light sensor will constantly monitorthe level of light
linked to a specific level of resistance or pressure
present in the surrounding environment.
Humidity: the amount of water in the atmosphere
• The analogue data from the reading will be converted to
Photoresistor: a light controlled resistor
a digital value by an analogue to digital converter.
• The digital signal is sent to a microprocessor and the
A sensor is an input device that records data about the microprocessor will compare the value to a pre-set range.
surrounding physical environment. The sensor inputs this
• If the value is outside the pre-set range, the
data into a computer system to be processed. Once the
microprocessor sends a signal to an actuator that will
data has been processed, if necessary, an output can be trigger the action to turn the street light on or off.
triggered as a response.
• The whole process will then be repeated.

© TIP
We can represent this as a flowchart:

Sensors can automatically enter data into a computer system, Start

removingthe need for a human to manually enterthe data.
They can be very beneficial as it can increase the accuracy of
the data by removingthe possibility of human error.
Light sensor takes
reading
Using sensors can also be very beneficial in environments
that could be harmful and dangerous for a human, for
example in a nuclear plant to detect radiation levels, or Analogue data converted
inside an active volcano to detect changes in activity. to digital value

Monitoring and control technologies make use of many

different sensors. Monitoring technologies use sensors to Value sent to
monitor an environment, often collecting data about the microprocessor
environment.

Q Remember
Control technologies use sensors to automatically control
Microprocessor compares
value to a pre-set range

elements of a system, or a whole system, by using the

data from them to trigger an action or event.

Is value in Signal sent to actuator to

The basic concept behind most monitoring and control i— N
range?
Y
turn street light on/off
systems is very similar. They will normally go through the
following steps:
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

This is an example of a control system at work. It is a control Motion sensors are not error proof and can sometimes
system as an action is triggered to control an element of the cause a false alarm to sound.
system as a result of the monitoring that is taking place. A

m
monitoring system outputs results in a different way. Rather
than an action being triggered, the results of the readings
taken from the monitoring can be output in the form of
graphs or charts. This allows the readings to be compared
and any patterns ortrends to be identified. This information
can then be used to inform any future decision making.
Monitoring systems can be used in scientific experiments.
The experiments are often left to run for periods of time,
with a monitoring system taking readings at regular
intervals. The readings are then output and can be
analysed. This kind of technology removes then need for a
human to regularly take the readings. This means that the
readings can be taken over long periods of time and can
Figure 3.01 - Passive infrared sensor in a security system.
often be more accurate if taken by a system.
There are a range of different sensors that we need to be
able to define. We also need to describe how they are TASK
used in monitoring and control technologies and evaluate Find out how passive and active motion sensors can be
using these technologies in our everyday lives. combined to create a security system that is less prone
to error.

Motion sensors
A motion sensor detects movement. It can do this either
passively or actively. A passive motion sensor reads Motion sensors can be used in lots of other monitoring
the energy in its surrounding environment and detects and control systems. These include:
changes caused by movement. An active motion sensor • CCTV systems, to manoeuvre the camera to the direction
emits energy into the surrounding environment to of motion that is detected
detect any movement. An example of a passive motion • opening and closing automatic doors
sensor is a passive infrared sensor. This is a sensor that
• automaticaltyturninglightsonoroffin a room when a
detects the presence of infrared energy if it appears in its
person enters or leaves
surrounding environment. An example of an active motion
• automatically turning water taps on or off
sensor is a microwave sensor. This is a sensor that emits
microwaves and detects the changes in the reflection it • automated barriers in a car park.
receives back when bouncing off nearby objects.
Passive infrared sensors are commonly used in security
systems. These sensors are normally wall mounted in the
corner of a room. As an intruder walks in front of a sensor,
the sensor detects the infrared energy emitted by the
intruder. The detection of infrared energy by the sensor
can then trigger an alarm to sound.
Active motion sensors can also be used in security
m m
systems. A microwave sensor continuously emits
microwaves into a room. As an intruder walks through
a
the microwaves, they will be reflected back much more ' V
quickly to the sensor and it will detect the change. This
change in reflection of the microwaves can then cause an
alarm to sound. Figure 3.02 - CCTV security cameras.
 .
Chapter 3: Monitoring and control

• Chemical and nuclear plants. They are used to monitor

Hri and control the flow of gases and liquids in industrial
plants. This means that substances that are being
transported in the plant, or any chemical reactions that
are carried out, are done extremely safely. This makes
sure that a high level of safety is maintained in the
industrial plant at all times.
• Aviation and marine industry. They are used to monitor
and control the atmosphere within an aeroplane
or submarine. This is to make sure that the correct
breathing conditions are maintained.
• Touch screens. A touch screen that uses pressure
sensors is built up of multiple layers. When pressure is
Figure 3.03 - A car park barrier. applied to the top layer of the screen it is pushed into
the bottom layer of the screen, creating a connection
that generates an electrical signal. This electrical signal
informs the device of the location where the pressure
DISCUSSION POINT has been applied to the screen.
By using motion detectors in various ways a business can
be made more environmentally friendly. Using motion
sensors, a business can make sure that lights are only
turned on when a person is working in a room and they can
also make sure that no water is left running. Why could this DISCUSSION POINT
be important to a business? Pressure sensors are used extensively in industrial plants.
How would safety change within the plant if pressure
sensors could not be used and why does this make them
important?
Pressure sensors
A pressure sensor measures pressure, normally of a liquid
or a gas. The measure of pressure is based upon the force
it takes to stop a liquid or gas from expanding.
TASK
Most modern pressure sensors use a principal called
Find out how pressure sensors are used in traffic control
piezoresistance. In piezoresistance, a specific level of
systems.
pressure is linked to a specific level of charge through a
substance. If a change in the level of charge is detected,
this is interpreted as a change in pressure. Pressure
sensors can be used in things such as pipes to measure
the flow of liquid or gas through them, to make sure they
do not flow too quickly.
Pressure sensors can be used in many different monitoring
and control technologies. These include:

• The vehicle industry. They are used to form part of the S\

safety system of a vehicle. Pressure sensors are used
to monitor the oil and coolant in the vehicle. They are
used to regulate the power given to the engine based
on the pressure placed on the accelerator and brake.
The airbag safety system also uses pressure sensors.
The air bags will be triggered to inflate when a high
amount of pressure is applied to certain parts of the
vehicle. Figure 3.04 -A nuclear plant.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• Agriculture and farming. Humidity and moisture

sensors can be used to grow and farm crops in the best
conditions possible. By monitoring and controlling
the conditions in which the crops are grown, the most
perfect conditions can be created, producing the best
crops. The level of moisture in the soil can be kept
constant to help the crops grow.

Temperature sensors
Temperature sensors monitor and measure the
temperature of an environment. They do this by
measuring how much heat is present. Temperature
Figure 3.05 - A submarine cockpit. sensors are used in a great number of control
systems, many of them in our home appliances. These
include:
Moisture and humidity sensors • Washing machine and dishwasher. A temperature
Humidity sensors monitor and measure the humidity sensor is used in a washing machine and a dishwasher
that is in the air. To monitor the humidity they measure to measure the temperature of the water. A
both the moisture and temperature in the air. The microprocessor in the washing machine or dishwasher
percentage of moisture present in the air at a certain will receive the data sent by the temperature sensor and
temperature is expressed as the level of humidity. can trigger an action to heat up or cool down the water
Humidity sensors normally use capacitive measurement. if necessary.
This type of measurement uses two electrical conductors
• Dryer. A temperature sensor is used in a dryer to
that have a non-conductive film separating them.
measure the temperature of the hot air flowing into the
Moisture collects on the film and changes the level
dryer. A microprocessor in the dryer will receive the data
of voltage between the electrical conductors. The
sent by the temperature sensor and can trigger an action
measurement of the change in voltage is converted into a
to heat up or cool down the air if necessary.
measurement of humidity.
• Refrigerator and freezer. A temperature sensor is used
Humidity sensors can be used both in the home and in a refrigerator or freezer to measure the ambient
the workplace to monitor and control humidity levels, temperature inside. A microprocessor in the refrigerator
including: or freezer will receive the data sent by the temperature
sensor and can trigger an action to heat up or cool down
• Wine cellars. The humidity level in the atmosphere of
a wine cellar is very important. Too much or too little
the air if necessary.
humidity can cause the wine to spoil. The humidity level
needs to be kept at a constant and correct level in order
TASK
to keep the wine at its best.
Can you think of any other appliances in your home that
• Meteorological stations. They are used to help monitor
may use a temperature sensor as part of a monitoring
and predict weather conditions by measuring humidity
and control system?
levels.
• Controlling allergies. An atmosphere that is high in
humidity can encourage the growth of bacteria and
mould. This can trigger allergies. Humidity sensors can Light sensors
be used to monitor and control the level of humidity in Light sensors monitor and measure light. There are
a room. different types of light sensor and they measure light in
• Manufacturing. In the manufacturing of many products different ways. The most common type of light sensor is a
the level of moisture in the atmosphere is very photoresistor. This type of light sensor will change
important. If humidity is too high or too low it could its resistance when light shines on and is normally used
adversely affect the product. to measure the intensity of light. This is important in
 Chapter 3: Monitoring and control

devices such as digital cameras or street lights. The can make a system more reliable than one operated by
camera can adjust the level of flash needed depending humans.
on the level of light currently detected by the light sensor. By using a sensor or a number of sensors in a monitoring
A street light can detect when it gets dark enough to or control system, multiple readings can be taken in
need to switch the light on. quick succession. It would require people to perform
the same function, and so these people can be made
available to perform other tasks. The computer system
will make decisions based on the data it is given. It will
act logically on these decisions in the way it has been
programmed. This can be beneficial as the decisions
made and actions taken will be consistent. If a human
performed the same decision-making process, external
factors may affect the decision they make, for example
how tired they are. This could cause inconsistency in
the decision-making process and actions taken. This can
sometimes be a disadvantage and a computer system
/ may not be able to react to an unexpected event that
f a human would be able to assess and make a decision
about.

Figure 3.06 - A digital camera.

Light sensors can be used in many different devices

Q Remember
A computer system using sensors can operate 24 hours
a day, 365 days a year, meaning that monitoring can
including barcode scanners, display screens, automated be done on a continual basis. It can also remove the
lighting systems and smartphones. possibility of human error in the measurements.

TASK Sensors are also extremely beneficial for use in

Research at least two other types of sensor and explain environments that are dangerous to humans. This
how they can be used in a monitoring and control means that we can be kept safe yet dangerous
system. environments can still be monitored. Also, computers
can process data much more quickly and respond faster
to any necessary actions than a human, so a dangerous
Sensors are used in a wide variety of monitoring and environment can be monitored and controlled more
control systems. These systems are part of our everyday effectively.
lives, from helping us cross the road safely, to making
There is always a risk involved in using computer
sure our clothes are washed properly. The use of sensors
systems in monitoring and control. The system is
in computer systems can benefit us greatly. This remove
electronic and if a power failure occurs, the system
the need for a human to monitor and measure an
will not operate. If the system is controlling a crucial
environment as this can be done continuously by the
process, this could have a detrimental effect. This could
sensor. This can leave us to get on with other tasks that we
also happen with a simple system malfunction.
need to complete. It can also mean that the monitoring
and measuring is more accurate.
For a human to complete a repeated action, for example
3.02 Summary
taking a reading over and over for long periods of time, A sensor is an input device that records data about the
can be very arduous and it may prove difficult to maintain surrounding physical environment. Sensors are used in
accuracy. A computer system that has a sensor that monitoring and control technologies. They monitor the
can perform this role is able to run for long periods of surrounding environment and trigger any events that need
time, with a high level of accuracy. This level of accuracy to occur to control a process.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

A monitoring system uses sensors to take readings and sensors and light sensors. There are a number of other
mostly outputs them in graphs and charts, or a simple sensors that you may have researched including sound
printout. A control system uses sensors to take readings sensors and gas sensors.
and an action can be triggered if a reading is, for example, The use of monitoring and control systems can be very
outside an acceptable range. beneficial. They can keep us safe from the need to
There are a wide range of sensors used in monitoring and monitor dangerous environments and they can carry out
control systems. These include motion sensors, pressure monitoring on a more continuous basis, as well as having a
sensors, moisture and humidity sensors, temperature higher degree of accuracy.

Review questions
1 Define the term sensor. [2]
2 Describe two types of sensor that can be used in a security system. [4]
3 Explain two benefits of using sensors to monitor the environment in a nuclear
plant. [4]
4 Evaluate the use of monitoring and control systems in household
appliances. [6]
5 Explain how a monitoring and control system could be used to create an environmentally
friendly office building. [4]

D
 *
%

its

Chapter 4
1
E-safety and health and safety

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

explain why e-safety is necessary and why data should be kept confidential
describe how personal data can be gathered by unauthorised persons and how we can protect against this
describe a number of malware issues
describe potential health and safety issues relating to using computers

\ c,

#
'4# 4
i
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

4.01Introduction There are a number of simple measures we can take to

improve our e-safety:
The use of IT is increasing all the time, making awareness
of e-safety and health and safety vitally important. • only use websites that are recommended by a trusted
E-safety is concerned with protecting personal data to source, for example, a teacher or a parent
avoid online exploitation either by bullying or identity • use a search engine that has a filterto remove
theft. It is also associated with protecting software against inappropriate content
malware issues. Health and safety is concerned with • do not open any email attachments from a sender you
protecting both the person using the IT from physical do not recognise
harm, and protecting the computer itself. • be very cautious when providing personal data
• be cautious about any pictures or opinions that you post
4.02 E-safety or send to people
• do not become friends on social networking sites with
KEY TERMS people you do not know
Confidential: needs to be kept secret
• never arrange face-to-face meetings with a person that
you meet online
Legitimate: genuine and a real document
Malicious code: code that is intended to harm a computer
• make sure you set all the privacy controls that are
available on social media accounts
• report and block any unwanted user
• use a nickname or pseudonym when using the internet
Q Remember
Personal data is extremely valuable and a lot of harm can
for entertainment, for example, playing games.
Revealing personal data online can lead to cyberbullying.
be done to someone if their personal data is used against
them. It is therefore vital that it is kept confidential. This is most prominent amongst young people.
Cyberbullying is using the internet and mobile devices for
bullying. Social networking and messaging facilities are
A person should be very careful about revealing their most commonly used in cyberbullying. A person may reveal
personal data, such as their bank details, medical information about their interests or their opinions and
records, their salary, and sometimes sensitive data, another person may choose to bully them based on that
such as their political opinions. Revealing personal data information. Therefore, we should be very careful about the
could lead to criminal activity, such as identity theft. It data we post and make sure that we do not allow people to
can also lead to more personal matters and could be see data that we wouldn’t want them to know.
used for something as severe as blackmail or bullying.
One big issue with cyberbullying is that any malicious
By revealing personal data you are providing a person
things that are posted can be seen by many people and
with the potential ability to harm you in some way.
in certain cases may go viral. This is another reason
Therefore it is best done only when safeguards are in
why it is better to keep your personal information and
place to make sure that your personal data is secure and
close feelings to yourself. There is less potential for
protected.
people to exploit these if they are not posted for them
We are taught from a young age how to keep ourselves to use. If people do post false or malicious rumours
safe in our daily lives. However, when we are online, we about you online, you should report this behaviour to
often do not worry about our safety as much. We feel the authorities e.g. the police. This kind of behaviour is
that the internet provides us with a lot of freedom, but it often classed as harassment and is normally a criminal
also creates many risks. We often do not recognise these offence.
risks as we somehow seem to feel safer online than in
the world outside. Many people that use the internet are There are ways that you can keep yourself safer online
genuine, but it is quite simple to hide your identity online when using social networking sites, for example:
and some people exploit this. Therefore, in the same • If another person posts anything abusive about you
way we learn about how to keep ourselves safe when we online, you can report this behaviour and they could
leave the house, we should learn to keep ourselves safe face criminal prosecution. Similarly, if you post anything
online. online that is abusive about another person you could
 Chapter 4: E-safety and health and safety

face criminal proceedings. Even if the abuse isfrom an record of it and will still own the data or image you have
anonymous source, it is easy to trace from where the posted.
messages or images have been sent.
• Make sure that the passwords you have set on your Revealing personal data can lead to identity theft or
social networking accounts are strong. This means they fraud. A person stealing your identity is able to steal your
should be unusual and contain a mixture of numbers, money, borrow money in your name, and even commit
punctuation and letters (both lowercase and capitals) crimes usingyour identity. This may result in you being left
if possible. If someone else posts something abusive without any money or savings but, even worse, may result
usingyour account, it is difficult to prove that it was not in false imprisonment for crimes you did not commit. It is
you who did it. For this reason, make sure you sign out of therefore extremely important to keep any personal data
your account when you are not using it. This will prevent safe to avoid such consequences.
a person picking up your phone or using your personal As our personal data is very valuable, some individuals will
computer (PC) and gaining access to your account. go to great measures to try and obtain it. There are four
• Think twice before you post anything online. Once you main methods that unauthorised persons will exploit to
have posted it you cannot take it back again. Even if collect your personal data. These are phishing, pharming,
you delete it, the social networking site will still have smishing and vishing.

PayPal
Problem with your account, rectify now to prevent deactivation!
Dear PayPal User,

Your PayPal account has generated some critical errors on our system. If this problem is
not corrected, we will be forced to shut down your account. You are required to correct this
problem immediately to prevent your account from being deactivated.

During our verification procedures we encountered a technical problem caused by the fact
that we could not verify the information that you provided during registration. Most of your
data in our database were encrypted to an unreadable format and could not be recovered
due to system errors. Because of this, your account will not be able to function properly and
will lead to account de-activation. We urgently ask you to re-submit your information so that
we could fully verify your identify, otherwise your PayPal account will be shut down until you
pass verification process.

Click here to rectify your account problem immediately

Verification of your Identity will further protect your account against possible breach of
security. We urgently ask you to follow the link above to correct this problem as soon as
you have read this message. Your PayPal account security is our concern. We are very
sorry for the inconveniences this might have caused you.

Thank you for using PayPal!

The PayPal Team

Figure 4.01 -An example of a phishing email claiming to be from PayPal.

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Phishing The user will continue using the website as they normally
would, unaware of the redirection, and enter their
Q Remember
Phishing is when an unauthorised person attempts to
personal details that will then be stolen.
A particularly big case of pharming occurred in 2004, when
gather personal data, such as passwords and credit card
a German teenager hijacked eBay’s domain and redirected
details, by disguising themselves as a trustworthy person
or organisation. thousands of eBay users to a fraudulent site.
There are measures that can be taken to protect against
Phishing is normally carried out via electronic pharming:
communication, such as email. The email will look • Users should check if the website looks the same as
legitimate and will normally encourage a person to click when they last visited it.
on a link in the email. When the link is clicked it will take
• Users should look for the padlock security symbol
the user to a website that will ask them for their personal used to signify the HTTPS, showing that the website
details. This will be a fake website and the personal is secure, before enteringany personal and financial
details will then be stolen and used in criminal activity. details.
Phishing emails will usually contain text that will express • Usersshould run regularscansoftheircomputerwith
the need for urgent attention to a matter, for example anti-virus software that is designed to detect pharming
asking a user to cancel a subscription to a service or they programs.
will be charged, or to verify their identity to clear up a
possible security attack on their account. Phishing can
Smishing
also be an email simply asking for banking details.
Phishing gets its name from the reference to fishing for a
person’s data using bait (the legitimate looking email). ‘Ph’ Q Remember
Smishing is short for SMS phishing. It is similar to
replaced the ‘f in reference to a name given to early hackers phishing, but it is carried out using SMS text messaging
known as breaks. Phishing has been around since 1995, but rather than email.
it didn’t become an issue until about ten years later.
There are measures that can be taken to protect against An SMS text message is sent to a user that will ask them to
phishing: telephone a number or click on a link. When that number
• Users should make sure that they are cautious when is telephoned, the person receiving the call will attempt
clicking any links in an email. to get personal details from the caller. The caller could
• Usersshould question whether they know the sender of also be charged a great deal of money for the call. When
the email and only open links from known senders. a link is clicked malware is downloaded onto the user’s
• Users should check the URL that they are being linked phone. The malware can be used to collect the user’s data
to, to see if it is legitimate. This can be done by hovering to commit identity fraud and theft. It can also make the
over the link and lookingto see if the address is the real device part of a bot network. At a later stage the device
address of the site, for example www.paypal.com would could then be used to launch a denial of service attack.
be legitimate but www.paipal.com would be identified The link could also take the user to a legitimate looking
as fake because of the spelling mistake. website, as it does in phishing, and cause the user to give
away their personal details.
• Another thing that should raise suspicion is any spelling
or grammatical errors in the email content. Smishing will often entice a user into telephoning a number
or clicking the link by advising them of a profitable gain
Pharming they will receive if they do so, for example a voucher or a

Q Remember
gift card that will give them money off a product or service.

Pharming is another method of collecting personal data.

A hacker will install malicious code onto a person’s
computer or server. When a user types in a web address
Q Remember
The use of smishing is rising. This may be because people
they will be redirected to a fraudulent, but legitimate seem less suspicious about a message they receive on
looking, replica website, without their consent. their phone, rather than their computer.
 Jj

Most major web browsers have built in phishing protection will then pick up the telephone to call their bank, but the
that can help to alert a user to a possible phishing issue. line is actually still being held by the scammer. The victim
Mobile phones are not equipped in the same way. thinks they have called their bank, but it is still the scammer,
and the victim gives them their personal details, thinking
There are measures that can be taken to protect against
they are giving them to their bank.
smishing:
Unfortunately, it is often the elderly and the vulnerable
• Users should be very cautious in telephoning any that are targeted for vishing.
numbers they are sent in an SMS message.
• Users should be very cautious when clicking on any links There are measures that can be taken to protect against
in messages. vishing:
• Users should not install any applications from senders • People should exercise caution when any institution
they do not know. contacts them, especially when they ask for personal
• If a user receives a suspicious message from someone details. If in doubt hang up and call them back on a
they do know, they should check with the person that number that is known.
they have actually sent that message. • People should never give out any personal details
• Users should be wary of numbers that do not look like regarding a security issue with their account. A bank
usual mobile numbers, such as '5000’. will prevent any kind of attack on an account without
• Users can add security software to their mobile to help needing assistance from the account holder.
detect any malware.

DISCUSSION POINT
Dear Walmart shopper, Many banks will not take responsibility, and are not held
Congratulations you have responsible by the authorities, for vishing scams. This
is because the victim gives their personal data for the
just won a $1000 Walmart account to be accessed, so the money is not directly stolen.
Gift Card. Click here to Do you think it is right that the banks are not responsible
claim your gift. for refunding the money?

(cancel: reply STOP)

Figure 4.02 - An example of a smishing message claiming to

be from Walmart.
Q Remember
Malware is a computer program that is designed to
damage or disrupt a computer system and the files that
are stored on it.

Vishing
Malware can take many forms and we are going to look at
m Remember a number of them.
Vishing is short for voice phishing. It is the act of using
a telephone call to try and scam a user into giving their
personal data. The scammer will usually pretend that Trojan horse
they area legitimate business calling the person. A Trojan horse is a malicious computer program that
disguises itself as another application, such as a game or
The person who is vishing will either say they are alerting a utility program. When the application is run, the Trojan
the victim to an issue with their account, or advising the horse will act as a computer virus would, deleting and
victim of a profitable gain. They will often ask the victim corrupting files in the computer system.
subtle questions to get the personal data they want. The term Trojan horse comes from Greek mythology.
One tactic vishers will sometimes resort to, is that when A wooden horse was given as a peace offering to the
the victim become a little suspicious and wants to call their people of the city of Troy. The Trojan horse was in fact
bank to check if the call is legitimate, the scammer will not a container that held a number of Greek soldiers who,
hang up when the victim tries to call their bank. The victim when night fell, climbed out of the Trojan horse, opened
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

the city to the rest of the soldiers who were able to In certain circumstances, adware can be bundled in with
conquer the city of Troy. legitimate software downloads. This means that you may
end up with the software on your computer without actually
A malware Trojan horse works in a similar way. It looks
harmless, like an application that would be desirable, but asking to download it. This can happen when the software
is being downloaded, as you may be given the chance to
it hides a malicious program.
customise what is downloaded. For example, there may be
a hidden option to download a task or search bar that is
Worms added into your current internet browser. You can customise
A computer worm is a small computer program that uses the download and uncheck the box so that you do not
computer networks and finds security holes to replicate get the adware, but if you do not know to do this you may
itself. They can exploit a security hole in a piece of download it unknowingly. Once downloaded, the adware
software or operating system. While replicating they will can prove difficult to delete. It may not act maliciously, but
often clog up network bandwidth and can make things run will often serve as a method of advertising for the company,
slowly. ortry to get you to use their search function.

There have been a number of famous computer worms

One of these was called Code Red. Code Red occurred in Rootkit
2001 and managed to replicate itself over 250000 times A rootkit is a computer program that enables a person
in several hours. It scanned the internet for Windows to gain administrator access to a victim’s computer. It
servers, exploiting a security hole in ones that did not have normally gets installed because a victim’s password
a Microsoft security patch installed. Each time it found a is cracked. The person installing it can then use the
vulnerable server, it replicated itself onto the server and access to stop the computer recognising that the rootkit
then set off to find the next one. All the servers that were is there, so the victim will not know that someone else
affected then launched an attack on the domain for the has complete access to their computer system. Other
White House, www.whitehouse.gov. malware can then be concealed on the computer to
cause harm.
Spyware
Spyware covers quite a broad range of malware. The term Malicious bots
refers to any technology that is used to gather data about A bot is an application that is automated and used to carry
a person without their knowledge. It is most commonly out simple and repetitive tasks. These are normally tasks
used to track the movements of people online. A common that a human would find mundane and time-consuming.
type of spyware is a key logger. This is a piece of software Bots can be used for very productive reasons, but they
that records the key presses from a keyboard and will can also be used as a form of malware.
allow the person who installed it to gather personal data Malicious bots are used by cybercriminals in a variety of
about the victim.
ways:
• SPAM bots are used to bombard people’s email inbox
Adware with SPAM emails.
Adware is short for advertising-supported software. In
• Zombie bots are used to create a bot network. The bot will
its most basic form, it is simply a software program that lay dormant on a computer until an attack is launched.
is used to display adverts that are targeted at the user.
The computer will then be connected with lots of other
It can analyse the websites the user visits and will target
computers that have been compromised by zombie bots
them with advertising of a similar nature. Many program to launch a large-scale attack on an organisation.
developers will justify the inclusion of adware in their
product by claiming that it will generate revenue for them,
• Chatter bots will pretend to be humans on sites such as
social networking and dating sites.
keeping the cost of the product lower.
Adware as malware will present adverts when a user is Ransomware
browsing the web that are often shown constantly. They Ransomware is a type of malware that restricts a
are normally in the form of popupsor windows that user’s access to their computer system and files. The
cannot be closed. They will mostly just be irritating. ransomware will normally demand that the user pays
 Chapter 4: E-safety and health and safety

THE FIREWALL OF THE UNITED STATES

COMPUTER BLOCKED
This computer has been blocked to Americans by the US Government Firewall

Illegally downloaded material

ALL ACTIVITY OF THIS COMPUTER (audio, videos or software) Take your cash to one

——
HAS BEEN RECORDED has been located on your computer of these retail locations:

By downloading, those were reproduced, thereby Wafmart s

Involving a criminal offense under Section 106 of [5] UkA,.,~.
Copyright Act.

The downloading of copyrighted material via the

4
Internet or music sharing networks is illegal and Pick up a
Is In accordance with Section 106 of the Copyright MoneyPak and
Act subject to a fine or imprisonment for a penalty pure hase it with
of up to 3 years. cash at the
register.
Furthermore, possession of illegally downloaded
material is> punishable under Section 184 paragrapl -
3 of the Criminal Code and may also lead to the
confiscation of the computer, with which the files
were downloaded.

If you use webcam, Come back and enter your

MoneyPak code
videos and pictures were saved To perform the payment, enter the acquired
to unlock your Computer.
for identification. GreenDot MoneyPack code in the designated
payment field and press the .OK" button.
You can be clearly identified
by resolving your IP address a Mr AW

Figure 4.03 - An example of a ransomware message claiming to be from the US Government.

a ransom in order to regain access to their computer • A user should never open a program unless they know it
system. Some ransomware programs will completely is legitimate.
lock a user’s system and some will encrypt all of the • A user should have a firewall in place that is monitoring
files on their system in a way that renders them useless. their internet traffic.
Ransomware will normally try to enter a system in a similar • A user should regularly run an anti-virus check and
way to a Trojan horse. malware detection software on their computer
The message or ransom with which the user is presented system, to detect the presence of any malware. Any
will often imitate a law enforcement agency. It will falsely anti-virus or malware detection program should be
claim that the system has been used for illegal activity kept up to date in order to detect newly developed
and that a ransom must be paid to regain access to the malware.
system. • A user should not open any attachments to emails from
unknown users.
How can malware be avoided? • user should use open Wi-Fi points with extreme
A
caution as anybody could be connected to them.
Remember
Malware can be very difficult to remove from a computer
system. It can often take numerous scans from anti-virus 4.03 Health and safety
software, as well as the use of various malware removal
programs, depending on the type of malware infecting As well as the e-safety issues that can occur when using a
the system. computer system, there are also health and safety issues
to be aware of. A computer user should understand what
There are a number of measures that can be taken to the risks are, how they are caused and what they can do to
avoid malware: prevent them occurring.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT
i

What potential health issues could arise?

Health issue Cause Prevention

Repetitive strain injury is pain, It is caused by repetitive movements A good posture should be maintained
numbness or weakness that occurs in and actions. For example, continuous when using the computer.
the hands, arms, shoulders and neck. and repeated clicking of a mouse or
A user should also try to avoid doing
pressing of keys on a keyboard. the same action repeatedly without
This can often be triggered by poor taking regular breaks.
posture.
A wrist rest can also be used to
support a user’s wrists when
working.
Carpal tunnel syndrome is pain, It is caused by the compression of Prevention is similarto repetitive strain
numbness or sometimes a tingling a major nerve in the hand that injury, where a user should avoid
sensation in a user’s hands and passes over the carpal bones in the repeated actions and take regular
fingers. hand. This happens because breaks when working on a computer.
of repetitive and continual
movements.
Back ache and muscle spasms. These are caused by poor posture A user should sit on an adjustable
when working on a computer, and chair to make sure that they are sitting
from sitting in the same position for at the correct height for their desk
long periods of time. and computer system. A chair that
has added back support will also be
helpful.
Eye strain that causes sore, tired eyes This is caused by looking at a monitor Monitors can be purchased that have
and sometimes blurred vision. for long periods of time. settings that help avoid eye strain.
A user should also make sure they
regularly look away from the screen
and focus on a point far away from
where they are. A user should also
make sure they are sitting at the
correct distance from their monitor
when using it.
Deep vein thrombosis is when blood This is normally caused by sitting in a A user should regularly stand and
clots occur, normally in a user’s legs. chairthat puts pressure on the back move around when using a computer
of a user’s legs, mostly behind their for long periods of time.
knees.
Fatigue is when a user feels very tired This can be caused by overworking for Working for shorter periods of time
and lethargic. Fatigue can often occur continuous periods on work requires a and taking regular breaks when
alongside stress. lot of mental application. working can reduce levels of stress
and fatigue.

Table 4.01 - Potential health risks associated with using IT.

 Chapter 4: E-safety and health and safety

Head upright and over

your shoulders. — Eyes looking slightly downward
(30° range from horizontal line of sight)
Wrist in a neutral without bending from the neck.
Back should be supported by the posture (straight).
backrest of the chair that promotes
the natural curve of the lower back.

Elbows bent at 90°, forearms T)

horizontal. Shoulders should be I Thighs horizontal with a
relaxed, but not depressed. 90°-110° angle at the hip.

Feet fully supported and flat on the floor.

If this isn't possible, then the feet should
be fully supported by a footrest.

Figure 4.04 - An example of correct posture at a computer.

What potential safety issues could arise? Electric shock can Caution should be taken
occur if a user touches when handling any electrical
Safety issue Prevention
wires. It can also wires. All wires should
Fire can occur when A computer should be used in occur if wires are repaired if they look worn and
computers overheat. a room that is fairly cool and worn or haven’t been should have regular electrical
This could also well ventilated. If a number of checked. checks.
happen because of an computers are in a room it is
overloaded plug socket. advisable that the room has air Electric shock can also Liquids should be kept away
conditioning to keep it cool. occur if liquids are spilt from electrical devices.
on an electrical device,
In case of a fire occuring, a especially a loose
C02 fire extinguisher should connection.
be in any room that has a
computer.
Table 4.02 - Potential safety risks associated with using IT.
Plug sockets should not
have too many devices
plugged into them, 4.04 Summary
especially devices that
require a lot of power. Personal data is very valuable and precious and for that
reason should be kept confidential and safe. It is important
There can be trailing Make sure wires are secured in
wires, especially when some way, such as by a cable that a person knows how to keep themselves safe when
plug sockets are not management system that will
online so that they are not exploited or have their personal
near to computer clip all cables together and data stolen.
systems. A person could make them less of a risk. There are a number of ways that personal data can be
trip over these wires. collected, including phishing, pharming, smishing and
Spilt drinks can cause a Eating and drinking at a vishing. There are also a number of malware issues a
computer to short and computer should be avoided person can encounter when online, including Trojan
when food is trapped in where possible. horses, worms, spyware, adware, rootkit, malicious bots
a keyboard it can cause and ransomware.
difficulties in using the A user should be very cautious when providing any personal
computer, or even start data online. They should only do this when they are certain
a fire. that the receiver is completely legitimate. A user should make
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

sure they are cautious about any attachments or applications As well as e-safety issues when using a computer, there
they open, and any links they click. They should not open any are also a number of health and safety issues. A user
of these if they are not from a known user. should understand how to prevent these from occurring.

Review questions
1 Explain the difference between phishing and pharming. [6]
2 Describe the term ransomware. [2]
3 Describe the term malicious bot. [3]
4 Discuss the need to keep personal data confidential. [6]
5 Describe two health issues relating to using a computer and suggest how each can be
prevented. [4]
6 Describe two safety issues relating to using a computer and suggest how each can be
prevented. [4]

D
 ml
i
JCi »
Chapter 5
The digital divide
mil
By the end of this chapter you will understand:

m what is meant by the digital divide

what causes the digital divide, including differences in technology and areas of society
what can be done to reduce the digital divide

* i \
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

5.01 What is the digital divide? regular access to modern technology, and those who
have the necessary skills to make good use of the
technology. At an international level, the digital divide
describes the difference between developed and
Demographic: a particular section ofa population developing countries.
Economic: relating to a country in terms of their production
and consumption of goods and services
Broadband: a method of faster data transmission that can
carry several channels of data at once 5.02 What can cause a digital
infrastructure: the physical structures that are needed for a
service or operation
divide?
Ecommerce: business that is conducted electronically There are many factors that can create a digital divide and
Bandwidth: the amount of data that can be transmitted at they can do this for a great number of reasons.
Onetime

City versus rural areas

The term digital divide was first popularised in the 1990s. A person’s geographical location can have an effect on
It describes the technology divide (or gap) between their access to technology services. One location aspect
countries, demographic groups and economic areas. It that can affect this is whether they live in a city ora rural
is a technical, social and economic issue, which covers the area.
difference in availability and use of modern technology.
Access to high-speed internet services can differ
The divide that people experience can depend on many
aspects, such as age, status and location.
greatly between city and rural areas. The availability of
broadband services is expanding in most countries,
but not at the same rate for those who live in rural areas,

Q Remember
Many people believe that the digital divide refers merely
compared to those who live in cities.
People who live in cities have much greater access to high¬
to internet access, but it can refer to access to several speed broadband. This mainly occurs for two reasons:
forms of modern technology, including telephones,
television, personal computers (PCs) and the internet. • The infrastructure needed is mostly in place and
just needs to be improved or expanded in order to
7. provide high-speed broadband services. Therefore,

linjilrfililite the cost implications are not as great, as the current

infrastructure can be used.

DIsrisHsiit • The concentration of people, and therefore potential

customers, in a city is far greater. Therefore, there is
a greater chance of quickly recuperating the costs of
building the infrastructure needed for the high-speed
access.

iy id «
People who live in rural areas have less access to
high-speed broadband. This is mainly because the
5
1 "xedII
c
O
I
dem(KjfchicCbuntries
Connects codjmunlpatlons
>
referred describes
ready whether
infrastructure is not in place to provide the high-speed
access, therefore the cost of building the required
Figure 5.01- Terms connected to the digital divide. infrastructure would be very expensive. As the
concentration of people living in a rural area is much
less than in a city, the amount of potential customers is
All countries experience a digital divide at one level or far fewer. This means that it would take a lot longer, if
another. At a national level, the digital divide describes ever, to recuperate the costs of building the infrastructure.
the difference between those in the population who have For this reason, many broadband companies do not
 Chapter 5: The digital divide

look to provide high-speed access to people in the of Africa, India and south Asia. These are areas that
countryside. consist of countries that are less industrially developed.
This means that the experience of using the internet, in This is possibly because the less developed countries are
terms of speed, differs greatly between a user in a city having to use their financial resources to provide more
and a user in a rural area. Because of this people living in important services and do not have the funds available
to concentrate on the development of their technology
rural areas may find that they are not able to use internet
services such as film and television streaming because services. The start-up costs for these countries to build
they cannot get an internet connection that will support it. the infrastructure would be very great. This could put
Even if they are able to get a connection that will support them at both a competitive and economic disadvantage.
streaming, they may be limited to standard, rather than They may not have the ability to trade using modern
high definition, quality, as this would be the only capability technologies and therefore cannot access the same
of the connection. customer and supplier base as businesses in developed
countries. It may also affect the level of education that
Another service that can be affected depending on a can be provided as there may be a wealth of information
person’s location is access to mobile telephone internet unavailable to them that is accessed using the internet.
services. Their location will determine whether their This can have an impact on both the education and the
connection is 3G or 4G, or if they can get any connection skill level of people in those countries and prevent them
at all. from competing on an international level.
2G technology allowed people to make telephone calls and
send text messages, but accessing the internet was very Socio-economic groups
slow and cumbersome. The invention of the 3G network The rich/poor digital divide can also occur in more
made it possible for users to access the internet with their developed countries. Richer people are able to afford
mobile telephone at a reasonable speed. The development access to high-speed internet connections and expensive
of 4G has made internet access using mobile devices much advances in technology. The poorer members of society
quicker. The ‘G’ refers to the generation of network presently may not be able to afford access to these services and
available. The availability of 4G and also 3G will depend on levels of technology. This can have an impact on their
whether a person lives in a city or a rural location. level of education and ecommerce, essentially creating a
greater divide. A great number of companies are moving
their business to the internet and new businesses are being
Remember
The availability and speed of the different networks again
developed that operate using only the internet. There is
depends on infrastructure. A frequency band is used to a wealth of information available to users of the internet
provide network coverage. The strength and speed of and avast social network exists. The inability to access the
coverage will often depend on how close together the internet creates a significant divide between rich and poor
network masts are, with those closer together providing people and between countries across the world.
better coverage at a greater speed.

In a city, network masts will tend to be close together,

TIP
but in smaller towns and villages they may be much
A great number of companies are moving their business
further apart. Many rural areas do not have access to the to the internet and new businesses are developing that
4G network, and sometimes have little access to the 3G operate using only the internet.
network. This greatly limits the internet services that can
be used with a mobile telephone.
High versus low performing technologies
More versus less industrially developed areas A digital divide can also occur between people who have
The parts of the world that have greater access to higher and lower performing technologies. Those who
modern technology are the USA, Europe and northern are able to afford mobile devices with high performance
Asia. These areas mostly consist of developed countries. capabilities may be able to enjoy a better experience
Areas where access is more restricted are in some parts than those who have lower performing technologies.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

They may be able to watch movies and stream music

without interference and at a much higher quality than
those with technologies that do not have the processing
o TIP
An increased level of experience when using technology
may lead to a better lifestyle for those who can afford high
power to handle the high level of bandwidth needed
performance technologies.
for this.

rr K

W i

180%
100%
mw. >*
\
ft

160% !• .
140%
120% r
0%
No data

Figure 5.02 - Internet users in 2012 as a percentage of the country’s population.

DISCUSSION POINT to broadband with speeds of at least 30 Mbps,

Find out about the digital divide that occurs in your with 82% of households having a wired internet
country. What could be done to decrease this level of connection.
divide?
The use of modern technology in the UK is
widespread and wide-ranging. Devices such as
PCs, laptops, tablets and smartphones are used
throughout industry, education, government,
military, police and fire services. Ecommerce is
The digital divide in the United Kingdom (UK) common, with 1in 4 people shopping online at
The UK enjoys modern digital communication least once per week. In 2014 the value of goods
networks. As of 2014, commercial mobile purchased online exceeded $100 billion.
networks claimed to provide telephone and 3G Schools, colleges and universities enjoy modern
internet access to 99% of the population, and 4G technology, with broadband internet connections,
services to 41%. Additionally, a report by the UK’s wireless coverage, laptops and tablet devices. The
telecommunications regulator, Ofcom, revealed country’s National Health Service makes extensive
that 78% of the country’s population had access use of these facilities to provide fast and accurate
 Chapter 5: The digital divide

health assessments and diagnoses. Additionally, The digital divide causes many problems for the UK,
many hospitals and clinics provide information on both as a country and for its population:
websites about their quality of care and allow out¬
• Many organisations are moving their facilities online.
patients to book appointments online. For example, banks have closed branches, preferring
However, the digital divide exists in the UK and in to offer online and telephone banking instead.
several ways. For example: Those in the population who do not have access to
suitable technology will find themselves increasingly
• In 2015 the country’s Office for National Statistics
(ONS) reported that 11% (5.9 million) of the
isolated from these necessary day-to-day services.
country’s adult population had never used the • Many goods and services are cheaper online. It has
internet. Many of these adults were aged 75 and been estimated that those households that cannot
over. In the same year the Royal Geographical afford internet access also pay $560 a year more for
Society reported that 39% of people without everyday items than those who shop online.
internet access were aged 65 or over.
• For people with no, or limited, access to technology,
• The ONS found that only 68% of adults with it is often harder to find employment in the modern
physical impairments were recent internet users, world.
compared with 92% of those who were not
• Access to modern technology can help with a
disabled. Sometimes this was due to a lack of,
person’s education. Those people without access
suitable facilities being available, such as a braille
may feel they miss out on opportunities to learn or
keyboard for a visually impaired user.
practise skills.
• The UK suffers a divide caused by the cost of
services. Although mobile network coverage is
extensive, many mobile phone payment packages
are broken down into call usage and data usage.
Less wealthy people often cannot afford large data The digital divide in South Africa
costs, and so their internet access is restricted. South Africa is a good example of a country that is
Similarly, broadband access is priced according trying to decrease the digital divide. In 1995, a mere
to speed and usage. People with limited financial 0.7% 100 000 half space of the country’s population
resources can only afford slower broadband had internet access and modern technologies. South
speeds and restricted data use, which also limits Africa is a very complex society, with some areas and
access to the internet. The Royal Geographical socio-economic groups far worse off than others.
Society found that 49% of the population with In recent years the country has experienced great
little or no internet access belong to the lowest UK internalturmoil and social change, but is now growing
socio-economic groups. in stability.
• In 2013 a report by the British Computing Society Between 2000 and 2003, the government funded
found that less than 16% of people working as a drive to place computers in schools. However,
IT specialists were women. However, ICT usage despite large uptake, still only around 40% of
between men and women was found to be roughly schools have computers, with less than one-third of
equal in some areas, such as online shopping and schools using computers for teaching and learning.
banking. In 2010 it was estimated that 24% of the population
• The UK government has committed to bringing fast had internet access. By 2014, that percentage rose to
broadband access to 95% of the country by 2017. just under 49%, around 25 million people, as South
However, many users in rural areas will still not Africans have embraced the benefits of being online.
have broadband access by then. The digital divide has fallen dramatically, but mainly
because of growth in some areas of the country. The
• 70% of people living in provided accommodation
challenge for South Africa is to extend this usage into
have no internet access, and 38% of people not
those areas that have lagged behind in development.
online are also unemployed.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

wealth rather than those who do not. For example, in

2013, 3.7 million smart watches were sold. By 2014, sales
The digital divide in Singapore had risen to 6.8 million. Virtually all these sales were in
Singapore is a developed country that has some of developed countries. In 2015, Apple made its smart watch
the fastest broadband connections in the world, available to customers in just nine countries: Australia,
with more than half a million homes receiving Canada, China, France, Germany, Flong Kong, Japan, the
connections with a minimum of 100 Mbps. Over United Kingdom and the United States. The populations
86% of households have a computer, and ICT and of developing nations tend to get left behind when new
Computer Science is considered an important part of technologies emerge, although the divide lessens as these
education. technologies become more widespread and less costly.

Singapore still does experience a digital divide. Access to technology, or often a lack of it, is one of the
The country benefits from having a government biggest contributors to the digital divide. Flaving a digital
that recognises the difficulties the digital divide device that is connected to the internet allows access to
brings and is working on initiatives to help reduce educational resources, ecommerce, online banking and
the divide. Subsidy programmes have allowed entertainment, amongst other things. Many people who
students to purchase computers fortheir homes do have access are being encouraged to allow their older
at a far cheaper price than normal. The subsidies technologies to be refurbished and given to those who
also extend to broadband connection. Flowever, currently have no access.
subsidised connections are limited to 1Mbps, For those who do not understand how to use the
far slower than that enjoyed by many other technologies available, there are courses being run in
households, creating a divide. many areas to help people learn the skills needed. There
Another factor, like many other developed are also many countries that are funding community
countries, is that Singapore has an aging teaching programs, especially for those in poorer areas.
population. As a result, government initiatives In less developed countries there is a drive to set up
have seen plans put in place to provide medical cybercafes to make technologies available to communities
care at home through the use of technology. and increase their chance of a better education and
Retirement villages are being built incorporating access to facilities such as ecommerce.
technology. Sensors can monitor a patient’s health
The digital divide will exist in many different ways for a
and doctors can take advantage of the high-speed
long time yet but each initiative that is put into place will
broadband to make video conference calls to
help to close that divide a piece at a time. There is hope
check in and look over the elderly, who find travel
that this will eliminate a culture of digital divide and create
to a clinic difficult.
a culture of digital inclusion.
Additionally, initiatives have seen many public
buildings, such as libraries and community centres,
offering free internet access to the elderly in the TASK
hope of encouraging them to get online. The
Plan a letter that could be sent to a government official
country sees the internet as integral to economic
about the digital divide in your country. Make at least
and social success and is striving to reduce the gap two suggestions about how the gap could be closed.
for all its population.

5.04 Summary
5.03 The future The digital divide is the technology divide between
The digital divide tends to increase when new countries, demographic groups and economic areas. It is a
technologies become available. Younger generations technical, social and economic issue about the availability
tend to embrace technology more quickly than older and use of modern technologies. It refers to more than
generations. As new technology is usually initially just the internet and can include technologies such as
expensive, it is taken up more quickly by those who have telephones, televisions, PCs and the internet.
 Chapter 5: The digital divide

The digital divide can occur for many reasons, including A divide can occur between countries that are more
a person’s age, status and location. There are many developed and those that are less developed, between
things that can be affected by the digital divide, including people who live in cities and those that live in rural
a person’s access to ecommerce, their education, areas, between different socio-economic groups and
employment opportunities and entertainment amongst those that have higher and lower performing
experiences technologies.

Review questions
1 Describe the term ‘digital divide’. [3]
2 Discuss the impact of the digital divide on countries that are less developed. [8]
3 Describe two strategies that could be put in place to reduce the digital divide. [4]
 IWIMMI

/
M
\rJ

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

understand the advantages and disadvantages of networking computers

be able to describe the characteristics and purpose of diff erent types of networks, such as LAN, WAN, VPN, client-server,
peer-to-peer, intranets, extranets and the internet
be able to define the terms internet and World Wide Web and discuss the diff erence between the two
be able to discuss the benefits and drawbacks of using the internet
understand how the internet is used for communication
be able to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of mobile networks
understand how to set up a video and a web conference and describe how they use networks
be abje to describe how data is transmitted in a video conference
understand the impact of video conferencing on our lives

. J L, L

[
 Chapter 6: Using networks

6.01 Networking computers Advantages Disadvantages

Users can share their data Setting up a larger
KEY TERMS
with other users on the network can be
Network: a set of computers and devices connected together network. expensive, especially
so they can communicate and share resources if the network requires
Network architecture: the design of a network cabling, several servers,
switches and wireless
access points. The
A single computer is known as a stand-alone computer.
staffing costs to maintain
Up until the 1990s, computers in homes and organisations
a network can also be
were largely stand-alone devices. Today, many computers
expensive. _
are connected together.
Users can access their data Networks can have
from different computers on security risks. Many users’
the network. data may be accessed
TIP
if an unauthorised
When we connect stand-alone computers together we
create a network. user gains access to a
networked file server.
File servers can be used Viruses could easily
The first instance of computers being linked together was in to store data in a central spread from one
1969 with the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
location. This makes it easier networked computer to
(ARPANET). Universities connected computers together
to keep the data secure and another, if a network is
with the intention of being able to communicate and share to create a back-up copy. not sufficiently protected.
resources. This network was the predecessor to the internet.
Application servers can be A whole network could
Networking computers has a number of advantages and used to store software in a fail if one element of
disadvantages. central location. This can often the network fails. This
The advantages of networking computers will mostly reduce software costs as a site will depend on how the
outweigh the disadvantages. This is why we choose to licence could be purchased, network is structured.
network computers together. if available. A software site
licence is generally cheaper

Q Remember
The way a network is designed is called its architecture.
than individual licences. This
also means that software
updates would only need to
A network’s architecture can be described by its
geographical and physical nature, and by how data is be run on the server.
stored and accessed on it. Communications can be A high amount of
sent from one computer to network traffic may
Local area networks (LANs) and wide area another. cause a network to
networks (WANs) run slowly and cause
frustrating delays.
ERMS
Printers can be shared. This
Local area network (LAN): a network that covers a small means that a number of
geographical area users can share resources in
Wide area network (WAN): a network that covers a large a company or home, rather
geographical area than requiring their own.
An internet connection can
We can describe a network by its geographical and physical be shared, allowing each user
architecture. This creates two categories of network: on the network to access the
internet.
• local area network (LAN)
° wide area network (WAN). Table 6.01 - Advantages and disadvantages of a network.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

different branches often operate their networks

n
Computer
X this way.
The use of a LAN and a WAN can be compared using
several different factors.
The terms LAN and WAN describe the geographical
architecture of a network and how it is physically
structured. They do not describe how data is stored and
accessed. The two architectures for storing and accessing
data on a network are:
• client-server
• peer-to-peer.
n
Client-server and peer-to-peer networks

Server
Server: a computer on a network which provides resources
Figure 6.01- A basic structure for a LAN. that can be used by client devices
Client: a computer that is connected to a server
Peer: a computer in a network that is not connected to a
server and does not control another computer
A LAN is a network that is restricted to a small
geographical area. LANs are usually found in homes,
schools, universities and small businesses.
A client-server network uses a dedicated computer to
A WAN is a network that covers a larger geographical area. store data, manage resources and control user access.
A WAN may be contained within a country or can spread This computer is known as a server. The server acts as
across several countries. Organisations such as banks, a central point on the network that other computers
police forces and hospitals use WANs to share data. The connect to. A computer that connects to the server to
internet is a global WAN. Several LANs can be connected access the data and resources it manages is known as a
togetherto form a WAN. A business that has several client.

Computer Computer

TJ

Server Server

Figure 6.02 - A basic structure for a WAN.

 Chapter 6: Using networks

Factors Local area network Wide area network

Data transfer rates Can have up to 1Gb per Often restricted to less than 200 Mb per second.
second.
Data transmission errors Fewer errors as data packets Greater chance of error as packets are sent over
are sent over short distances. longer distances. _
Connection method Restricted to within a small Expanded to a wider location. Copper wire, fibre
location. Copper wire, fibre optic cable or microwaves are mostly used. They
optic cable or radio waves are can often use public telephone network systems,
mostly used. leased lines, transmission towers and satellite
communication.
Security Comparatively high as security Comparatively low as security is difficult to
can be easier to implement implement across a higher number of devices and
over a smaller number of connections.
devices and connections.
Ownership Mostly owned by individuals or Elements of the network often use communication
individual organisations. infrastructures owned by others. _

Table 6.02 - Comparison of a LAN and a WAN.

Network servers handle a variety of functions, Client

including: 81

• storing a database of usernames and passwords to u

control user access
• data storage
• security IT
• assigning levels of access that determine what resources
a user may access
• monitoring network traffic
• hosting of shared applications
• managing an internet connection
• scheduling and running back-ups n
• email services
• printingjobs on network printers 1=1
• domain name services.
A client-server network will usually have at least one
File Email Application
server and several clients. A network may have more than Server Server Server
one server, each one dedicated to handling a specific
function. For example, one server may handle user access, Figure 6.03 - Example of a client-server network.
while another may handle data storage. This often occurs
in larger networks where a server has to service many A peer-to-peer network has no central server to manage
clients at the same time. Spreading the load across the network. Each computer on the network shares its
several servers helps to keep the network running data and resources with all the others. No computer has
efficiently. control over another. Each computer is known as a peer.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Computer Each type of architecture has its advantages and

disadvantages. Peer-to-peer networks are often
cheaper to install and maintain than client-server
networks. Client-server networks can be expensive to
purchase and often require trained staff to maintain
them.
JJ u Advantages of a client- Disadvantages of a client-
server network server network
Centralised database of Expensive to set up and
users, usernames and maintain.
passwords provides
login security.
n 1 1 User data is kept private. Failure of a central server
may make the whole network
fail.
Levels of access can be Requires specialist technical
applied to resources. staff to maintain.
n Users do not have
to worry about
Figure 6.04 - Example of a peer-to-peer network.
security as a network
manager maintains
On a peer-to-peer network, users store data on their
the network.
own computer, but may allow other users access to it.
Alternatively, they may choose to keep their data private. Users do not have to
Individual peers may provide resources that others do not. make backups as back¬
For example, a peer may have a printer attached to it and
ups are centralised and
other peers may print to that printer. handled by the network
manager.
Table 6.03 shows a comparison of the architecture of a On larger networks
client-server and a peer-to-peer network. several servers can
be used for different
Client-server network Peer-to-peer network functions to maintain
network efficiency.
A dedicated computer No individual computer
controls the network. controls the network. Table 6.04 - Advantages and disadvantages of a client-
Centralised database of No centralised database. server network.
users, usernames and
passwords. Each type of network is used in many different ways, for
example:
Centralised data storage. Data is stored on individual
computers. _ • Banks use client-server architecture to provide
Centralised back-ups. Relies on users online banking services. When a device (such as
remembering to back-up a personal computer (PC), tablet or smartphone)
individual computers. connects to the bank through the internet, the
Suited to large networks Suited to small networks device becomes a client. The bank’s servers handle
with many computers. with few computers. the client and provide access to online banking
facilities.
Table 6.03 - Comparison of client-server and peer-to-peer • Companies use servers to host websites. Client
networks. computers access the web pages they contain.
 Chapter 6: Using networks

• On-demand television and film providers have servers

that stream content to client devices. Q Remember
A VPN is a method of allowing a remote computerto connect
• Many peer-to-peer networks exist over the internet that securely to a private network using external resources.
allow users to share music, images and videos. Each
peer has some content and allows other users access
to it.
Once connected to the VPN, the remote computer then
has secure access to the LAN’s resources, just as if it were
directly connected to the LAN.
Advantages of a peer-to- Disadvantages of a
Security is implemented through the use of tunnelling
peer network peer-to-peer network
protocols and encryption. For example, the secure
Cheap to set up and No centralised database shell (SSH) tunnel protocol uses encryption to securely
maintain. Does not require of users, usernames transmit unencrypted data packets across an unsafe
expensive servers. and passwords, making network.
it harder to maintain
security. _ To connect to a VPN, a user remotely logs on to the
network. Once the user’s identity has been authenticated,
Failure of an individual peer Users have to worry
the VPN’s tunnelling protocol sets up an encrypted link
only removes access to the about making backups
to the user’s computer. Data can then be transmitted
resources and data which as no centralised backup
securely.
that peer handles. The rest service exists.
of the network remains
unaffected.
Does not require specialist The more computers
technical staff to maintain. there are on a peer-to-
Q Remember
VPNs are often used by organisations to provide
LAN access to travellingemployees, employees who
peer network, the slower telework and users that want to access LAN resources
it will run. at home. Users who want to securely access data on a
home computer when they are away can also use a VPN.
Table 6.05 - Advantages and disadvantages of a peer-to-
peer network.
There are several advantages and disadvantages for an
organisation using VPNs as shown in Table 6.06.
Virtual private networks (VPN)

f KEY TERMS TASK

Find out what kind of network you have in your school
Tunnelling protocol: a tunnel between two points on a
or home. What is the structure of it and how does it store
network that is governed by a set of rules
data?
Encryption: scrambling data so it cannot be understood
Does your school or home network have any servers? If it
without a decryption key, to make it unreadable if intercepted
does, what are they used for?

Companies or organisations may want to allow users

to access a network, often a LAN, from a remote Intranets and extranets
location. They will need to use external resources to An intranet is a privately owned network that uses internet
create this connection. The external resources will
technologies, for example web pages, for internal use
not be owned or maintained by the owner of the LAN,
within an organisation. Web pages hold organisations’
which can make access to the LAN network much less information such as news, events, historical data and
secure. This can be of great concern to the owner of the
commonly used documents. Email and instant messaging
LAN and the users who want to remotely access it.
can also be used for internal communication. Training
The issue of security can be overcome by implementing a videos or corporate messages can be streamed and
virtual private network (VPN). watched by employees.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

to access information on its intranet. It can do this by

Advantages of a VPN Disadvantages of a VPN
using an extranet. An extranet is an intranet that has
VPNs maintain a high Performance of the been opened up to allow external user access. Extranets
level of security for data VPN may be outside use VPNs to allow an external user to securely access the
transmission over the the control of the information on them.
internet. organisation. It is
dependent on the Extranets usually only allow certain information to be
external resources that accessed. For example:
are used. • A school’s VLE may allow parents to access their child’s
VPNs use external resources. A certain amount of marks, attendance data and reports.
Organisations that use VPNs technical expertise is • A doctor’s surgery may be able to access a local
can save money as they do required to setup and hospital’s extranet to make an appointment for a
not need to purchase or maintain VPNs. The cost patient.
implement secure, dedicated of this expertise must • A company may provide tracking information on
connections, called leased be factored in when deliveries it is making to customers.
lines, for users who want to deciding whether to
access the network. implement a VPN. Access to an extranet is normally available through the
organisation’s website. A user logs in using an email
The cost of maintaining the address and password that will notify the extranet that the
external resources is covered
user is an authorised external user.
by someone else.
Adding extra clients costs
very little as the network is 6.02 The internet

s virtual.

Table 6.06 - Advantages and disadvantages of a VPN.

Packet switching: data that is broken down into packets
is sent through different routes and reassembled by the
Intranets usually use client-server architecture. They recipient
often use several servers. A web server hosts the TCP/IP: a communication protocol used by the internet
intranet’s web pages, while an email server handles email Internet service provider (ISP): A company that provides
communication. Another server will handle user accounts access to the internet
and access.

o
Many organisations now use an intranet. For example,
schools use a virtual learning environment (VLE) to
Remember
provide teaching and learning resources to students. The
The internet is a global network made up of
VLE is an intranet.
interconnected networks and individual computers. This
global network allows users to access online facilities

Q Remember
Intranets are used to increase efficiency because
such as electronic Communication, information sharing,
data storage, banking, video and music streaming and
social networking.
all information is stored centrally and can be easily
accessed,
The beginnings of the internet were quite different from
how it is now. In the 1950s and 1960s, the United States
Additionally, unlike when browsing the internet, only
government formed several organisations whose purpose
information relevant to the organisation is available. An was to develop new technology. One organisation was the
intranet is for internal use only. This increases security and
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). As projects
confidentiality as only users within the organisation can
developed, employees at ARPA became frustrated at the
access information on the intranet.
lack of computing power available to them. At the time,
There may be times when an organisation will want to only a handful of powerful computers were available
allow users that are currently external to the organisation across the country. These were often at locations far away
 Although many of the computers connected to the
internet can act as a server, most act as clients. The
majority of data is held on web servers that are accessed
by individual computers.
The widespread nature of the internet means that it has
r- no centralised control. No one company or organisation
runs or has authority over the internet, although various
independent organisations control aspects of it:
• The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
\Y Numbers (ICANN) regulates domain names and their
suffixes, such as .com, .co.uk, .in, .sa, ,ae and .cn.
• The Internet Engineering Task Force (IEFT) devises and
administers internet standards, such as protocols that
Figure 6.05 - The internet connects the world. govern communication.
• The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) attempts to
enforce agreement from organisations to adopt new
from the researchers who needed them. The invention standards.
of packet switching allowed the creation of computer
• Telecommunications companies own the infrastructure
networks. Taking advantage of this communication that the internet uses for communication.
breakthrough, ARPA created ARPANET, a network of
computers that could share data and computing
power. Q Remember
The tack of authority means that the information the
The 1970s saw the introduction of the protocol, TCP/IP. internet carries is of mixed value. Information can be
This allowed separate networks to connect to each other, useful and correct, it can also be inaccurate, out of date
forming the basis for the internet. The term ‘internet’ or completely incorrect. Some information is deliberately
originates from ‘inter-network’, meaning a network that designed to mislead.
was formed from the joining of networks.
The 1990s saw a huge increase in the size of the internet The internet is constantly changing and evolving. For example:
and its purpose, as many commercial, educational and • Every day, newly bought devices connect to it.
home users took advantage of the facilities available • The internet is expandinggeographically as remote
online. Today, the number of users and devices on the regions are connected through the installation of cables
internet runs into billions. It has become like a backbone, orthrough satellite communication.
the purpose of which is to allow communication and • The data it holds constantly changes as organisations
sharing of data on a global scale. add, edit and delete data from their websites, and social
networking users add and remove data.
Characteristics of the internet • Newer technologies allow the range of facilities to
Any device connected to the internet forms part of the expand. For example, the introduction of broadband
internet. To connect to the internet we need to use connections has encouraged the growth of internet-
an internet service provider (ISP). ISPs use public based, on-demand television services.
telephone systems, underwater cables, microwave
transmissions via satellites and radio waves to provide The huge scale and size of the internet means that using
connections. it has many benefits and drawbacks for organisations,
businesses and individuals.
Data and information is held and distributed by content

T
providers. A content provider is an organisation, group or
company that offers content on web pages, for example DISCUSSION POINT
text, images, sound and video, or web-based services, What would your life be like if you did not havethe internet?
for example streaming media, gaming, shopping and What would be different? Would it be better or worse?
electronic communication.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Benefits of using the internet Drawbacks of using the internet

Information. A vast range of information is available Incorrect information. Anyone can publish information on the
on virtually any topic. internet. This means that some of the information available is
inaccurate, out of date, incomplete or simply incorrect.

Global audience. The internet is worldwide, therefore Unsavoury behaviour. One serious problem with the internet is
contributors have a global audience. that it allows people to interact anonymously with other people.
Users are unsure with whom they are really communicating.
This means that people can make up fake identities in order to
cyberbully, intimidate, steal and commit abuse.
Immediate transmission of information. Users can Hacking. Some users may use the internet to attempt to gain
send messages immediately across the world. access to other users' computers. This is often in an attempt
Postings on news sites and social media can be seen to steal personal data or to crash websites. Protection against
immediately by an audience. hacking can be expensive to an organisation. _
Immediate availability of services. Users can quickly Viruses. An organisation or individual will need to protect their
access services such as to bank online, book medical computer against viruses. A virus is malicious software installed
appointments, pay bills and book tickets for transport on a computer without consent or knowledge. Removal of a
and for leisure. virus can be a difficult job. __
International ecommerce. Users have access to online Identity theft through phishing and pharming. Phishing uses
shops 24 hours a day and products from all over fake emails pretending to be from an organisation. Phishing
the world. Companies can also market products to emails deceive users into giving their personal data by tricking
consumers nationally and internationally. them into following a link to a fake website. The website asks
them to enter personal details. Once gathered, this data is
used for criminal activities. Pharming works in a similar way.
When users attempt to visit a known website, they are instead
directed to a fake website that looks just like the real one.
The cost of identity theft to individuals and businesses can be
enormous.
Entertainment. Products such as software, music, Unsuitable material. The free nature of the internet means that
films and books can be purchased and immediately unsuitable content is present, such as pornography, graphic
downloaded. Users can play online games, or join in violence, promotion of terrorism, torture and physical and
multiplayer games over the internet. written abuse. Social networking allows anyone to publicly
abuse friends, colleagues, celebrity figures and people in the
news, often with little consequence to the offender.
Free education. Many free onlinetutorials and Spamming. The ease of communication means that anyone
educational resources are available to help people can generate and transmit unwanted emails to millions of
learn new skills or knowledge. users. It is estimated that 69% of emails sent in 2014 were
spam. _
Social networking. The internet allows families, Online addiction. Some people have difficulty separating
friends, organisations and businesses to regularly virtual environments from reality. Others find virtual worlds,
communicate, share and engage in social activities. such as those in massively multiplayer online role-playing
games (MMORPGs) more alluring and comforting than the
real world. They feel safer and happier in these environments
than they do in real life. This can lead to social isolation and
insecurity.
Up-to-date news. News stories on the internet can
be read as soon as they are published.

Table 6.07 - Benefits and drawbacks of using the internet.

 Chapter 6: Using networks

Benefits of using the internet Drawbacks of using the internet

Reduction in costs to businesses and organisations.
Marketing over the internet, especially through social
media, can be extremely cheap compared with
traditional advertising and promotional methods.
Feedback. The internet has allowed companies and
organisations to easily gain feedback on products and
services through rating systems, comments, online
surveys and Tikes' on social media.
Big data. The nature of the internet allows vast
amounts of data to be collected by organisations. User
behaviour on websites can be monitored, such as the
type of products a person buys, or what information
searches they make. Social networking sites collect
data on what news items are trending, and what
users like and dislike. Apps on smartphones collect
data about online habits and behaviour. All of this
collected data can be analysed by researchers or sold
to businesses for marketing purposes.
New communication applications. The internet allows
communication applications that previously were not
possible. For example, home security cameras can be
monitored while the householder is away from home.
Central heating can be remotely switched on or off
from a smartphone app.

Table 6.07 - Benefits and drawbacks of using the internet, (cont.)

6.03 The World Wide Web Berners-Lee proposed a system for a more
efficient communication system forCERN that

o KEY TERMS

Hyperlink: a link that can be clicked to locate to another

allowed documents on an information system to
be accessed via hyperlinks. He realised that any
document could be accessed by a hyperlink, whether
place in a document, or a different document entirely
it is a text document, an image or a sound clip. In
Web browser: a software application for retrieving and
1990 Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau published a
presenting information on the World Wide Web
proposal to build a World Wide Web of hypertext-
linked documents that could be viewed by a browser.
Documents would be stored on servers, with users’
The term ‘internet’ describes the physical, global network
computers acting as clients. From this proposal the
of computers. The internet does not actually contain any
World Wide Web was born and in 1991 it became
information. It is a physical infrastructure. available to the public.
The World Wide Web is an information system comprising
Today the World Wide Web is the basis for, among
documents, images, videos and sounds. It uses the
other things, national and international information
internet as its base. Users access this information through
sharing, banking, shopping, on-demand television
websites and web pages, which are accessed through the
broadcasting and social networking. It has billions
use of a web browser.
of users, including businesses, organisations,
The concept of the World Wide Web was developed by governments, schools, colleges, universities and
Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 when he worked for CERN. domestic users.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

6.04 Communication using to each other privately as well as posting on each other’s
profile.
the internet
Voice over IP (VOIP) technologies allow users to have
The internet is for communication. It allows users to voice communications, just as if they were using a
communicate in several ways, including: telephone system. Instead of using an analogue telephone
• instant messaging (IM) transmission, the user’s voice is recorded by the computer
• voice over IP (VOIP) and transmitted digitally to the recipient. The VOIP system
can work internally across a network, or externally by
• news services.
making use of the internet to carry the data transmission.
Instant messaging (IM) is a form of communication
that allows real-time text transmission over a network, VOIP has advantages over traditional analogue
often the internet. Depending on the type of IM service, telephone systems. When the system is run by using
messages are either transmitted once a message is an organisation’s LAN, calls within the organisation will
composed and sent by the user, or transmitted character be free. Extra VOIP phones can be added to a network,
by character as the user types. Some services allow files to simply by connecting a new phone to a network point or
be transferred and conversations to be saved. by adding it to a wireless network. However, if a network
is experiencing heavy traffic, voices can become garbled,
IM is now a feature of many social networking sites, distorted or missing altogether.
allowing users to chat online instead of posting messages
on their profile page. Many organisations see IM as a An example of a VOIP service is Skype. Users can make
valuable tool for customer interaction, for example calls using the Skype application on the internet.
support helplines. This can be especially useful where News services are organisations that collect and
a support technician needs to give instructions to a broadcast news stories for subscribers. Users can sign up
customer. The customer can read (and reread) and follow for news alerts using a smartphone application. Some
the instructions in their own time. services allow news stories to be filtered out so that only
Users of IM often see it as an equivalent or alternative news that covers topics a user is interested in is sent to
to text messaging used on smartphones. They their smartphone. Others broadcast headline news to
make use of text speak (where common words subscribers.
and expressions are abbreviated), for example LOL An example of a news service is Google News. Users can
(laughing out loud), and emoticons to reduce typing subscribe and receive news stories on a daily basis, often
and speed up replies. in the categories of their choice.
An example of an IM service is the private messaging All of these services are available because of packet
system available on Facebook. Users can send messages switching technology.

::
:
£ gDQ
A
Figure 6.06 - Many social networking services now offer an Figure 6.07 - Users can subscribe to news services to
instant messaging feature. receive news stories in the category of their choice.
 Chapter 6: Using networks

6.05 Mobile networks Advantages of mobile Disadvantages of mobile

networks networks
Mobile networks Quality of reception can vary
Cell: the geographical area covered by a radio transmitter have enabled users to and can be poor towards
communicate with others the edge of a cell, leading
and access the internet to interrupted or delayed

Q Remember
A mobile network is a wireless WAN that uses radio to
while on the move,
often through the use of
smartphones.
transmissions.

transmit and receive communications from portable

devices, such as smartphones. Mobile networks now cover Breaking the network The use of frequency must
a considerable amount of the inhabited areas of world.
down into cells allows be carefully planned to avoid
for lower power radio interference between cells.
Mobile networks are broken down into small areas called transmitters to be used,
cells. At the heart of each cell is a radio base station bringing energy and cost
that transmits and receives messages. The base stations savings.
connect to public telecommunications services allowing
access to the internet. There are only so many
radio frequencies that
Cells vary in size: can be used for mobile
• picocells cover an area of less than 200 metres communications. These
• microcells cover an area up to 2 kilometres frequencies can be split
among neighbouring
• macrocells cover larger regions.
cells, and reused in more
There have been several generations of mobile distant cells, thereby
networks, each providing faster access speeds and increasing the number of
greater reliability: communications that can
1G networks. These were the first generation mobile
take place at the same
•
networks that used analogue signals. These networks time.
were largely limited to voice and text message Larger geographical
communications. areas can be covered
• 2G networks. The second generation mobile networks than by using a single
switched from analogue to digital transmission, transmitter. Even high
improving signal quality. 2G networks were able to power transmitters
connect with each other, allowing a phone to use other are limited in range. By
networks. using several, low power
• 3G networks. Third generation networks increased transmitters a wider area
data transmission speeds up to 2 Mbps, allowing can be covered.
internet access, video transmission and online The use of multiple
gaming. transmitters means
• 4G networks. Fourth generation networks are the network is more
the current, latest generation of mobile network robust. Failure Of one
technology. In theory, they allow data transmission base station only affects
speeds of up to 1Gbps, allowing greater use of video one cell, leaving other
streaming facilities. areas of the network
Mobile networks have their advantages and disadvantages. unaffected.

Mobile networks have grown hugely in popularity, with Table 6.08 - Advantages and disadvantages of mobile
many users now accessing the internet through 3G or networks.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

4G connections. The rapid growth in use of social media

networks has led to many people checking profiles and

N
sending posts frequently during the day, often via a mobile
network.

TASK
Find out what further developments are in progress for i*
mobile networks.

6.06 Video and web conferencing

One form of communication that is slowly gaining in Figure 6.08 - People can use mobile devices, such as
popularity is video conferencing. Video conferencing tablets, for video conferencing calls.
allows users to see and hear each other as they
talk. Web conferencing is a similar communication
medium. However, whereas video conferencing conference call. The other participant can accept or
allows two-way communication, web conferencing reject the call.
traditionally allowed one-way communication. A user There are a number of checks that need to be made
would broadcast a video to many watching users, for before a video conference goes ahead:
example a company delivering a training session or a
university lecturer presenting a lecture. However, web • All participants will need to make sure they have a stable
conferencing technology has expanded to allow two-way and suitable internet connection.
communication. • Each participant will need to make sure that their
microphone is inputting their voice, and that it is doing
this at a suitable sound level. Most video conferencing
How to set up a video conference
software has a built in facility that allows a user to
Video conferencing requires certain hardware and
record their voice input and play it back to assess if
software:
it is correct.
• a desktop computer or laptop • Each participant will need to make sure that they
• a webcam to record the user’s image have correctly positioned their webcam, and that it is
• a microphone to record the user’s voice safely and securely placed. They will need to test that
• a monitor to display the other participant’s image their image is being inputted into the system and that
other participants can see them clearly. Most video
• speakers to produce the other participant’s voice
conferencing software also has a facility to test this.
• network (and internet) access to connect to the other
participant
How to set up a web conference
• video conferencing software to conduct and control the Setting up a web conference is a similar process to a
video conference.
video conference. Web conference software is available,
Many modern devices such as laptops, smartphones but quite often the same software that is used for video
and tablets already have this hardware. Smartphones conferencing can also be used to set up a web conference.
and tablets are often supplied with video conferencing
Before initiating the web conference, the user sends an
software installed.
invitation to interested participants, stating the time
Before a user can participate in a video conference, and date of the conference. The invitation often contains
they must first register with a video conferencing an access code that allows the interested participant to
service. The service will have software that the user log on to the conference, along with a link that specifies
needs to install. With the software running and the the network address at which the conference can be
device connected to a network or the internet, the accessed. Using access codes helps keep unwanted users
user selects another registered user and initiates a from participating.
 Chapter 6: Using networks

At the appointed time and date, users follow the link over analogue copper wire. This is usually with
and log on using the access code. They can now watch transmission speeds of up to 64 Kbps per channel. Two
and participate in the conference. Participants may channels could also be used in parallel to send data at
watch a demonstration of a product or read a document up to 128 Kbps. ISDN was popular in the 1990s and early
onscreen, but will not require a web camera themselves 2000s but has largely been replaced by much faster
to do this. Web conferences can also be just text based, ADSL and SDSL networks. However, ISDN is still used in
where participants will use a messaging facility to areas where ADSL and SDSL technology has yet to be
communicate. implemented.
There are a number of checks that need to be performed Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) technology,
before a web conference goes ahead: also known as broadband, is now the most common type
of connection to the internet. It has typical transmission
• Similar checks to a video conference will need to be
performed for the internet connection, microphone and speeds of around 100 Mbs. ADSL is used in homes and
a web camera if used. businesses to deliver reliable, high-speed connections.
Asynchronous means that download and upload speeds
• In some web conferences, participants may want to
are different. This means that ADSL works by unevenly
share documents. Most web conferencing software will
splitting the balance between download and upload
allow participants to do this. This will either be through
documents being preloaded into an online meeting
speeds. Most homes and businesses will download more
data from the internet than they upload to it. As a result,
room, or by a linksentin a messaging facility duringthe
ADSL download speeds are usually far greater than upload
web conference. A test may need to be carried out on
whether the preloaded documents can be accessed, or speeds.
that the text facility can be used. Synchronous Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) technology
uses the same data transmission technology as
Using networks in video and web ADSL. However, this time the download and upload
conferencing transmission rates are balanced and equal. SDSL is used
The wide-scale use of video conferencing and web by organisations that upload and download equivalent
conferencing would not be possible without the use of amounts of data.
networks. The use of packet switching enables video and Mobile devices such as smartphones make use of 3G/4G
sound transmissions to be broken down into packets, just technology to allow users to use video conferencing
like any other type of data, to be transmitted. The resulting when travelling, or when access to a LAN is not
packets can be easily and swiftly transmitted across possible.
networks and the internet
For a video conference to successfully take place, the
Video and web conferences held internally within video and audio signals must be transmitted over a
organisations will make use of that organisation’s LAN. network. Video signals require high volumes of data
The LAN may be wired or wireless. To connect externally, transmission. The higher the resolution of the video,
the conferences will also need to make use of a WAN or the more data that needs transmission, and the greater
the internet. the traffic that is placed on a network. High traffic
Video and web conferencing requires a reasonable data can lead to disruption or interruption of the video
transmission speed; The higher the required quality of conference.
video and sound, the higher the transmission speed that To overcome this problem, video conferencing uses
is required. As a result, for video or web conference over a software called codecs. Codec is an abbreviation of
WAN, one of four types of connection is usually used: the words 'coder’ and ‘decoder’. At the sender’s end,
• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) the ‘coder’ element of the codec takes the video and
audio signals and compresses them to reduce their file
• Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Lines (ADSL)
size. Reducing the file size means less data needs to be
• Synchronous Digital Subscriber Lines (SDSL)
transmitted, reducing network traffic and the possibility
• 3G/4G mobile networks. of disruption to the conference. At the receiver’s end, the
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a networking ‘decoder’ decompresses the video and audio signals so
technology that allows data to be transmitted digitally that they can be played.
 !
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

The same codec must be used at both the source and conferencing does require high-speed data transmission.
the destination of the data transmission. Different codecs High levels of network traffic can more frequently interfere
compress and decompress in different ways, therefore with, degrade or interrupt video transmissions. This leads
are incompatible with each other. As a result, several users to return to more reliable voice-only methods.
codec standards exist. The H.264 codec is one of the most It could be argued that video conferencing is helping
common and is used not only for video conferencing, to widen the digital divide. Many older users are wary
but also with DVDs and YouTube videos. Other codecs for of technology. They are afraid of the complexity of
video conferencing include H.261 and H.263+. video conferencing, opting for more traditional voice
communication methods that are familiar and comfortable.
The impact of video conferencing
Video conferencing has not yet directly had an impact on
law. However, legislation has been implemented in several
countries that allows a witness to give testimony via video
Digital divide: the separation between those that have access conferencing. This process is reserved for witnesses who
to technologies and the internet and those that do not may be psychologically upset by having to attend court,
Teleworking: working from home using technologies to keep especially those that may have to face someone who has
in contact with an employer subjected them to physical assault or abuse.
In some countries, such as the United States, video
conferencing allows defendants to make initial court
© Remember
Improvements in internet and communication
technologies have led to affordable high-speed
appearances without having to leave jail. This saves travel
expense and increases safety to the public as suspects
remain in custody.
connections at home and at work. These high-speed
connections can usually handle video transmissions. The In the UK, several police forces have implemented video
introduction of4G mobile networks mean that mobile conferencing as a way of conducting interviews more
devices are also capable of high-speed connections. quickly. An interviewer may be based at one police
station, but can interview suspects and witnesses at other
stations, without having to travel to each site.
Additionally, many computing devices now feature inbuilt
video conferencing equipment. Smartphone, laptops Video conferencing has had an impact on education
and tablets generally have microphones, speakers and and the way that students learn. Ratherthan listening
cameras, along with the network connectivity needed to a teacher, or reading a book or web page, video
for video conferencing. Free software allows cheap video conferencing is used to engage students. Video
conferencing. conferencing allows students to participate in
conversations and share ideas with fellow students at
As a result, an increasing number of users have now taken
to using video conferencing as a method of communication
and are enjoying the benefits it brings. Those users who
live at a distance from friends and relatives have especially
taken to this technology as it allows them to see, as well
as hear, their loved ones. Users with hearing and speaking
impairments enjoy video conferencing as it enables them
to communicate using sign language.
A growing example of a video conferencing software
that people use is Apple’s FaceTime. Users that have an
iPhone can use the inbuilt FaceTime software application
to communicate with each other using video conferencing
However, the general public has yet to fully embrace
this technology. Many users feel self-conscious and
uncomfortable in front of a camera. Even though Figure 6.09 - Video conferencing is used in some courts to
connection speeds have improved greatly, video allow witnesses to testify without being in the courtroom.
 Chapter 6: Using networks I

schools and universities in other parts of the world. This In some countries medical practices have introduced
can lead to unexplored perspectives about subjects being video conferencing to help doctors and nurses keep in
shared and argued in live debates, resulting in wider, more touch with patients who have physical impairments, and
Considered points of view, especially when the students for those in remote areas where travelling may be difficult
are from differing cultures. or dangerous. In such situations video conferencing can
Speaking to industry and subject experts often engages bring comfort to a patient, especially the elderly, who
and interests students in a topic. Video conferencing allows might not otherwise have much human contact.
experts to give talks and lectures without having to travel to Sometimes the best way to do business is in a face-to-face
a school. Sometimes a talk can be given to more than one meeting. Email and telephone provide useful media for
school at a time, allowing many students to benefit from the arranging and making business deals, but when it comes
experience. This is especially useful to schools in remote, to agreements of great value, people tend to prefer to do
isolated areas where travel would be difficult or expensive. business in person. Meeting someone in person helps to
Universities make heavy use of video conferencing. The promote goodwill, friendship and trust,
technology allows lecturers to teach courses at several However, face-to-face meetings are not always possible. For
universities, while being based atone. Sharing of such example, time constraints or cost of travel may make them
expertise is becoming more common, especially in impossible. Video conferencing has provided a possible
subjects where finding a lecturer for a course has been solution to these situations. It allows people to have face-
difficult. Additionally, video conferencing allows lecturers to-face meetings without having to leave the office. This
to hold a lecture for students while away on research or at saves travel expenses and it also allows for more efficient
conferences. use of an employee’s time, as hours are spent working and
Medicine and medical care are areas where video not travelling.
conferencing continues to be of growing usefulness. Video conferencing has also helped to facilitate the growth
Consultants and physicians in different hospitals are able in teleworking. Employee who work regularly from home
to discuss a patient’s case and help to offer a diagnosis. can sometimes feel cut off from their employer. Teleworkers
External hardware components such as ultrasound that use video conferencing tend to feel happier and
imaging devices and video endoscopes can be connected less isolated from theiremployerand co-workers.
and images from them shared in the video conference, Companies that have regional offices are finding that video
helping consultants at other locations to help assess a conferencing brings unexpected benefits. Many companies
patient’s condition. This has the dual benefit of reducing that regularly use video conferencing to communicate
travelling costs for consultants and increasing efficiency as with their regional offices find that employees in those
consultants can see more cases in any given time period. offices feel more involved with the organisation, increasing
employee satisfaction and productivity.

I % Companies are also using video conferencing for staff

training. Some companies have several offices, and some,
like banks, have many branches. A trainer at a company’s

**
head office can deliver a training programme via a

f -»•A video conference to staff at different offices or branches

simultaneously.
However, video conferencing can also cause anxiety
and stress among some workers. Some people are
less confident in front of a camera. As a result, a video
conference made by an employee with senior personnel
can cause more stress than a face-to-face meeting.
One area in which video conferencing has seen a large-
Figure 6.10 - Dental students using video conferencing scale uptake is in the media sector. Video conferencing
software to see and interact with a live appointment. a llows journalists to deliver live, on-the-spot reports in
Cambridge international AS and A level IT

situations where a live broadcast might not otherwise be A LAN is a network that is geographically small in area.
possible. They are usually found in homes, schools and small
Another aspect to consider is press video conferencing. businesses.
With businesses and organisations taking advantage of A WAN is a network that is geographically large in area.
the global audience the internet permits, it is becoming The largest and most common WAN is the internet. The
increasingly common to hold international press internet is the network infrastructure, whereas the World
conferences. These conferences are often held to launch Wide Web is the web pages of content we can view using
new products or to make statements about political the internet, an ISP and a web browser. The internet is
affairs. Press video conferencing allows journalists to used for communication in various different ways. These
participate without actually having to attend. include IM, VOIP, news services, video conferencing
and web conferencing. Video conferencing has had
an impact on many areas of society, such as personal

* DISCUSSION POINT
Can you think of any other ways that video conferencing
could be used in our lives?
communications, court cases, business, education,
medicine and media. These impacts have been both
positive and negative.
A client-server network has servers that run the network
centrally. Each computer that is part of the network is
called a client. A peer-to-peer network does not have
6.07 Summary servers. No single computer has control over another in
this network.
Stand-alone computers that are connected together
create what is called a network. There are different types A VPN is a method of allowing a remote computer to
of networks that can be categorised by their geographical connect securely to a private network using external
and physical structure ortheir method for data storage. resources.

Review questions
1 Describe the difference between a LAN and a WAN. [4]
2 Explain what is meant by an intranet and how it could be used in an organisation. [4]
3 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a VPN. [4]
4 Describe the difference between the internet and the World Wide Web. [2]
5 Identify four pieces of hardware that could be used when video conferencing. [4]
6 Discuss the impact of video conferencing on education. [6]
 gvssjk i

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Chapter 7
Expert systems
Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

describe the components of an expert system and how expert systems can be used
explain how expert systems produce possible solutions, including the process of forward and backward chaining
analyse the use of diff erent processing systems
explain how master and transaction files are used

©
O *
W
A

*
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

7.01 What is an expert system? Building an expert system is known as knowledge

engineering and it is composed of three main components:
• the knowledge base
Diagnosis: identifying a problem or illness by analysis of the • the inference engine
symptoms • the user interface.
Artificial intelligence: computer systems that perform tasks
that normally require human intelligence Knowledge base
Chaining: combining together instructions
Transaction: a collection of data that is exchanged
Field: an individual item of data in a database, for example
Q Remember
The knowledge base is a database that allows the storage
forename and retrieval of the knowledge provided by a collection of
experts. It contains knowledge about the specific area for
which the expert system can be used.

The developers of the expert system will interview a

An expert system is a computerised system that attempts collection of experts to build the database of knowledge.
to reproduce the decision-making process of an expert They will look to gain two types of knowledge from the
human being. They are designed to try and replicate the
experts. The first is factual knowledge. This is knowledge
judgement of a human that has expert knowledge in a
certain field. By doing this they can be used to replace or that is widely shared. The second type is heuristic
assist a human expert. knowledge. This is knowledge that is more personal and
is acquired through a range of experiences and reasoning.

Expert systems use a knowledge base and a set of rules Once the knowledge base is built, it can be used by the
to provide a diagnosis or a recommended course of expert system to inform the questions it needs to ask and
action. They can be used to solve complex problems by assist in providing the results.
reasoning, using the knowledge base they are given. Part of the knowledge base is the rules base. The rules
Expert systems gather data by asking the user questions base is a set of rules that will be used to produce an
aboutthe problem. An initial set of questions can lead output or decision by the expert system. These rules are
to further questions depending on the user’s responses. used by the inference engine as a base for reasoning, to
The expert system reasons what questions it needs to obtain a solution to a problem ora decision. Each rule
ask, based on the knowledge it is given. It will use the will contain two parts, the IF and the THEN. A rule can
responses from the userto rule out various possibilities also have multiple IF parts that will be joined together by
that will allow it to eventually reach a decision or Boolean operators includingAND and OR.
diagnosis. Most expert systems will have a knowledge based editor
The concept of an expert system was first developed built into them. This allows the knowledge base to be
in the 1970s by Edward Feigenbaum, who founded checked for errors and edited ad updated when needed.
the knowledge-based system laboratory at Stanford Inference engine
University. Expert systems are thought to be
among the first truly successful forms of artificial
Remember
intelligence.
The inference engine is the part of the expert system that
We rely on expert systems to help us with knowledge makes judgements and reasoning usingthe knowledge
and understanding in a particular field. We use them in base and user responses. It is designed to produce
reasoning based on a set of rules.
the same way as we do certain experts in our lives. For
example, we will go to see a doctor if we have a health
problem or we will go to see a car mechanic if our car It will ask the user questions, and based on their answer,
it will follow a line of logic. This may then lead to further
will not start. We can use an expert system in a similar
way, it will ask us questions about our health problem or questions and eventually a final result.
car problem and provide us with a diagnosis or course The inference engine is mostly a problem-solving tool. It
of action. organises and controls steps to solve the problem. To do
 Chapter 7: Expert systems

this it often uses a chaining method. It chains together

Advantages Disadvantages
what is known as IF-THEN rules to form a line of reasoning.
They provide answers to They do not have the The IF part of the rule is a condition, for example IF I am
questions that are outside addition of common sense hungry. The THEN part of the rule is an action, for example
a user’s knowledge and that humans have. This IF I am hungry THEN I will need to eat.
experience. means that their response
There are two main methods that can be used to obtain
can only be a logical one
a result. The appropriate one will depend on whether the
and cannot have a creative
expert system is designed to produce a final result i.e a
approach.
diagnosis or course of action, or if it begins with a known
They can aid Errors in the knowledge conclusion i.e. a goal. If the process starts with a set of
professionals in areas base or inference engine conditions and chaining moves towards a final conclusion,
where their knowledge will produce errors in this is called forward chaining.
and experience are a little the results. Therefore they
In a forward chaining system, the expert system will take
weaker. are only as good as the
the data input and match it to the knowledge and rules it
data and rules they are
contains. It will keep doing this until it can reach an end
given.
goal or outcome. A forward chaining system is data driven.
As they use a logical They are not able to Data is gathered about the problem and then the system
process they are automatically adapt to infers what it can from the data to reach a conclusion.
consistent in the answers changing environments.
This requires the knowledge If the process starts with a known conclusion, but the path
that they give.
to it is unknown, the chaining will work in reverse and this
base to be changed.
is called backward chaining. The system in this case has a
They will not forget to ask They are expensive to goal or solution and the inference engine attempts to find
a question, as all the rules produce as they require the evidence to prove it.
and knowledge is put into a great deal of time and
place to make sure that all effort from experts and User interface
data needed is gathered. developers.
As they are a computer
and not a human they can
Q Remember
The user interface is the way the user interacts with the
expert system. They are often graphical in nature and
be accessed on a 24/7
have a range of selection processes or typing methods
basis. to allow the user to provide responses.
They can often reduce
the time taken to Expert systems have numerous advantages and
solve a problem and disadvantages, see Table 7.01. The conclusion or decision
the questioning and the expert system reaches may not always be obvious
reasoning process may to a user. The user may want to gain an understanding
be much quickerthan of how the conclusion or decision was determined. In
an interaction between order to allow this facility, some expert systems have an
humans. explanation system built into them.This will provide an
explanation of the reasoning process and show how the
Using expert systems
output given by the system was reached.
may mean that a less
skilled workforce
is needed, as the 7.02 How are expert systems
system will provide used?
the knowledge and
Expert systems are used by many individuals and organisations
experience they need.
for a variety of different purposes. These include:
Table 7.01 - The advantages and disadvantages of expert • medical diagnosis
systems. • car mechanical diagnosis
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

playing chess 7.03 Data processing systems

providing financial advice
There are many types of systems that process data, and
troubleshooting computer and printer issues
a variety of ways the processing can be carried out. A
identifying items, for example plants and birds system that processes data will have a method to input
using a telephone helpdesk. the data, a method to process the data and a method to
output the data.
We are going to look at three ways in which data can
be processed These are batch, online and real-time
TheNational Health Service (NHS) is the medical system processing systems.
in the UK. The NHS has a website that allows users to
enter the symptoms of their illness or ailment and it will What is a batch processing system?
provide them with a possible diagnosis. This may help a
person to understand which possible illnesses they may
have. It can also be used by professionals within the
NHS to double check a diagnosis they are giving, or to
© Remember
A batch processing system is a system that processes
aid them with any areas of weakness they have in their batches of data at set time intervals. Data is collected from
inputs and stored together in what are known as batches.
medical knowledge. These batches of data are stored until a set time when
they will be processed and an output, or outputs, created.

fiVffcl choices

I EE The amount of data processed by batch processing

Health A-Z - Conditions and treatments systems is normally quite large. By storing the data
together in batches, it means that the processing can be
Browse by index
carried out at a time when the system is in less demand.
This results in less disruption to a system during the times
of the day when it could be in heavy demand. No user
7.01 - The NHS website. interaction is required to process the data. The system is
automatically triggered at a set time.
There are issues that can occur with a batch processing
system. There is a time delay for the data processing,
The website Botanical Keys allows a user to enter a so the output that will be provided is not always readily
range of characteristics about a plant. The system available. Also, if there is an error with an input, this will
not be recognised until a later date when the data is
will then identify what the plant is. Users can use
this to find out what particular plants are growing processed.
in their garden or to identify a plant they have seen
when out on a walk in the countryside or through a
park.
Urban Forest is a non-profit website in Singapore A payroll system
that contains information about flora from Singapore A factory will often have a system that will register
and Southeast Asia-users can visit the site to help the time employees arrive at work, as well as the
them with plant identification. time they leave. This will allow the amount of
hours an employee has worked to be calculated.

o DISCUSSION POINT
Discuss the impact of people having the ability to self-
Data about each employee’s working hours can
be stored in batches until the employees need to
receive their pay. The data can then be processed
to calculate the pay due for each employee and
diagnose their medical issues using an expert system. a payslip can be output to show this. It is not
 Chapter 7: Expert systems

necessary to have an employee’s pay calculated transaction is processed in turn, this avoids a seat
until they are due to be paid, so the processing on the aeroplane being double-booked. Once
to do this can be run when the factory isn’t in a seat has been allocated to a transaction, until
operation, for example late at night. This will free that transaction is completed that seat cannot
up the processing power of the system to perform be booked by anyone else. This is because their
othertasks during the day. transaction will not be processed until the previous
one is completed. The same would occur with a
concert ticket booking system.

What is a real-time processing system?

Stock control system
A retail store will often have system a that will
register the stock that is sold in a day. This
system will normally be connected to the till
o TIP
A real-time processing system processes data as soon
(cash register). When an item is sold in the store, as it has been input. They are normally used when the
the warehouse will need to know that the item of immediacy of the data is vital.
stock will need replacing. This way the store stays
fully stocked. The information about each item
sold can be batched together and processed at
the end of the day to be sent as a report to the
warehouse. The warehouse will then know what Air traffic control
stock to send the next day. By processing the An airtraffic control system is a real-time processing
data in this way, the system is freed up to deal system. Each piece of data that is input into the
with all of the sales made in the store during system, for example the location of all the planes
the day. currently in the air, is processed immediately so that
their location can be known by everybody using the
system. This is imperative as this data will need to be
given back to each plane that is currently in flight to
What is an online processing system? make sure no collisions occur. There cannot be any
An online processing system is sometimes known as an delay in the processing of this data as the result could
interactive processing system. be catastrophic.

An online processing system is a type of processing system

that deals with data in transactions. A certain amount
of data is input as a transaction. This amount of data is Computer games
usually small. Once the data for the transaction is collected When playing computer games the input from the
it is processed and the next transaction can occur. user needs to be processed immediately, so that
it can take effect and the game can be controlled.
Each time a user asks a game character to move
forward by pressing a key or button, it needs to do
this immediately. In order to do this, it needs to have
Online booking system a real-time processing system to process the data.
An online booking system, for example an
aeroplane ticket booking system, will process data
in transactions. All the data about the customer,
flight and seat number will be collected in the DISCUSSION POINT
transaction. This will then be processed and a Why would we not make every processing system a real¬
ticket can be provided as an output. As each time system? What would be the impact if we did?
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

For data to be processed it is often stored first. This can

EXAMPLE OF A TRANSACTION FILE
be for long periods of time or momentarily. There are two
main file types that are used to store data, master files and Employee number - 001
transaction files.
Date -01/01/2015

Master files Hours worked - 8

A master file is normally a collection of fields about a
main element of a data system, for example a customer or
an employee. In real-time and online processing systems, the transaction
file is compared to the master file, by findingthe matching

Q Remember
The master file will store all of the more permanent
key field, as the data is processed by the system. In a batch
processingsystem, the transaction files are stored until a
suitable time is available to update the master files. The
data about the customer or the employee. Data stored
in master files is normally more permanent in nature. system will then run through each transaction file and match
it to the correct master file in order to update the master.

EXAMPLE OF A MASTER FILE 7.04 Summary

Employee number- 001 An expert system is designed to replicate the decision¬
making or problem-solving ability of an expert human
Forename - Nancy in a certain field. Expert systems can be used to
Surname - Richards diagnose medical issues or car problems, amongst !
many other uses. An expert system is made up of
Department - Customer services
three components: the knowledge base, the inference
Pay rate - $15 per hour engine and the user interface. The knowledge base is
Pay to date - $1590 the database of knowledge collected from the experts,
the inference engine reasons what data needs to
be collected and the user interface is how the user
There will normally be a key field present in a master file, interacts with the system.
such as the employee number in the example above. The
Forward chaining is when data is taken about the problem
key field will be used to match transaction files to the
and continues to be taken until a diagnosis or course of
correct master file.
action can be provided. Backward chaining is when an
outcome is known but the chaining process is reversed to
Transaction files work out what is required to achieve the outcome.
The data stored in these files is normally used to update
There are three main types of data processing system:
the master file. It is more temporary in nature. The key
batch, online and real-time processing systems. Batch
field is again present in the transaction file in order to
processing often has a time delay and processes data in
allow it to be matched to the correct master file. batches, an online system collects data as a transaction
and is processed once all data is collected and a real¬

© Remember
Transaction files are useful as they can act as an audit
trail for a company to see what updates have been made
time system processes data immediately.
Master files store more permanent data about a subject,
for example an employee or a customer. Transaction files
to the master file at various times.
are used to update master files.
 Chapter 7: Expert systems

Review questions
1 Describe the components of an expert system, [6]
2 Explain two uses of an expert system, [4]
3 Describe two advantages and one disadvantage of an expert system. [6]
4 Describe the difference between an online and a real-time processing system. [4]
5 Define the term 'master file'. [2]
 +n
• /e 38,
32,7
9 f
a ±1-41 4S \

Chapter 8
102
Spreadsheets
Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

m create a spreadsheet
format a spreadsheet
create formulae and use functions within a spreadsheet
use validation rules within a spreadsheet
test validation rules
test a spreadsheet model and evaluate the effectiveness of test plans
verify and validate data entry
search for data within a spreadsheet
sort data in a spreadsheet
import and export data to and from a spreadsheet
analyse and select the most appropriate type of graph or chart
create a graph or chart in a spreadsheet
describe the characteristics of modelling soft ware
analyse the need for computer models
evaluate the eff ectiveness of spreadsheet models
describe the advantages and disadvantages of using a model to create and run simulations
evaluate the use of simulations
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

8.01 Create a spreadsheet

This cell has been named HourlylntRate instead of
referring to it as E21.
Cell: a rectangle within a spreadsheet where data can be
positioned
Formula: a mathematical calculation using+,-,x or +
HourlylntRate X H 10.5
Orientation: the direction of text, for example horizontal or E F
vertical
Alignment: positioning text so that it is in line, for example on
19 Staff Hourly Rates
the left, right or centre 20 intermediate Junior
Function: a ready-made formula representing a complex 21 10.50 | $ 6.50
calculation
Validation: the process of checking data matches acceptable Figure 8.02 - Named cell.
rules
Verify: to check that data matches the original data This range has been named BikeHireCosts instead
Import: to bring in data from another application of referring to it as B21:C24
Export: to prepare data for use in another application

BikeHireCosts : X V fx Mou

Q Remember
Spreadsheets are used to manipulate numbers,
A B c
perform calculations, present summary data and make 19 Cosrof bike hire
predictions.
20
21
Type
Mountain
\ Per Day
$ 10.00
103

A spreadsheet consists of rows, columns and cells. In

the spreadsheet in Figure 8.01, row 4 is highlighted in 22 Racer $ 12.00
green, column B is highlighted in yellow and the cell B4 is
highlighted in red. 23 Tandem $ 20.00
24 Trailer $ 6.00
A B C D
Figure 8.03 - Named range.
1
2
3 Ranges
4 A range is a set of one or more cells. A range can be named
so that the cell or cells can be referenced by the name
5
instead of the cell reference. Range names are easierto
6 remember and make reference to than cell references.
7
Worksheets
Figure 8.01- Rows, columns and cells.
A worksheet is a set of rows and columns. It is possible
to have more than one worksheet within a workbook.
Spreadsheet elements Worksheets can be used to separate information such as
Cells, rows and columns having a worksheet for sales in each country, a worksheet
A row consists of a horizontal set of cells. A column for sales for each year, a worksheet for exam results for
consists of a vertical set of cells. A cell is the intersection each class or separate worksheets for inputting data,
of a row and a column. A cell is referenced by the column storing data tables and showing the results of data
letter and row number. A cell that is in column B and row 4 processing; worksheets often take the same structure,
has a cell reference of B4. but are storing different data.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT
i

EXAMPLE Now you can see the effect of having added the new
row.
This workbook contains four worksheets - one
for each country. Each worksheet shows the
A B C D
sales made in that country. The currently active
1
worksheet is for sales in Germany.
2

A B c D E
3
1 City Sales Model Fuel type Cost per litre 4
2 Berlin 3,272 Mondeo Diesel $ 1.25
3 Hamburg 1,208 Saab 9-3 Petrol $ 1.17 5
China Pakistan Dubai Germany
6
7
Figure 8.04 - Worksheets.
8

Figure 8.06 - An inserted row.

TASK
CD 8.02 Worksheets
Explore the way worksheets have been used in CD 8.02 Rows and columns can be resized. Rows can be made
Worksheets. taller or shorter and columns can be made wider or
narrower. Rows are resized to enable different sizes of
text to fit or to allow multiple lines of text within one
104 cell or row. Columns are resized to allow more data
to fit in the column or to save space by narrowing the
Manipulate rows and columns column.
It is possible to add rows and columns by inserting them.
Rows are inserted above existing rows and columns are
inserted to the left of existing columns. Rows and columns
can also be deleted. EXAMPLE

The rows and columns in this spreadsheet have

been resized.
EXAMPLE

In this example, you can see the option to insert a A B C D

row which will be inserted above row 3.
1
2
A B c D 3
1 4
2

iL
Insert ?
3
O Shift cells right
5
4 O Shift cells down O
5 O Entire column 7
6 | OK || Cancel |
7
8

Figure 8.07 - Height and width resized.

Figure 8.05 - Inserting a row.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

It is possible to hide a row or column. Rows or columns are Spreadsheet security

hidden because they may contain information that does Depending on the software being used, different parts
not need to be seen by the user or they may contain private of spreadsheets can be secured in a variety of ways. The
or confidential data that should not be seen by the user. simplest form of security is to protecta whole workbook i
from having any new worksheets added or existing
EXAMPLE worksheets removed.

Here you can see the process of hiding column C.

Protect Structure and Windows ? 1
A B Cut
;l!l Copy
Protect workbook for
1
0 Paste Options: @ Structure
2 Q
Paste Special- Windows
3 Insert

4 Delete Password (optional):

Clear Contents
5 0 Format Cells...
Column Width...
6 Hide OK Cancel
Unhide
7
8 I
Figure 8.10 - Workbook protection.
Figure 8.08 - Hiding a column.
Following on from this, it is possible to protect a
Now you can see that column C has been hidden. worksheet from having any changes made to it.

A B D EXAMPLE 105
1 In this example, the worksheet is protected to the
2 extent that no changes can be made to any data
and no data can be selected. No columns can be
3
added and no rows can be added. Cells and rows
4 cannot be formatted. This is useful if the whole
worksheet contains just output data ora data table.
5
6 Protect Sheet ?

7 s @ Protect worksheet and contents of locked cells

13
8 £6
Password to unprotect sheet:

£4
Figure 8.09 - Hidden column. Allow all users of this worksheet to:

52
c Select locked cells A
C Select unlocked cells
Format cells
I I Format columns
£1
Cl Format rows
TASK £4 C Insert columns
£2
I | Insert rows
CD 8.01 Rows and columns C Insert hyperlinks
Open CD 8.01 Rows and columns. C Delete columns
21 C Delete rows v
1 Insert a row above row 5.
2 Delete column C. 12 OK Cancel
3 Increase the height of row 1.
4 Decrease the width of column B.
5 Hide rows 2 and 3.
Figure 8.11 - Worksheet protection.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

It is also possible to protect a worksheet but allow the user Cells can also be protected so that the formula cannot
to change certain cells within that worksheet This enables a be seen by a user. This may be used to prevent users from
developer to protect all the formatting, titles and structure seeing how certain confidential calculations are made but
but allow the user to enter and change input data. To do still letting them seethe results of the calculation based
this, cells that are allowed to be edited must be unlocked on changing input data.
prior to protecting the worksheet It is then necessary to
protect the sheet but allow unlocked cells to be selected.

In this example, there is a formula in cell C2. It is

currently visible.
In this example, the commission and prices can be
changed by the user so those cells have been set to
be unlocked. IF = X V fx II =A2 + B2
Photograph Prices format Cells
I » ffiSSf
A B C D
1 A B A+B
325
2 5 6 =A2 + B2
ir Figure 8.14 - Formula visible.
ilEEr
After the cell has been set to hidden, the formula is
da I “«
now hidden from the user.
Figure 8.12 - Unlocked cell.

Now that those cells have been unlocked, the sheet

can be protected and only the unlocked cells can 3 i lx v M
be selected. A B C
1 A B A+B
Protect Sheet ? 2 5 6

0 Protect worksheet and contents of locked cells Figure 8.15 - Formula hidden.
Password to unprotect sheet:

There will be occasions when some users will be allowed

Allow all users of this worksheet to: to change some data but not all data. In this case, it
Select locked cells A is possible to protect a worksheet but allow a specific
Select unlocked cells
Format cells range of cells to be edited by users who have knowledge
Format columns of the correct password, or by selected users within the
Format rows computer network.
Insert columns
Insert rows
Insert hyperlinks
Delete columns
Delete rows v

OK Cancel In this example, the prices cells are left unlocked

but the commission cell (B2) has been locked. In
order to allow some users to edit the commission, a
password has been set on that cell so that anybody
Figure 8.13 - Worksheet protection with unlocked cells.
with the password can editthe cell.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

Format a spreadsheet
Commission fx 10%

c Format data type

Photograph Prices
Cells within a spreadsheet can be formatted for an
2 (commission lMtl
3 appropriate data type. Dates can be formatted to be dd/
4 Photographs Photo price lj New Range
5 6x4 $5.00 mm/yyyy where dd is the day, mm is the month and yyyy
6 5x7 $6.00
7 18X12 $9.00
I Commission is the year. In countries like the USA, the date would be
Class ficfm to cells:
8
9 Year
$15.00
$25.00
-SBS2 SI formatted mm/dd/yyyy. It is also possible to display the
Range csssword:
10
11 Embossing Photo price *
whole month, use leading zeros for days and months and
12 Standard $1.00 Permissions... OS i Cin(«l use four digits or two digits for the year. Times can be
13 Gold si.aoB formatted to include hours, minutes and seconds or just
14
15 Other prices
16 Standard print run $16.00 hours and minutes. Some times may have a.m. or p.m.
17 Gold print run
18 Packing per photo
$25.00
$0.55
whereas others will use a 24-hour clock.
19 Postage per 15 photc $3.50
Cells can be set to contain text. This is particularly
Figure 8.16 - Range protection. useful if a set of numbers need to be entered that start
with zero. Numeric cells can be set to include a specific
number of decimal places including no decimal places.
Currency can also be set to include a specific number
TASK of decimal places, and the currency symbol can also be
CD 8.02 Worksheets chosen.
1 Open CD 8.02 Worksheets.xls A number can be set as a percentage, in which case the
a Try to add or delete a worksheet. The workbook
number is divided by 100. For example, 58% is actually
has been protected to prevent this from used in calculations as 0.58. Decimals can be entered into
happening.
a cell and turned into fractions. For example, entering 0.25
b Unprotect the workbook using the password
‘openme’. Now try to add a new worksheet. would give a fraction of 1A.
2 Select the Invoice worksheet.
a Try to select any cell. This worksheet has been
protected completely to prevent this from
happening.
b Unprotect the worksheet using the password O CD 8.03 Data types
‘payment’. Now try to select cells and make
changes to data. These examples from CD 8.03 Data types show
3 Protect the Breakdown worksheet so that no changes different ways in which data can be formatted
can be made at all. according to the data type. Notice how C4 contains
4 Open the Prices worksheet text because, although it looks like a number, it is
a Try to change One of the titles in column A. These not really a number because it starts with zero.
cells are locked so that you cannot edit them.
b Now try to change the prices of the photos. These A B C
cells have been unlocked so the prices can be 1 Data Type Example 1 Example 2
changed.
c Now try to change the commission rate in cell 2 Data 02/05/2015 02 May 2015
B2 (10%). Notice how an additional password is 3 Time 3:44 PM 15:44
required to do this. This is because this ceil has
been set to allow users with that password to 4 Next abedefg 09876
change it. 5 Numeric 25 25.33
d Enterthe password ‘special’ and then change the 6 Currency $15.45 PI 5.45
rate of commission.
5 Open the Purchases worksheet. 7 Percentage 25% 0.30%
a Lock the cells in columns A, B and C. Unlock the cells 8 Fractions 1/4 4/5
in columns D and E. Then protect the worksheet and
see what you can and cannot change. Figure 8.17 - Data types.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

TASK A I B I C I D I E I F

O CD 8.04 Data types task

1 jjapanMace Unite Pakis Ukrai
2 Japan 3 _2 _4 _1_
Open CD 8.04 Data types task. 3 Macedonia _0 _0
1 Change cell B2 to be a date with no leading 4 United States of America _ _2
zeros for the day and month and two digits for 5 Pakistan _2 _
"I '1 1 M
'
the year. 6 Ukraine
2 Change cell C2 to be a date with leading zeros for the
day, the full name of the month and four digits for Figure 8.18a - Columns too narrow. 5
the year. A _B_ _D_ _E_ F
1 Macedonia United States of America Pakistan Ukraine
3 Change cell B3 to be a time with a.m./p.m. 2 Japan 3 2 4 I
4 Change cell C3 to be a time with hours, minutes and 3 Macedonia _2_ 3 0 0
4 United States of America 1 0 0 2
seconds. 5 Pakistan 2 3 2 0
5 Enter the value 0382 in cell B4. What happens? 6 0 1 2 5

6 Change cell C4 to be text and then enter the value

0382. What is different from B4?
Figure 8.18b - Columns too wide.
7 Change cell B5 to have two decimal places. What
happens? To overcome this problem, the text can be
8 Change cell C5 to have one decimal place. What orientated vertically.
happens? A B c D E F
9 Change cell B6 to be currency in euros with two

_
decimal places. What happens?
10 Change cell C6 to be currency in Japanese yen with
two decimal places. What happens? <;j

11 Change cell B7 to be a percentage. What <

happens? O

12 Change cell C7 to be a percentage. What $

happens? o 3 c

13 Change cells B8 and C8 to be fractions up to one s I SI

ro
digit. Are they both correct? What do you think 1 5 5 3

needs to be done to fix this? 2

3
Japan
Macedonia
WfY _2_ _4 1_
jj o_
4 United States of America i opBjT 2
5 Pakistan _2_
Text orientation 6 Ukraine 1
bJJm
Often it is difficult to fit all the necessary text into a column Figure 8.19 - Columns rotated vertically.
title without the column becoming too wide. In these
circumstances, the text orientation can change so it is
diagonal or vertical. Alignment
By default, the alignment of text is to the left and
numbers are aligned to the right. However, it is possible to
change the way that data is aligned within columns. Data
can be aligned to the left, right or centre.
This spreadsheet shows the scores between
international football teams. The number of goals
scored by the team is shown in each row and the
number of goals scored against a team is shown in
each column. You will notice that in the first version One problem that often occurs is when different
the columns are too narrow to fit in the full team numbers of decimal places are used in the same
name and in the second version the columns are column. The numbers are aligned to the right of the
too wide. cell rather than by the decimal point.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

D
3 87.23 The cells below have been emphasised as indicated.
4 18.5 A B C
5 23.56 1 colour of text
2
6 34.23472
3 shading of cell
Figure 8.20 - Decimal point alignment problem. 4
5 cell borders
Unlike a word processor, it is not possible to change
6
the alignment to be by the decimal point. Therefore,
the number of decimal places needs to be made 7 merging 2 cells together
equal. 8

D Figure 8.22 - Cell emphasis.

3 87.230
Comments
4 18.500 Spreadsheets can contain a lot of data and some of it may
5 23.560 need additional information to explain what it is. However,
there may not be space for that information or it may be
6 34.235
too confusing to include the information with the data.
Therefore comments can be added to cells that can be S3
Figure 8.21- Decimal point alignment problem
seen when selected.
solved.

Comments have been added to cells B5 and E2

TASK for the Japan versus Pakistan game. Cell B5 has
CD 8.05 Alignment been selected and so the comment is showing. A
Open CD 8.05 Alignment. This shows the election results comment is indicated in cell E2 by the red triangle.
for three areas of the UK in 2015. A B C D E F
1 Change the names of the parties in C2to P2 to be
vertical orientation.
2 Increase the height of row 2 if necessary.
3 Change the names of the parties to be centred. 1
4 Change the number of votes in C3 to 15 to be right <
aligned. 6

5 Change the number of decimal places for the

percentages in K3 to P5 to be one decimal place. 1
i>)

g I; 1 1
g
6 Change the titles in B? to B5 to he right aligned. 1 T
1 M ‘0
S £ Z>
2 Japan Paul Long: 2 4 1
After extra time
3 Macedonia 3 0 0
Cell emphasis
Cell emphasis is about changing a cell so that it stands out
from the others. There are lots of ways this can be done,
including changing data to be bold, italic, underlined,
in a different font and in a different font size.
4 United State:
5 Pakistan
6 Ukraine

Figure 8.23 - Comments.

0
m
1
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• Respondent reply =x: white text with red shading

TASK
CD 8.06 Emphasis • Respondent reply between 2 and 3: yellow
Open CD 8.06 Emphasis. shading
1 Merge cells A1 to Dl. • Average response < 2: white text with green
2 Change cells A2, A4, All and A15 to be bold and font shading
size 14.
3 Add borders to the bottom of cells B4, C4, Bll, Cll • Average response >= 4: white text with red
and Dll. shading
4 Add a thick blue border around cells A1 to D19.
• Average response between 2.0 and 2.9: yellow
5 Shade A1:D1 and Al:A19 in yellow.
shading
6 Shade C13 and D13 in black.
7 Add a comment to cell B2 to read 'This is the • Total x >= 4: red text with light red shading
commission a school will earn1.
- - - -
1 High Priority S low Priority X Don’t Bolhor

oo « s 2 a 3 2 2
Quottlonnilro
i « « «

Conditional formatting 4 Question 1

li
EO
1111111111
S Question 2 3
Cells can be formatted based upon certain conditions 6 Question 3
7 Question 4
*
8 Questions
being met. This is known as conditional formatting. 9 Question 6
to Question?
m
Conditions can include:
Figure 8.24 - Conditional formatting.
• values in a cell that are equal to a set criterion
(e.g. = “Good”)
• values in a cell that are greater or less than a set criterion
(e.g. >5) TASK
• values in a cell that are between set criteria (e.g. between O CD 8.08 Member list
2 and 10) Open 8.08 Member list and conditionally format cells
• values in a cell that are duplicated elsewhere in the according to the following rules:
worksheet 1 Female members: pink shading
2 Male members: white text, blue shading
• values that are above or below average
3 Full, junior or patron members: green text
• a scale of values from lowestto highest. 4 Lapsed members: red text
5 Do not email = TRUE: yellow shading with red
border
6 Number of years >=10: green text
7 Number of years between 5 and 9: purple text.
O CD 8.07 Conditional formatting
In CD 8.07 Conditional formatting, a
Page formatting
questionnaire has been sent out and respondents
have had to give a priority to each question Pages within a spreadsheet can be formatted in a variety
from 1to 5 or x if they disagree completely. of ways as shown in Table 8.01.
The average response, total x responses and
total blank responses has been calculated. The Page setup The size of paper to print on (e.g.
following conditional formatting rules have been A4, Letter) can be set as well as the
used: orientation (portrait or landscape). It’s
also possible to decide whether to print
• Respondent reply = 1: white text with green
gridlines for all the cells, whether to
shading
include row and column headings and
• Respondent reply >= 4: white text with red whether certain rows will be repeated at
shading the top of each page. _
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

Fit to page Sometimes large spreadsheets cover several A B C

pieces of paper. In order to make it easierto 1 Broadband 1 Broadband 1
follow the data and save paper, it is possible 2 Original Family
to set the spreadsheet to fit a specific number 3 Initial cost 15.00 |
of pages. Options include, fit all columns 4
on one sheet, fit all rows on one sheet, fit 5 1 st 6 month
the sheet to one page or fit the sheet to a
6 Line rental $ 15.40 $ 15.40
specified number of pages across and down.
7 TV $ 10.75 $ 16.50
Margins The top, bottom, left and right margins can
8 Broadband $ 20.00 $ 20.00
be adjusted to provide space at the edges
(e.g. for hole punches) orto reduce the |
9 Total 6 months =6*(B8+B7+B6)+B3

space at the edge and provide more space Figure 8.25 - A formula.
on the paper for printing. _
Header Information can be included at the top and Relative cell references
and footer bottom of each printed spreadsheet. This
Relative cell referencing is used when you want the
could include the title and author of the
content of a cell to change based on its relation to its
document, page number, file name and date.
row and column position. Often the formulae being used
Table 8.01 - Formatting pages. are performing the same calculation for a whole row or
column. When this happens, it is possible to replicate the
formula rather than typing it in each time.
TASK
O CD 8.09 Page formatting
Open CD8.09 Page formatting which currently requires
20 pages to print. This spreadsheet lists the number of hours it takes 1
1 Add a header of 'Chapter 8 figure list’. to produce a promotional leaflet, the cost to be
2 Remove gridlines from printing and also on the sheet charged for the leaflet and the quantity to be
view. produced. The total to be charged is then calculated
3 Remove row and column headings from printing. by multiplying the cost (C4) by the quantity (D4).
4 Add a footer of “Page # of n” where # is the current
page number and n is the total number of pages. A B c D E
3 Job Hours Cost Quantity Total
5 Change the settings described above so that the
document fits onto just three pages. 4 A5 Leaflet 1
1 $ 12.50 | 3 =C4*D4
5 A4 Leaflet 15 $ 18.75 1
6 A3 Leaflet 2.5 $ 25.00 2

Create formulae and functions Figure 8.26 - Replication 1.

Formulae One way of entering the formula in E5 for the total
A formula uses basic arithmetic calculations. These are cost of A4 leaflets is to type it in again but changing
plus, minus, divide and multiply, for example =B5+B6. row 4 to row 5 so the formula would be =C5*D5.
There is no limit to the number of arithmetic calculations However, it is much quicker and also more accurate
that can be used, for example =(B5+B6)*3/100-(D1-D2). to replicate the formula by copying it from E4 and
pasting it into E5 and E6.
A B c D E
3 Job Hours Cost Quantity Total

This spreadsheet is used to calculate the cost of 4 A5 Leaflet 1 1 12.50 | 3 =C4*D4

5 A4 Leaflet 1.5 18.75 1 =C5*D5
broadband, TV and phone packages. The formula
6 A3 Leaflet 2.5 25.00 2 =C6*D6
in cell B9 adds up the monthly costs of line rental
(B6), TV (B7) and broadband (B8) then multiples the
Figure 8.27 - Replication 2.
result by 6. Finally it adds any setup costs from B3.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

The cell references used in the formula in the previous Absolute cell references
example were relative cell references. This is because they
point to another cell in a position relative to the current TASK
position. When referring to C4, it is pointing to a cell that
is two columns to the left of column E. When referring to
O CD 8.10 Absolute references
E4 it is pointing to a cell that is one column to the left of Open CD 8.10 Absolute references and use the worksheet
column E. Therefore, when the formula is replicated down Absolute 1, which is similar to the example used for
relative cell references. The cost is calculated by
to rows 5 and 6, the references continue to point to the
multiplying the hourly rate in Bl by the number of hours
same columns.
in B4.
1 Replicate (copy) the formula from C4 to C5 and C6.
2 What has gone wrong?
3 Why has it gone wrong?
DISCUSSION POINT
The same process happens when copying formulae
across a spreadsheet. The formula in B3 calculates
the number of kilometres travelled. When it has been Absolute referencing is used when you do not want a cell
replicated to columns C and D, instead of the row reference to change when other cells are filled in, or when
numbers changing, the column letters change. B2 is replicating formulae.
referring relatively to one row above and Bl is referring
relatively to two rows above. To stop a row from being changed, a $ symbol must be put
before the row number. So C5 would become C$5. This
makes the row an absolute reference but B is still relative.
A B C D
1 Start distance 38029 38098 39273
2 End distance 38087 39137 39410
TASK
3 Distance travelled =B2-B1 =C2-C1 =D2-D1
CD 8.10 Absolute references
Figure 8.28 - Replication across. Continuing with CD 8.10 Absolute references and the
worksheet Absolute 1:
4 Change the formula in C4 to be =B$1*B4.
5 Replicate (copy) the formula from C4 to C5 and C6.
Formulae can be used to retrieve a value from 6 Examine the formulae in C5 and C6.
another worksheet. To do this you should include 7 Which cell references have changed and which have
the name of the worksheet before the cell not?
reference.

To stop a column from being changed, a $ symbol must

be put before the column letter. So C5 would become $C5.
This makes the column an absolute reference but leaves
To use the value in cell B4 in a worksheet called the row as a relative reference.
'Data source’, use the following formula:
To stop both the row and column from being changed, a
-‘Data source”!B4 $ symbol must be put before both the column letter and
The inverted commas are only required if the row number. So C5 would become $C$5. This makes the
name of the worksheet includes a space, whole cell reference an absolute reference.
but the exclamation mark must always
be used.
TASK
The following formula will multiply the value in O CD 8.10 Absolute references
B4 on the ‘Data source’ worksheet by C15 on the
Continuing with CD 8.010 Absolute references, open
current worksheet: worksheet Absolute 2. This worksheet is used to
-'Data source"!B4 * C15 calculate the wage bill each month.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

Named ranges can also be used within formulae. It

8 Look at the formula in C4 which calculates the cost is easier to understand formulae with named ceils
of workers in week 1 month 1. and ranges than to understand formulae with cell
9 Make any changes necessary to the formula in C4
references.
before replicating it for months 2 to 4.
10 Try copying the formula from C4 to E4 for week 2
workers.
EXAMPLE
11 What has gone wrong?
12 Why has it gone wrong?
13 Change the formula in C4 so that when replicated In 8.10 Tax rate, cells C4:C7 have been named
both across and down it will still work. as ‘TaxCharged’. Instead of using a function of
14 Now replicate the formula down column C and =SUM(C4:C8) for the total tax charged, the named
across to columns E, G and I. range can be used instead.
15 Complete the spreadsheet with formulae in
column J. A B c D
1 Tax rate 15%
2
3 Product Cost Tax Cost inc tax
Named cells and ranges
4 6x4frame $12.00 $ 1.80
Ranges were introduced earlier in this chapter. A named 5 5x7frame $15.00 $ 2.25
cell is when a name is used instead of the cell reference 6 10x8 frame $18.00 $ 2.70
and a named range is when a name is used instead of cell
7 12x8 frame $21.00 $ 3.15
references.
|
8 Total tax charged: =SUM(Tax Charged)
Named cells can be used as absolute cell references.

1
When referring to a named cell, whenever it is replicated it Figure 8.30 - Total tax charged name range.
will still point to the same named cell.

EXAMPLE
DISCUSSION POINT
When a range of vertical cells has been named, it is
Se' CD 8.11 Tax rate
possible to make reference to any individual cell in that
CD 8.11 Tax rate contains a named cell of ‘Taxrate’ range by using the name of the range, as long as the
which is cell Bl. The formula in C4 is =B4*TaxRate reference is being made in the same row.

A B C A B C D
1 Tax rat© 0.15
1 Tax rate 0.15 2
3 Product Cost Tax Cost inc tax
2 4 6x4 frame 12 =B4*TaxRate =Cost+TaxCharged
5 5x7 frame 15 =B5*TaxRate =Cost+TaxCharged
3 Product Cost Tax 6 10 x 8 frame 18 =B6*TaxRate =Cost+TaxCharged
7 12x8 frame 21 =B7*TaxRate =Cost+TaxCharged

1
4 6 x 4 frame
5 5x7frame
12
15
=B4*TaxRate
=B5*TaxRate
Figure 8.31 - Same row named range.

In 8.10 Tax rate, cells C4 to C7 have been named

6 10x8 frame 18 =B6*TaxRate ‘TaxCharged’ and cells B4 to B7 have been named ‘Cost’.
The formula in D4 calculates the cost including tax by
7 12x8 frame 21 =B7*TaxRate adding the Cost to the Tax. To do this, it makes reference
to the whole named range for Cost and the whole named
Figure 8.29 - Tax rate named cell. range for TaxRate. The spreadsheet software can see that
the range is in the same row so it uses the values in the
When this formula is replicated down column C, the same row from the Cost and TaxRate ranges. This can be
reference to TaxRate remains the same because it is replicated down and the reference is relative rather than
an absolute reference. absolute because it is relative to the same row.

F
Cambridge International AS and A level IT '
Functions
TASK A function is a ready-made formula representing
O CD 8.11Tax rate a complex calculation, for example =SUM(A5:B10)
Open CD 8.11Tax rate. or =AVERAGE(cost). It is a reserved word within the
1 Change the formula in C4 so that it uses a named spreadsheet software that processes a series of pre¬
range for the cost. defined formulae.
2 Replicate this formula to C5:C7.
3 Use a named range to calculate the total cost in B8.
4 Name the range for cost including tax.
Summary functions
5 Use a named range to calculate the total cost
including tax in D8. Table 8.02 shows some of the summary functions.

Function Purpose Example

SUM Calculates the total of =SUM(B3:E3)
TASK values within a range.
O CD 8.12 Times table
AVERAGE Calculates the average of =AVERAGE(B3:E3)
Open CD 8.12 Times table which will be used to show the
values within a range.
times table.
1 Create a formula in B2 that will calculate the value in MINIMUM Calculates the smallest =MIN(B3:E3)
B1 multiplied by the value in A2. Do not use numbers, value within a range.
only use cell references.
2 Change the formula so that it has absolute references MAXIMUM Calculates the largest =MAX(B3:E3)
where needed so that you can replicate the formula value within a range.
across and down. You should only need one formula.
Table 8.02 - Summary functions.

CD 8.13 Student marks

CD 8.13 Student marks calculates the total, average, minimum and maximum mark that each student scores in a
set of four tests. In row 2, the total has been calculated by adding up each cell individually using a formula. In row 3,
this has been done using a function that requires much less effort. In row 2, the average has been calculated using a
formula, but it is necessary to know how many marks there are to complete this calculation. In row 3, this has been
done using a function which does not require knowledge of the number of values to be averaged and will allow extra
values to be added in the future by inserting columns.

A B C D E F G H I
1 Student Mark 1 Mark 2 Mark 3 Mark 4 Total Average Minimum Maximum
2 Name 1 98 40 36 84 =(B2+C2+D2+E2) =F2/4
3 Name 2 31 67 61 77 =SUM(B3:E3) =AVERAGE(B3:E3) =MIN(B3;E3) =MAX(B3:E3)
4 Name 3 62 58 29 38 =SUM(B4:E4) =AVERAGE(B4:E4) =MIN(B4:E4) =MAX(B4:E4)
5 Name 4 64 83 85 27 =SUM(B5:E5) =AVERAGE(B5:E5) =MIN(B5:E5) =MAX(B5:E5)
6 Name 5 87 45 64 42 =SUM(B6:E6) =AVERAGE(B6:E6) =MIN(B6.E6) =MAX(B6:E6)
7 Name 6 93 58 43 73 =SUM(B7:E7) =AVERAGE(B7:E7) =MIN(B7:E7) =MAX(B7:E7)
8 Name 7 99 29 55 92 =SUM(B8:E8) =AVERAGE(B8:E8) =MIN(B8:E8) =MAX(B8:E8)
9 Name 8 57 58 44 93 =SUM(B9:E9) =AVERAGE(B9:E9) =MIN(B9:E9) =MAX(B9:E9)
10 Name 9 45 43 98 55 =SUM(B10:E10) =AVERAGE(B10:E10) =MIN(B10:E10) =MAX(B10:E10)

Figure 8.32 - Summary functions.

 1
1
Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

TASK EXAMPLE

CD 8.13 Student marks

CD 8.14 Rounding
Open CD 8.13 Student marks. Use functions to calculate
the average, minimum and maximum markforeach of In CD 8.14 Roundingyou can see how the functions
the four tests. above have been used:

A B c D E
1 Original number Integer Round Round up Round down
2 25817.32817 =INT(A2) =ROUND(A2,3) =ROUNDUP(A2,2) =ROUNDDOWN(A2,4)
Rounding functions 3 3852.876985 =INT(A3) =ROUND(A3,3) =ROUNDUP(A3,2) =ROUNDDOWN(A3,4)
=INT(A4) =ROUND(A4,3) =ROUNDUP(A4,2) =ROUNDDOWN(A4,4)
Numbers can be rounded to whole numbers or decimal 4
5
928.2341
0.03256 =INT(A5) =ROUND(A5,3) =ROUNDUP(A5,2) =ROUNDDOWN(A5,4)
places. Table 8.03 shows the functions that can be
used. Figure 8.33 - Rounding functions.

Function Purpose Example You can also see the results of the calculations
INTEGER Returns the =INT(A2) made by the functions:
whole number
A B c L
value of a 1 Original number Integer Round Round up Round down
decimal number 2 25817.32817 25817 25817.328 25817.33 25817.3281
(the value before 3 3852.876985 3852 3852.877 3852.88 3852.8769
4 928.2341 928 928.234 928.24 928.2341
the decimal 5 0.03256 0 0.033 0.04 0.0325
point).
ROUND Rounds a =ROUND(A2,3) Figure 8.34 - Rounding values.
numbertothe
nearest decimal
place specified.
This example TASK
rounds the value Create a new spreadsheet and experiment with the four
in B2 to three rounding functions using different values for decimal
decimal places. places.
ROUNDUP Rounds a =ROUNDUP(A2,2)

o
number up to
the nearest
decimal place DISCUSSION POINT
specified. This What happens if you change the number of decimal
example rounds places to a negative number? How does this relate to
up the value rounding to significant figures? Notice how -1 rounds
in B2 to two to tens, -2 rounds to hundreds and -3 rounds to

decimal places. thousands. The minus number relates to rounding to

the power of 10 rather than rounding to a set number of
ROUNDDOWN Rounds a =ROUNDDOWN(A2,4) significant figures.
number down
to the nearest
decimal place
specified. This Indices
example rounds If you need to calculate indices (powers), then the
down the value POWER function can be used. It uses the syntax
in B2 to four =POWER(number,power). For example, =POWER(6,3)
decimal places. would raise 6 to the power of 3. It is also possible to use
the A symbol and so =6A3 would also raise 6 to the power
Table 8.03 - Rounding functions. of 3.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

EXAMPLE TASK
O CD 8.16 Date and time
CD 8.15 Powers
Explore CD 8.16 Date and time.
CD 8.15 Powers raises the numbers in column A to
the power given in row 1. Text functions
A B c D Calculations can be performed on text to extract parts
1 Original number Power 2 Power 3 Power 4 of text, join text together, calculate the length of text or
2 4 =POWER(A2,2) =A2A3 =POWER(A2,4)
3 3 =POWER(A3,2) =A3A3 =POWER(A3,4)
change the case of text.
4 7 =POWER(A4,2) =A4A3 =POWER(A4,4)
Function Purpose Example
Figure 8.35- Powers. CONCATENATE Joins together text CONCATENATE
values. (A1,B1,C1)
=A1&B1&C1
TASK
=A1 & & B1 &
CD 8.15 Powers & Cl & ".it.com”
Open CD 8.15 Powers which contains random values for LEFT Extracts the furthest =LEFT(A1,4)
the number to be raised and random values for the power. left characters.
1 Create a function in B8 that raises the value in A4 to
YEAR Extracts the furthest =RIGHT(A1,2)
the power given in B7. Do not use any numbers, only
use cell references. right characters.
2 Using absolute cell referencing where needed, copy the LEN Calculates the =LEN(A1)
function from B8 across the row and down the column. length of a string.
You should not need to change any cell references if UPPER Converts text into =UPPER(A1)
you have used absolute references properly. uppercase.
LOWER Converts text into =L0WER(A1)
Date and time functions
lowercase.
Calculations can be performed on dates and times. Table 8.05 - Text functions.

Function Purpose Example

DAY Calculates the day part of a date. =DAY(B1)
TASK
MONTH Calculates the month part of a =M0NTH(B1)
Look at the spreadsheet in Figure 8.36 and the function
date.
used to calculate the username of students in a school.
YEAR Calculates the year part of a date. =YEAR(B1) A B C D
1 Forename Surname Year Username
DATE Calculates the date from a given =DATE(B4,B3,B2)
2 Harjinder Singh 2003 =UPPER(RIGHT(C2,2)&LEFT(A2,3)&LEFT(B2,3))
year, month and day. 3 Abigail Drew 1999 =UPPER(RIGHT(C3,2)&LEFT(A3,3)&LEFT(B3,3))
HOUR Calculates the hours part of a =HOUR(B8) 4 Poonam Patel 200) =UPPER(RIGHT(C4,2)&LEFT(A4,3)&LEFT(B4,3))

time. Figure 8.36 - Text functions.

MINUTE Calculates the minutes part of a =MINUTE(B8)
time. 1 Describe what the function does and how the
username is formed.
SECOND Calculates the seconds part of a =SEC0ND(B8)
2 Calculate the usernames for each of the three
time.
students.
TIME Calculates the time from given =TIME(B9,B10,B11) 3 Write a function that will work out their email
hours, minutes and seconds. addresses. Their email addresses are surname.i.yy@
NOW Gives the current date and time =N0W() textfunctionschool.edu where surname is their
(can be formatted forjustdateor surname, i is the first initial of their forename and yy is
just time). the last two digits of the year they joined the school.
The email address should be in lower case.
Table 8.04 - Date and time functions.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

Lookup functions
A B
Lookup functions will look up a value in a table and return Enter the number
another value in the same row or column. VLOOKUP is 1 of the month:
used to look for a value in a column and return a value 2 2
from the same row. HLOOKUP is used to look for a value 3
in a row and return a value from the same column.
4 3 Letter code: Feb
The VLOOKUP function uses the syntax: 5 Month: Febuary
=VLOOKUP(Search Value, Lookup Table, Column, Match) 6 Francais: Fevrier

Search Value is the value being looked up in the table. Figure 8.38 - Number worksheet.
Lookup Table is the range of celts that define the location
of the table. Column is the number of the column that These are the VLOOKUP functions that were used:
should be returned as the result in the matching row of
the value that was found. Match defines whether an exact A B
match should be found - TRUE for approximate match or Enter the number
1 of the month:
FALSE for exact match.
2 2
3
4 3 Letter code: =VLOOKUP(A2, Months!A2:D13,2,FALSE)
5 Month: =VLOOKUP(A2, Months!A2:Dl 3,3,FALSE)
6 Francais: =VLOOKUP(A2, Months!A2:D13,4,FALSE)
O CD 8.17 Months
CD 8.17 Months contains a table in the worksheet Figure 8.39 - Lookup functions.

1
‘Months’ that lists the numbers that represent
months, the three-letter shortened version of each
month’s name, the full name of each month and the VLOOKUP functions can also be replicated in the same
French name of each month. way as any other function. The main problem with this
though is that the lookup table cell references will change
A B c D as they are copied down the rows.
1 Number 3 Letter Month Francais
2 1 Jan January Janvier
3 2 Feb Febuary Fevrier
March Mars TASK
4 3 Mar
5 4 Apr April Avril CD 8.18 VLookup price categories
6 5 i May May Mai Open CD 8.18 VLookup price categories which calculates
7 6 Jun June Juin the prices of tickets purchased for a show.
8 7 Jul July Julliet 1 Look at the lookup table on the Ticket
9 8 Aug August Aout Categories worksheet. It shows the prices for
9 Sep September Septembre
each category.
10
2 Look at the function in C2 on the Ticket Sales
11 10 Oct October Octobre
worksheet. Describe what this function is doing.
12 11 i Nov November Novembre
3 Replicate the function from C2 down the column.
13 12 Dec December Decembre
4 What has gone wrong?
5 Why has it gone wrong?
Figure 8.37 - Lookup table.

The worksheet ‘Number’ asks the user to enter a

number that represents a month and it will then One way of overcoming this is to change all the cell
look up that number in the table and return the references in the lookup table (but not the lookup
three-letter code, full month name and French value) to be absolute cell references. An easier way of
month name. overcoming this is to name the lookup table as a named
range.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT
c
i
function is then used to look up the Mark in the
TASK
GradeBoundaries table and return the second
CD 8.18 VLookup price categories column, which is the grade. Not many of the
Continue using CD 8.18 VLookup Price Categories. marks are an exact match and so the TRUE
6 Name the range containing the lookup table on the element at the end of the function means that
Ticket Categories worksheet (do not include the titles the closest mark below or equal to the student’s
in the range).
mark will be found and the grade returned as the
7 Change the VLOOKUP function in C3 to include
answer.
the named range instead of the range Ticket
Categories’!Al:B5 A B C D
8 Replicate the function from C2 down the column and 1 Student Mark Grade Function
it should find the correct prices for each category of 2 1 5 U =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
3 2 30 D =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
ticket. 4 3 35 D =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
5 4 22 U =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
6 5 49 A =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
7 6 47 B =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
8 7 48 A =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
So far you have seen VLOOKUP functions that find an 9 8 39 c =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
10 9 25 E =VLOOKUP(Mark,GradeBoundaries,2,TRUE)
exact match within a table. However, there are occasions
when an exact match is not required, but the closest Figure 8.41 - Non-matching VLOOKUP function.
value below or equal to the search value should be
found. It is essential that the lookup table’s first column is
in order from lowest to highest for this to work.

The HLOOKUP function works in a very similar way to

CD 8.19 Exam results the VLOOKUP function, but instead of searching for
CD 8.19 Exam results includes a lookup table of the values down the table, it searches for values across the
minimum mark required to achieve each grade. table.
This table has been called ‘GradeBoundaries’ as the The HLOOKUP function uses the syntax:
named range.
=HLOOKUP(Search Value, Lookup Table, Row, Match)
GradeBoundaries - : fi Search Value, Lookup Table and Match are the same as in

\
the VLOOKUP function. Row is the number of the row that
A B should be returned as the result in the matching column of
the value that was found.
12 Mark \ Grade
13 0 U
14 24 E
t? CD 8.20 HLookup
15 30 D
CD 8.20 HLookup lists products and their prices and
16 36 C the discounts that are currently being applied to
each of those products. The function used in D2 for
17 42 B the Discount Rate is:
18 48 A =HLOOKUP(C2,DiscountRates,2,FALSE)

Figure 8.40 - Non-matching VLOOKUP table. The discount rate code (C2) is looked up in the
named range DiscountRates (B13:F14) and the
Each student’s marks are entered in cells B2 to corresponding rate in the second row of the table is
BIO which has been named ’Mark’. The VLOOKUP returned as the discount rate.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

A B C D E F Conditional functions
l Product Price Discount rate Discount Discounted value Discounted price
2 Product 1 $ 101.96 B 30% $ 30.59 $ 71.37 The functions you have seen so far will always perform
3 Product 2 $ 99.51 A 40% $ 39.80 $ 59.71 their calculation. However, a conditional function will only
4 Product 3 $ 142.15 C 20% $ 28.43 $ 113.72
5 Product 4 $ 186.94 B 30% $ 56.08 $ 130.86 perform the calculation if certain criteria are met.
6 Product 5 $ 171.80 D 10% $ 17.18 $ 154.62
7 Product 6 $215.88 B 30% $ 64.76 $ 151.12
8 Product 7 $ 213.39 E 5% $ 10.67 $ 202.72
9 Product8 $ 222.17 A 40% $ 88.87 $ 133.30
10 Product 9 $199.98 C 20% $ 40.00 $ 159.98
11 Product 10 $ 86.40 E 5% $ 4.32 $ 82.08
12 O CD 8.23 IF functions
13 Code A C D E
14 Rate 40% 30% 20% 10% 5% CD 8.23 IF functions contains a simple quiz that asks
users what the capital city of a country is. If the user
Figure 8.42 - Hlookup.
gives the correct answer then they are told “Well
done” otherwise they are told “Oops”.
Nested formula
A nested formula is one which can include more than one A B c D
1 What is the Capital of China? Beijing
function or formula. Each nested formula or function is 2 I =IF(B l - 'Beijing","Well done’V'Oops")
surrounded by brackets and will be calculated before the
formula or function surrounding it is completed. Figure 8.44 - Capital quiz.

An IF function has three elements as shown in Table 8.06.

CD 8.21 Nested IFs Element Purpose Example

CD 8.21 Nested IFs calculates the average mark Condition Specifies the rules to be B1 = “Beijing”
using separate total and average functions in checked.
columns F and G. True Value Specifies what to display if “Well Done”
the condition is met.
ft COE _
1 Studant Mark 1 Mark 2 Mark 3 Mark 4 Total Avtraf*
'
_ False Value Specifies what to display if “Oops”
2 (Name 1 36 84 258 65 j-lf(. >.SUM( . i"!/COUNT| i ."AboveVBalow'1)

the condition is not met.

Figure 8.43 - Nested IF.
Table 8.06 - IF function elements.
In column H, a nested formula has been used to
calculate whether each student is above or below
the average mark. It examines the average mark TASK
for the student in column G, then divides the total CD 8.23 IF functions
of all the average marks by the number of average Open CD 8.23 IF functions and use the Capitals Quiz
marks to see if column G is higher. If column G is worksheet.
higher then “Above” is displayed otherwise “Below” 1 Why does the spreadsheet say “Oops” when the
is displayed. answer for the capital of France is correct?
2 Fix the IF function for the capital of France so it works
properly.
3 Test your function by entering an incorrect answer.
TASK 4 Add another question in row 7 and write an IF
O CD 8.22 Profit calculator function to give feedback to the user.
Open CD 8.22 Profit calculator. This is quite a slow way of creating a quiz. Try this more
1 Create a single nested formula for E2 that will efficient method:
calculate the total profit made for product 1. 1 Put the answers to each question in column C next to
2 Replicate this formula for products 2 and 3. where the user will put their answer in column B.
3 Without using the AVERAGE function, create a nested 2 Change the IF function in B2to be=IF(Bl=Cl,"Well
formula to calculate the average total profit in E5. done’V’Oops”)
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

3 Now replicate this to the other two questions and TASK

write another two so you have five in total. O CD 8.21 Nested IFs
Notice how much quicker it is now to add the new Open CD 8.21 Nested IFsand use the worksheet Mark
questions because you don’t have to keep editing the IF Book.
function. However, the user can see the answers. 1 Create a lookup table for the grades.
Use security measures such as hiding columns and 2 Changethe nested IF functions to lookup functions.
worksheet protection to hide the answers from the user. Using the same file, switch to the Ticket Sales worksheet
Open the worksheet Mark Book. which shows ticket sales for three different price
1 Students need to get 75 marks or more to pass maths, categories.
otherwise they fail. Write a function in D4to display 1 Change the lookup function for the price to a nested
Pass or Fail. IF function.
2 Replicate this function forthe other maths results. 2 Replicate the function down the column.
3 Students need to get 60 marks or more to pass
English, otherwise they fail. Write a function in D12 to
display Pass or Fail.
4 Replicate this function for the other English results.
Where the option for a lookup function exists, it is
better to use this than a nested IF, especially if there are
lots of options to choose from. However, sometimes

*
decisions are made based on more than one item of
DISCUSSION POINT data, in which case a nested IF function is the only
More than one criterion can be used by using AND or OR possible option.
within the condition element of the IF function.

Nested IF
It is possible to have an IF function nested within another CD 8.24 Photo frames
IF function. This can be useful if there are two or more
Open CD 8.24 Photo frames which shows the
alternative outputs. Sometimes the same result can be
charges made for a photo frame with a standard
achieved with a lookup function.
embossing or a gold embossing. The user can select
Standard or Gold embossing and the quantity to
purchase. The price can be determined by this
algorithm:

O CD 8.21 Nested IFs

Start
CD 8.21 Nested IFs contains a mark book on the
Mark Book worksheet. Students who get a mark of Is quantity
Yes Is embossing No Charge standard
price
80 or above get a distinction. Those who get a mark \<5? / \ gold? /

below 40 get a fail. All other students get awarded a Yes No

pass. Notice how a nested IF has been used to show
the grades. Charge standard quantityÿ Yes
photo price
\ <10? /

A B D E Charge standard Chart i standard

C_ F G
15+ ' 5+ 1 jtos price
i Maths
2 Student Mark Grade |
3 |Matthew j 94 |=IF(B3>=80."Distinction'',tF(B3<40,,lFail"."Pass")) Figure 8.46 - Flow chart algorithm.
‘
4 i Elijah 75 Pass
5 |Caleb 39 Fail
A nested IF function is used to determine the price
Figure 8.45 - Nested IF example. by following the same algorithm:
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets
I

A B C D E F G
1 Embossing Photo price 5+ photos 15+ photos
C3, a COUNTIF function is used to count only those
2 Standard $ 1.00 $ 0.80 1 $ 0,70 ] students who achieved a Pass.
3 Gold $ 1.80
4
5 Embossing: Standard
6 Quantity: 5
A B C D E
7 Unit price: =IF( _ -’Gold", ,IF y<5,B2,IF <15/ , )
1 Maths
8 Total price: $ 4.00
2 Student Mark Grade
Figure 8.47 - Nested IF for unit price. 3 Matthew 91 Distinction
4 Elijah 89 Distinction
5 Caleb 51 Pass
6 Joshua 38 Fail
Conditional statistical functions 7 Huan 92 Distinction
You have already been introduced to the SUM 8 Junayna 42 Pass
function and the AVERAGE function. Both of these 9 Yuki 32 Fail
10 Menekse 54 Pass
have similar functions that will only perform that
11
function if a certain condition is met. There is also a 12 Total students
count function that will only count items that meet 13 Passes |=CQUNTIF(C3:C10,"Pass")
certain criteria. 14 Fails
15 Distinctions

Function Purpose Example Figure 8.48 - Maths results COUNTIF.

COUNTA Counts all =COUNTA(H3:H200)
values in a
range.
TASK
COUNTIF Counts =COUNTIF(H3:H200,”Yes”)
CD 8.25 Maths results
all values
Only counts cells that Open CD 8.25 Maths results used in the example above.
that meet
contain “Yes”. 1 Use a function to count all the students in cell C12.
a criterion
2 Use a function to count all the students who failed
within a range. the test in C14.
SUMIF Adds up =SUMIF(J3:J200,”<0”) 3 Use a function to count all the students who achieved
all values a distinction in cell C15.
Only adds up negative
that meet 4 Use functions to calculate the average distinction
numbers. mark, pass mark and fail mark in cells C17 to C19.
a criterion
within a range. CD 8.26 Member ratings

AVERAGEIF Calculates =AVERAGEIF(J3:J200,”>0”) Open CD 8.26 Member ratings which shows how many
meetings each member of a club has attended. Members
the average Only finds the average of who have attended 50 meetings or more are awarded
of all values
positive numbers. “Gold member” status.
that meet 1 Use a function in B13 to calculate how many
a criterion members have Gold member status.
within a range. 2 Use a function in B14 to calculate the total number of
meetings that have been attended by Gold members.
Table 8.07 - Conditional statistical functions.

EXAMPLE Validation rules

The principle of validation was introduced in Chapter 1.
CD 8.25 Maths results Spreadsheet software can apply validation rules to data
that is input. If data passes the validation rule, then it will
CD 8.25 Maths results shows the marks and grades
be accepted. If data fails the validation rule, then it will be
awarded to students taking a maths test. In cell
rejected and an error message may be shown.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

DISCUSSION POINT
Error messages must clearly tell the user what they have
In this spreadsheet, the user is asked to enter a done wrong and what they should do to put it right. An
person’s gender. They have two valid options - 'Male’ or error message that simply says ‘Error’ or ‘Invalid Data’ is
‘Female’. The user has accidentally entered 'Mai’ which not helpful to the user.
is not a valid option. An error message has appeared
telling the user what to do to fix the problem.
The validation rules that can be used in spreadsheet software
include lookup in list, range, type (integer and real) and length.
A B C A range check can be set up with the following properties:
1 Gender: Mai
• between two values
Wrong gender • equal to a value
3 • not equal to a value
4 © Please only enter Male or Female
• greater than a value
5 ir'l'dry II Cancel Help • greaterthanorequaltoavalue
6 • less than a value
• less than or equal to a value.
Figure 8.49 - Male/female validation fail.

This is the rule that had been set up:

Data Validation ? This validation rule is a range check that checks

[ Settings j I Input Message Error Alert I
input data is a wholerrumber between 1and 99.
Validation criteria ?
Data Validation
Allow:
List | v I 0 Ignore blank Settings Input Message Error Alert
Data: 0 ln-cell dropdown Validation criteria
| between Allow:

Source: Whole number v 0 Ignore blank

Male, Female m Data:
between -I
Minimum:

Apply these changes to all other cells with the same settings
Maximum:
m
Clear All OK Cancel
99 SB|
l~l Apply these changes to all other cells with the same settings

Figure 8.50 - Male/female validation setup. £lear All OK ~| | Cancel

The rule ensures that the only data that can be Figure 8.51 - Range validation.
entered must exist in the list that contains ‘Male’
and ‘Female’. It is a lookup in list method of
validation.
TASK
O CD 8.27 Physics results
Open CD 8.27 Physics results which is ready for students’
TASK marks to be entered for tests 1, 2 and 3.
Create a hew spreadsheet. 1 Create validation rules that only allow the entry of marks
1 Create a validation rule that will only allow the entry up to and including the maximum marks for each test.
of ‘Junior’, ‘Intermediate’ or ‘Senior’. 2 The validation rule should also ensure that negative
2 Set up an appropriate error message. numbers cannot be entered.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets I
r

Validation applied to a spreadsheet Test a spreadsheet model and evaluate the

When testing validation rules work, it is important to enter effectiveness of test plans for a spreadsheet
four different types of test data. model
Testing of validation rules Is just one aspect of testing. All
Type of test data Purpose
formulae and functions also need testing. To test a formula
Valid (normal/ Data that should pass the
or function, it is necessary to identify input data that will
acceptable data) validation rule. be used for the calculation and the expected output data
Invalid (erroneous/ Data that should generate an error (result of calculation). The expected output data should be
unacceptable data) message. _ calculated using traditional methods and then compared
Extreme valid Data that will only just pass the with the result from the spreadsheet. It is also essential to
validation rule because it is on the identify which worksheet the input data and output data
boundary of acceptable data. are on as they may be on different worksheets and the
Extreme invalid Data that will only just generate an tester will need to find the data. Other aspects such as cell
error message because it is on the and worksheet protection and conditional formatting can
boundary of unacceptable data. also be tested. It is not possible to test every possible input
value, but a good range should be used, especially extreme
Table 8.08 - Types of test data. values which are small and large. Invalid input values
should only be used if validation rules have been set up.

Here is some test data that could be used to test the

validation rule whole number BETWEEN 5 and 20: This test plan tests the formula in C6 of = A6 + B6
Test data Type of test Expected Test data input Type of Expected result 123
input value data result value test data
10 Valid Accepted A6 = 5, B6 = 8 on Valid C.6 = 13 on
5 Extreme valid Accepted Addition worksheet Addition
20 Extreme valid Accepted worksheet
3 Invalid Error message A6 = 30000000 Extreme C6 = 110 000 000
-10 Invalid Error message
B6 = 80000000
valid on Addition
abc Invalid Error message worksheet and
on Addition is fully visible
10.5 Invalid Error message
worksheet
4 Extreme invalid Error message
A6 = 0, B6 = 0 on Extreme C6 = 0 on
21 Extreme invalid Error message
Addition worksheet valid Addition
worksheet

TASK
When a tester runs a test plan, there will bean additional
Generate test data that will test the following rules, You
should use a table with three columns: test data value,
cotumn called ‘Actual result’ where the results of the test
type of test data and expected result. Ensure you cover will be entered.
all four types of test data.
• input value is a whole number <1000
TASK.
• input value is a decimal >25
• input value is between 100 and 200 O CD 8.28 Test results
• input value = PASS or FAIL (there are no extreme tests Open CD 8.28 Test results and run the tests from the
for this) example above.
• input value exists in list Junior, Intermediate, Senior 1 Record the results in CD 8.28 Test results.
(there are no extreme tests for this) 2 If a test fails, record what happened.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

TASK
CD 8.29 Invoices and CD 8.30 Test plan
Open CD 8.29 Invoices and CD 8.30 Test plan and complete the test plan with at least six other tests. Calculate the expected
result using traditional methods and then enter the input data and compare with the actual result.

Test data input value Type of test data Expected result Actual result
Quantity for Product 3 on Invoice worksheet = 36 Valid VAT for Product3 on
Cost for Product 3 on Invoice worksheet = $1,345.00 Invoice worksheet =
$9,684.00
VAT rate on Data worksheet = 20%

Test plans are often written during the design stage you should verify that the data has been input correctly
of a system life cycle. At this point, cell references by comparing what has been entered with the original
are unlikely to be known. Therefore, cell references source.
can be replaced with a description of the input. It
must be clear to the tester where to input the test
Filter data
data.
When there is a lot of data listed in a spreadsheet,
users may want to view just some of that data. This can
Verify data entry be achieved by filtering the data that is required. The
In Chapter 1you learned that data that has been validated term filter is used to relate to the user’s mental model.
is not necessarily correct. It is therefore necessary to When coffee is filtered, the granules are left in the filter
verify data. When inputting data into a spreadsheet, while the flavoured drink flows through the filter.

In this example, people with a title of ’Dr’ have been

filtered.

/
X A B
1 Title _\X First Name -
C
Surname
D
Membership status »
E
] Gender -
67 Dr Forename 141 Surname 141 ll Patron
111 Dr Forename 57 Surname 57 Full Male

Figure 8.53 -Dr filter.

TASK

m
O CD 8.08 Member list
Open CD 8.08 Member list and apply the following
filters:
1 People with a membership status of Full.
2 People who do not want to be emailed.
\ 3 People who have been a member for one year.
4 People who are either Full or Patron members.
Figure 8.52 - Coffee filter paper in use.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

In the task above, the last filter that you applied was to Special text filters can be applied as shown in Table 8.09.
find members who were either Full or Patron members.
This uses a Boolean operator known as OR. It means that Filter Purpose Example
either condition can be true. Other Boolean operators
include AND and NOT. Contains Selects data in Contains ‘CFT will select
a column that all data in a column where
includes the CH exists anywhere within
EXAMPLE text specified. each data item.
This filter shows members who have NOT lapsed Chicken, Reach, Church
their membership: and Ache would all be
included, but not Card.
Custom AutoFilter ?
Starts with Selects data in Starts with 'CFF will select
Show rows where:
Membership Status
a column that all data in a column
does not contain v Lapsed Vl starts with the where the data starts
• And fit text specified. with CH.
.0 [
Use ? to represent any single character
Chicken and Church would
Use * to represent any series of characters all be included, but not
OK Cancel
Reach, Ache or Card.
Ends with Selects data in Ends with ‘CH’ will select
Figure 8.54- NOT. a column that all data in a column
ends with the where the data ends with
This filter will show members who have five or more text specified. CH.
years of membership AND less than seven years of
membership: Church and Reach would
be included but not
Custom AutoFilter ? Chicken, Ache or Card.
Show rows where:
Number of Years Table 8.09 - Text filters.
is greater than or equal to
<§> And Ofir
v 5
- Filters that find a range of data can be used with numbers,
is less than
BE v
dates and times as shown in Table 8.10.
Use ? to represent any single character
Use * to represent any series of characters

E000 Cancel
I Filter Purpose Example
Greater than Selects data in a column >10
Figure 8.55 -AND.
that is greater than the
Lists 11 but
value specified.
not 9 or 10.
This is the result of the filter:
L E G
Less than Selects data in a column <10
Title First Name - Surname •| Membership status • Gender •Oo not email - Number of year-.i
13 Mrs
•

Forename 3 Surname 3 Full Female FALSE that is less than the value
Forename 50 Surname 50 Full Male FALSE 5 Lists 9, but not
37
Forename 7 Surname 7 :Full
ime 90 lapsed Male
FALSE
FALSE
5
6
specified. 10 or 11.
38 Miss Forename 10 Surname 10 Full Female TRUE 6
Mr Forename 110 Surname 110 Full FALSE 6
50
52
Forename 24 Surname 24 Patr
Forename 69 Surname 69 Full Male
FALSE
FALSE
5
6
Greater than Selects data in a column >=10
53 Mr Forename 15 Surname IS Junior TRUE 5
58 Mr Forename 129 Surname 129 lapsed 5 or equal to that is greater than or equal
61 Mr Forename 133 Surname 133 Patron FALSE 6
Forename 122 Surname 122 lapsed
lapsed
FALSE
FALSE
5
6
to the value specified.
78 Forename 14 Surname 14
83 Mr Forename 108 Surname 108 Patron Male FALSE 5
88 Mr
114 Mr
Forename 37
Forename 48
Surname 37
Surname 48
Full
Full
Male
Male
FALSE
FALSE
5
5
Less than or Selects data in a column <=10
128 Mr Forename 89 Surname 89 Lapsed Male FALSE 5
132 Mr Forename 78 Surname 78 Full Male FALSE 6 equal to that is less than or equal
146 Mr Forename 70 Surname 70 Full Male FALSE 6
to the value specified.
Figure 8.56 - AND result.
Table 8.10 - Filtering for a range.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

TASK TASK
O CD 8.31 USA addresses O CD 8.32 Instructors
Open CD 8.31 USA addresses and apply the following Within your spreadsheet software, open CD 8.32
filters: Instructors and select options which will cover the
1 State is Arizona ‘Az’ OR California 'CA'. following:
2 City starts with ‘San’. 1 This is a delimited file that is separated by commas.
3 Company ends with ‘Inc’. 2 The file has data headers in the first row.
4 Company includes 3 The Date of Birth should be in date format with no time.
5 Position is <=10. 4 The charge should be in currency.
6 Position is >10 AND <=50. 5 Use the find and replace option in the Weekends
7 State is NOT = ‘FL’ AND NOT = 'OH. column only to replace 1with ‘Yes’ and 0 with ‘No’.
CD 8.33 Driving school.accdb
Within your spreadsheet software, open CD 8.33 Driving
school.accdb and import the Learner table.
Sort data
It is possible to sort data into ascending or descending
order. If only a selection of columns are sorted, then only
the data within those columns will be sorted. To keep all
data in each row together, do not highlight the data. To DISCUSSION POINT

sort on more than one column, it is necessary to specify O CD 8.34 Lessons

the sort order for each column and which column should Try to open CD 8.34 Lessons from your spreadsheet
software. It is unlikely that your spreadsheet software will
be sorted first. If you wanted to sort by surname and then
recognise how to import this data. It is essential to ensure
sort any matching surnames by forename, then you would that the data being imported is structured in a way in
sort by surname first. which the spreadsheet software can understand it by using
rows of data and separating columns with a special symbol
such as a comma.
TASK
O CD 8.31 USA addresses
Data can also be exported so that it can be used in other
Open CD 8.31 USA addresses and sort data into the
software. If it is exported in a common format such as CSV
following order:
or TXT, then other software will be able to recognise the
• Position from 1to 500.
rows and columns. Formats such as portable document
• Position from 500 to 1.
• State in alphabetical order from A to Z. format (PDF) will enable the data to be viewed by a wide
• City in reverse alphabetical order. variety of users but not manipulated, so PDF is good for
• Surname in alphabetical order from A to Z with showing output data.
Forename as the secondary sort.

TASK
It’s not just text and numbers that can be sorted into O CD 8.31 USA addresses
order. Dates and times can also be sorted. Open CD 8,31 USA addresses and export it to the
following formats:
Import and export data • CSV
• TXT
Data can be imported from other formats such as a
• PDF
comma separated values (CSV) file, text (TXT) file or from
• Open Document Spreadsheet (ODS) - works with
a database. When importing, you should already have Open Office
the spreadsheet software open and open the file to be • Web page (HTML).
imported from within the spreadsheet software. You will View the files that you have exported the data to and
often have to ensure that when opening you have selected note how the data has been stored.
the option to show all files.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

The comparative bar chart on the worksheet

Worldwide Sales compares the sales of different
1 Describe the purpose of a named range of cells. continents for each of the months in 2015. Notice
2 Describe the difference between a formula and a how a legend is used to show which continent is
function. represented by which colour:
3 Explain how a user could verify data on a
Monthly worldwide sales 2015
spreadsheet.
4 Compare absolute cell referencing with relative cell December
November
referencing. October
September
5 Using an example, describe how absolute cell August
July
referencing could be used in a spreadsheet.
May
April
March
February
January

8.02 Graphs and charts o 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000

Sales
Analyse and select a chart Australia aAsia Europe
Graphs or charts are used to show information in a way
that makes it easy to compare values. This could be Figure 8.58 - Worldwide sales comparative bar chart.
as simple as showing the monthly sales in a column or
bar chart or it could be more complex and show how
hospital waiting times vary during a month compared Line graphs are similarto barcharts in that they show the
with their targets. Charts that show more than one set size of data, but they are mainly used to show how data
of data are known as comparative charts because data changes over a period of time.
for one set can be compared against data for another
set.

CD 8.35 Graphs and charts

The first line graph on the worksheet Waiting List
CD 8.35 Graphs and charts in CD 8.35 Graphs and charts shows how waiting
times at the Kerslake Hospital have fallen over a
CD 8.35 Graphs and charts includes some examples four-year period. Notice how the minimum value on
of graphs and charts. The worksheet Monthly Sales for the x-axis scale is 2.0 hours and the maximum
contains a barchart showing the Monthly sales over value for the y-axis scale is 3.6 hours. The y-axis
a period of 12 months. Notice how a chart title and scale has intervals of 0.2 hours. Both y and x-axes
x-axis title have been included: have been given axis titles.
Monthly sales 2015 Kerslake Hospital waiting times
3.6
December
November 3.4
October
3.2
September |
August
July
J 3.0
I282.6
April
Z 2.4
March
February 2.2
January
2.0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 2012 2013 2014 2015
Sales Year

Figure 8.57 - Monthly sales bar chart. Figure 8.59 - Kerslake Hospital line graph.
 , »-%-->= .

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

The comparative line graph on the worksheet Waiting When selecting which type of graph or chart to produce,
List compares the waiting times of three hospitals you should consider the general rules shown in Table 8.11.
over a four-year period with the target waiting time
of 2.5 hours. Notice how the y-axis scale has intervals Type of graph / chart Purpose
of 0.5 hours, the maximum value for the y-axis scale Bar/ column chart Used to show a single series of
is 5.0 and the minimum value forthey-axis scale is 1.5. data in columns or rows.
Waiting times 2012-2015 Comparative bar/ Used to compare more than
5.0 column chart one series of data in columns
4.5
or rows.
Line graph Used to show how a single
series of data changes over a
2.5
period oftime. _
2.0
1.5 Comparative line Used to compare how more
2014 2015
graph than one series of data changes
Year
over a period oftime._
•Kerslake Hospital Bore Hospital •Uptown Hospital Target
Pie chart Used to show the proportion
Figure 8.60 - Hospital waiting times comparative line that is used by each item of data.
graph.
Table 8.11 - Rules for selecting type of graph or chart.

Pie charts are used to show proportional data. This differs Create a graph or chart
from bar charts or line graphs because instead of showing When creating a graph or chart, you should ensure that it
the actual values, the proportion or percentage of each is labelled appropriately.
data item is shown.
Label Purpose
Title A brief overview of what the graph or
chart is showing. _
Legend A key to show what the colours used
O CD 8.35 Graphs and charts
The worksheet Head Prefect in CD 8.35 Graphs and
represent. _
Value axis Each of the axes (usually x and y) should
charts contains a pie chart showing the proportion include the values including any units.
of votes received for each student standing in an Category axis Each of the axes should include a title
election for head prefect of a school. Notice how a to state what the data represents.
legend is not necessary because each legend has Percentages When using a pie chart, the
been labelled with the name of the data item. Each percentages may need to be displayed
segment has also been labelled with the percentage
of the total vote that each data item represents:
for each segment. _
Segment label Instead of a legend, each segment in
Adrian a pie chart could be labelled with its
Smith Votes for Head Prefect
5%
description.
Segment value As well as, or instead of the percentage,
each segment in a pie chart could be
Zee Dass
18%
labelled with its quantity. _
Kristoff Scale The interval between each value on an
Shwarz
35% axis.
James Dolphin
42% Axis scale The maximum value to be used on an
maximum axis.
Axis scale The minimum value to be used on an
minimum axis.
Figure 8.61 - Head prefect pie chart.
Table 8.12 - Labelling graphs and charts.
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

‘
TASK TASK
CD 8.25 Maths results CD 8.35 Graphs and charts
Open CD 8.25 Maths results. Open CD 8.35 Graphs and charts.
1 Create a bar chart to show the marks for each student. 1 Copy the graph Monthly sales 2015.
2 Include a title and axis titles. 2 Open a word processor or presentation software.
O CD 8.27 Physics results 3 Select the option to paste as a link (you may find this
under paste special).
Open CD 8.27 Physics results.
4 Ensure that the link option is selected and the object
1 Enter some marks for each student for each test.
type (graph) is identified.
2 Create a comparative bar chart to show the marks for
5 Save this new document and close it.
each student in each of the tests 1, 2 and 3.
6 Change some of the data in the Monthly sales
3 Include a title and axis titles.
worksheet.
4 Include a legend for the tests.
7 Save the spreadsheet.
5 Change the y-axis maximum scale value to be 50.
8 Reopen the new document you created and check
6 Change the y-axis scale to have intervals of 5.
that the graph has changed to reflect the updated
CD 8.36 School attendance data in the spreadsheet.
Open CD 8.36 School attendance.
1 Create a comparative line graph to show the
attendance of each of year 1and year 2 over the
period of the year compared with the target.
2 Label the chart appropriately.
3 Adjust the y-axis scale and maximum scale values 6 Identify and give reasons for the most appropriate
appropriately. type of chart or graph to show the number of missed
4 Include a legend.
refuse collections shown in the table below:
5 Change the line type of the target series to be dashed.
O CD 8.08 Member list Year Vesey New Hall Trinity
Open CD 8.08 Member list 2010 2502 4571 3271
1 Open the worksheet Pie Chart. Change ‘Count of
Membership Status' to 'Count of membership status’, 2011 2786 5728 3102
‘Membership Status’ to ‘Membership status’ and 2012 1987 5645 2905
‘Grand Total’ to ‘Grand total’.
2013 2057 4972 2647
2 Create a pie chart to show the proportion of members
for each status.
3 Give the chart a sensible title. 7 Identify and give reasons for the most appropriate
4 Add the percentages and membership statuses to the type of chart or graph to show the data shown in the
pie chart segments. table below:
CD 8.20 HLookup
Open CD 8.20 HLookup. Student Markl Mark 2 Mark 3 Mark 4 Average
1 Create an appropriate chart to show the products, Namel 98 40 36 84 65
original price and discounted price.
Name 2 31 67 61 77 59
2 Label the chart appropriately.
Name 3 62 58 29 38 47
Name 4 64 83 85 27 65
A chart can be created in a spreadsheet and then used Name 5 87 45 64 42 60
within other software by copying the graph and pasting Name 6 93 58 43 73 67
it into the other software, such as word processing for a
report, or presentation software for a presentation. It is Name 7 99 29 55 92 69
also possible to link the exported chart to the original Name 8 57 58 44 93 63
spreadsheet data so that if the data changes within the Name 9 45 43 98 55 60
spreadsheet then the chart will update in the software to
which it has been exported.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

8.03 Modelling • rules that define how the model behaves

• layers of abstraction so that different parts of the model
Characteristics of modelling software can be viewed and analysed separately.

o Model: a representation of a process

A model of a roller coaster can be built. Variables
can include the height of each drop, the radius of

Q Remember
A model is a computer representation of a real-world
loops, the starting speed of the carriage, length
of each section and the weight of each carriage.
Calculations will be used to define rules such
process. A model is created through mathematical analysis as the amount of friction and how that will slow
of the real-world process. Modelling software is used carriages down, the effect of gravity on carriages
to create a model. Spreadsheets can be used to create
as they move up and down and the g-force that will
computerised models, but there are also custom-written
solutions that are used to model specific processes. be experienced by passengers. What-if questions
could be asked such as 'What would happen if we
increased the starting speed by 2 km/h?’ or 'What
would happen if we increased the initial drop by
5 km?’ The effect of these changes in variables can
A network simulator such as Cloonixcan be used then be modelled.
to model a computer network. The software will be
able to produce a diagrammatic view of the devices
connected to the computer network. It will be possible
to identify the Internet Protocol (IP) addresses used TASK
on the network and how they are assigned through a Experiment with the digital single-lens reflex (DSLR)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server. camera simulator at http://camerasim.com/apps/
Wireless networks can be added and security can be camera-simulator/ by changing the variables and seeing
configured to see what the effects will be. Devices can what the end results are.
be connected to specific switches and the throughput
of data traffic can be analysed.
The need for computer models
Computer Aided Design (CAD) enables designers to There are a variety of reasons why models might be used,
produce a model of a physical object. This could include including training, forecasting and construction. Whatever
a kitchen, a building, a motor vehicle or an aeroplane. the reason, a model must be able to answer what-if
CAD software can include features such as viewing an questions.
object in two dimensions (2D) or three dimensions Models can be used for the purpose of training people to
(3D), manipulating objects within the model, adding use equipment. This could range from learning to drive a
or removing objects, viewing the model from different forklift truck to flying an aeroplane or operating a nuclear
angles, applying different effects such as colour and power plant. Models are used for training because there
lighting, and focusing on specific features such as the is less risk of injury to the trainees and instructors than
electrical cabling or heating system within a building. learning in a real environment. When learning to drive a
Modelling software will include some essential features: forklift truck, the trainee may make a mistake by lifting a
load too high and toppling the truck. In real life this could
• the ability to change variables within the software cause serious injury as well as costing money in terms of
• asking what-if questions to see what the result of repairs, but using a model removes both of these risks.
changing variables might be Costs are saved because real equipment does not suffer
• formulae and functions to carry out the mathematical wear and tear, fuel is not required to operate machinery
calculations that form the basis of the model and instructors do not need to be present all of the time.
• automatic recalculation of formulae and functions It is also possible to test the trainee in unpredictable
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

situations such as turbulence for an aeroplane or driving a • instant, automatic recalculation of formulae, functions and
heavy goods vehicle on ice. Unpredictable situations that graphs/charts to answer what-if questions immediately
would happen in real life can also be removed for trainees • conditional formatting to highlightthe effects
when they first start learning so they can focus on basic • goal-seek to find out what variables need to be changed
controls. to achieve a given outcome.
Models can also be used for forecasting. One of the most
common models forthis purpose is weather forecasting.
Patterns that have happened in the past can be analysed
along with current data to predict what the weather might Some examples of what-if questions in a financial
be in the future. Businesses and governments use financial spreadsheet model might include:
modelling to predict what might happen to profits orthe • What happens to the total income for the month if
economy. It is too risky for a business to make sudden we increase the selling price by 20%?
changes in the marketplace without testing them out with a
model first. A variety of what-if questions can be asked using • What happens to our costs if we use a different
a model to determine how to make the most profit. Variables supplier for one of our parts?
that could be changed include selling prices, adjusting the • What happens to our total expenditure forthe next
quantity of products to supply at any given time, times of year five years if we move to new premises?
to sell products and the effect of weather on seasonal sales.
Some examples of goal-seek questions might
Constructing buildings, kitchens, gardens, motor vehicles include:
and other objects can be a very costly process. It is
• What price do we need to sell at in order to sell
important to get it right first time as any adjustments that
5000 items per month?
have to be made in the real world will incurfinancial costs.
Models help to experiment with different designs to see • How many items do we need to sell to break even
which look is most aesthetically pleasing and which ones (zero profit and zero loss)?
react best to environmental conditions. When designing a
kitchen using modelling software, variables such as lighting, Other advantages of spreadsheet models include the
worktops, cupboard doors, position of units, flooring and ability to share the spreadsheet with colleagues easily so
tiling can be changed to see which configuration looks the that many people can experiment with the model, and
best. Cupboards, drawers, dishwashers and cookers can be the fact that most organisations already own spreadsheet
opened to see if they use the space efficiently. The angle of software which reduces the need fortrainingand
view can be changed in a 3D environment to see what the
purchase costs.
kitchen might look like from a variety of angles.
Spreadsheets do have their limitations though. They are
only as accurate as the formulae and functions that are
Evaluating the effectiveness of spreadsheet the rules that represent the real world. Unless extremely
models complex rules are used, then a spreadsheet model will

o
! TIP
Spreadsheet models are mainly used for financial forecasting,
never be an accurate representation. These complex rules
require mathematical and computer expertise in order
to set them up and it can take a very long time to create
but there are a lot of other models that can be used.
models that are truly representative of the real world.
Spreadsheets can only be used to simulate numbers, but
cannot simulate the effect on objects.
There are a variety of tools within a spreadsheet that can
be used to help with modelling:
• variables which can be changed to ask what-if questions 8 Identify three characteristics of modelling software.
• formulae and functions which define the rules of the 9 Describe, using examples, how a spreadsheet
model could be used to model the costs or savings to an
• graphs and charts which can show a graphical organisation of moving premises.
representation of the forecast
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

8.04 Simulations It is impossible to do this in real life without the actual

disaster happening and, as they are natural disasters, it is
Advantages and disadvantages of using a impossible to force them to happen. If the planners wait
model to create and run simulations for the natural disaster to happen, then it is too late to
plan.
Simulations based on models of natural disasters such as
Simulation: using a model to predict real-life behaviour earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, bush fires
and tsunamis can be used to see what the effects might
be. Planners can experiment with different variables such
A simulation is the use of a computerised model as wind speed and direction to see how quickly a fire
to predict how a real-life system might behave. As might spread, which will help them to plan evacuations
with modelling, simulations can be used for training, and firefighting.
forecasting and construction. As with all simulations, these rely upon the accuracy of
Advantages include: the model. There will be many things that the model
can’t predict completely such as sudden changes in
• It is not necessary to create expensive prototypes or the wind direction or wind speed and emotional reactions
real thing in order to experiment with different variations to being evacuated. However, planners can experiment
and answer what-if questions with lots of what-if questions in order to plan fora large
• changes to the model can be made very quickly and the variety of circumstances, which means that when a
effect can be seen just as quickly natural disaster does occur they can be better equipped
• alternative models and designs can be used to see how to deal with it.
they react differently
• unusual events (e.g. earthquakes) can be tested without
Pilot training
the need to wait for them to happen in real life
Part of the thrill of ftying an aircraft is being in the air.
• equipment does not suffer from wear and tear or
However, when it comes to large aircraft, it can cost
damage when being tested or experimented with
thousands of pounds just to take off, fly and land. This
• dangerous situations such as aeroplane equipment cannot be repeated too often as it will become too costly
failure can be simulated without putting people in danger to train pilots. Flight simulators can help by removing the
• simulations can be ‘sped up’ so that effects can be fuel costs associated with flying. They can also remove
analysed overa long period of time without having to the danger that a trainee pilot might pose if they make a
wait for that period of time to elapse. mistake while in the air.
Disadvantages include: Flight simulators not only include software, but very
• the way a simulation reacts is only as good as the model specialised equipment which can cost hundreds of
it is based upon thousands of pounds. The equipment will be designed
to react in a similar way to a real aircraft, so that the pilot
• simulation software and equipment can be very
can feel the physical effects of any movements that they
expensive to purchase
make (including take off, landing, turbulence or even
• people need to be trained to use simulation equipment
a crash landing) in a way that is as close to real life as
and software
possible. The software will include the rules of the model
• complex models take many years to develop, especially that define how the aircraft should react in a variety of
if they are designed to react like the real process
circumstances.
• it is impossiblefor a simulation to be a perfect
representation of the real-world process. Pilots can also practice landing and taking off at airports
they have not visited before, including some of the most
dangerous airports in the world such asToncontin Airport
The use of simulation in Honduras. Simulations give pilots the opportunity to
Natural disaster planning respond to malfunctions such as an engine failure, cabin
When planning for natural disasters, it is necessary to pressure failure or landing gearfailure. These would be far
know what the effects of a natural disaster might be. too dangerous to attempt in real life.
 to experiment with nuclear reactions in the real world in
the hope that something might work. Simulations can be
used to try out different nuclear reactions by adjusting
the coolant temperature, changing the way the control
rods are used and the rate of reaction. What-if questions
can be asked such as ‘What happens if I increase the
temperature?' and the outcomes can be seen. It’s also
possible to speed up the simulation so that rather than
waiting hours, days or even years to see what the effects
might be, results can be seen much more quickly.
Nuclear science requires a lot of computing power in
order to simulate nuclear reactions. For example, reactors
convert uranium and plutonium through nuclear fission
Figure 8.62 - Toncontin Airport.
which involves millions of collisions every microsecond.
Even with supercomputers, nuclear scientists cannot
Car driving represent all of these collisions in a simulation.
Simulators can be used to learn to drive a car. In most
countries, learner drivers start immediately on the road
having never used any of a car’s controls before. They
immediately have to deal with hazards such as other cars,
pedestrians, cyclists, potholes and dangerous junctions.
There is an online nuclear power plant simulator at
In addition to this, other drivers on the road are held up
because of the learner driver being slow and hesitant. www.nuclea rpowersimulator.com/.

Simulations can enable a learner driver to become familiar

with the controls of a car and dealing with hazards before
taking a car onto the road forthe first time. This is a safe TASK
environment and could reduce insurance premiums for Try the nuclear reactor simulator at www.dalton.
driving instructors. The simulator could also be used when manchester.ac.uk/engage/nrs/.
the learner driver needs to attempt manoeuvres such as
turning in the road or reversing around a corner for the
first time, rather than having to do this straight away on
a real road. Even after a learner driver has passed their
test, they could use simulators to learn how to drive on a 10 Describe two advantages of using a simulator for
motorway, drive in icy conditions and how to handle a car pilot training.
if it gets out of control such as in a skid. 11 Describe one disadvantage of using a simulator for
Simulations can also be used for racing drivers to learning to drive.
experiment with different car setups to find the optimum
configuration fora racing circuit, rather than risking
crashing. Racing drivers would be able to take the car to 8.05 Summary
the limit knowing that the virtual crash will not result in an
injury. However, a simulation will never behave exactly the A spreadsheet consists of worksheets. Each worksheet
same as the real car as the rules of the model will never be consists of rows and columns. Cells are referenced by the
perfect. Therefore it is still necessary to practice using a column letter and row number. A range is one or more
real racing car. cells that are named.
Cells within worksheets can be protected so they can’t be
Nuclear science research altered and worksheets can be hidden. Data within a cell
Nuclear science is very dangerous. Even a small accident can be assigned data types including date, time, number,
could expose a person to radiation that could cause text, currency, percentage and fractions. Text within a
serious disfigurement or death. It is therefore not possible cell can be aligned left, centre or right and can be rotated.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Comments can be added to cells. Conditional formatting should be used to test validation rules. Verification
can be used to format cells based on their content. is the process of checking data has been transferred
A worksheet can be set up to print on a specific size of correctly.
paper, with a header/footer and set margins. It can also Data can be selected using filters. Data can be sorted into
be specified to fit on a set number of pages. ascending or descending order. Data can be imported into
Formulae are basic arithmetic calculations and functions a spreadsheet from another data source or exported so it
are ready-made formulae representing complex can be used in other software. Graphs and charts can be
calculations. Functions can include summary functions, used to analyse data.
rounding functions, date/time functions, lookup functions Models represent real world processes for training,
and conditional functions. Absolute cell references do forecasting and construction. Spreadsheets can
not change when replicated and relative cell references be used for financial forecasting and other models
change when replicated. that rely on mathematical analysis. Simulations use
Validation rules can be used to ensure that data is computerised models to predict how real-life systems
sensible and allowed. Valid, invalid and extreme data might behave.

Review questions
The spreadsheet below shows cars that are owned by a driving school. It calculates the fuel type
of each car, the cost per litre of each fuel type and the cost per gallon.

A B C D E F
1 Registration Make Model Fuel type Cost per litre Cost per litre
2 BX56JWL Ford Mondeo Diesel $ 1.25 $ 5.69
3 BX56JWM Saab Saab 9-3 Petrol $ 1.17 $ 5.32
4 BX56JWN Land Rover Discovery Diesel $ 1.25 $ 5.69
5 BX56JWP Smart Smart Car LPG $ 0.85 $ 3.87
6 i 8X56JWR Ford Mondeo Petrol $ 1.17 $ 5.32
7 | BX56JWS Saab Saab 9-3 Diesel $ 1.25 s 5.69
8
9 Fuel type Cost per litre
10 Diesel $ 5.69
11 Petrol
1 1.17
12, LPG $ 5.69

Fig 8.63 - Rental company spreadsheet.

Rows and columns are used in the spreadsheet.

1 a Use an example from this spreadsheet to describe a row. [2]

Formulae and functions have been used in the spreadsheet. There are 4.55 litres in a gallon.
1 b i Describe a formula. [1]
1 b ii Write the formula used in F2. [1]
1 b iii Describe a function. [1]
1 b iv Identify the type of formula used in E2. [1]

The driving school would like to see all their petrol cars but not the other cars.
2 a Explain how the driving school could see all their petrol cars but not the other cars
without losing any data. [2]
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets

2 b Explain how the fuel types could be identified quickly using a different colour for each
without changing them all one by one. [2]

Absolute and relative cell referencing have been used within the spreadsheet.
3 Using examples, explain how absolute and relative cell referencing have been used. [4]

The spreadsheet model is going to be used to calculate the costs of using each car.
4 a Describe three advantages of using a spreadsheet to model the costs of using each
car. [3]
4 b Describe one disadvantage of using a spreadsheet to model the costs of using each
car. [1]

The driving school is considering purchasing a simulator to help students to learn to drive.
5 Give reasons for the use of a simulator for this purpose. [4]
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Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

m create a database with tables, queries, forms, reports and relationships

assign appropriate data types to fields and set primary, compound and foreign keys
understand relationships, entity relationship diagrams and referential integrity
evaluate the diff erence between a flat file, and relational and hierarchical databases
use validation and verification to check for accuracy
search a database using multiple criteria, static parameters, dynamic parameters and nested queries
summarise data within a table or query
import and export data to and from a database
understand normalisation and be able to normalise a database to third normal form
describe the components of a data dictionary
understandthedifferenttypesoffilesthatcan beused
explain the use of diff erent methods of file access
understand how a management information system can be used

S3
£2
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

9.01 Create a database Within a table are rows known as records. Each record
is an entity which is a set of data about one single thing
(person, place, object or event). In the example above, the
data about Marc Wenger is a single record/entity.
Database: ; structured method of storing data
Each entity has categories of information. These
Table: a set of similar data (about people, places, objects or
categories are known as attributes or fields. In the
events)
example above Customer ID, Contact forename,
Record: a common word for entity
Contact surname and Street address are all field/attribute
Entity: a set of data about one thing (person, place, object or
names.
event)
Attribute: a category of information within an entity One of the fields will be known as the primary key. The
Field: a common word for attribute primary key contains a unique value for each record. This
Primary key: a field that contains the unique identifier for a record means that each value can only exist once in that table so
Database management system: software used to manage a it is possible to identify each record using the primary key.
database In the example above, Customer ID is the primary key.
Relationship: the way in which two entities in two different
tables are connected
Foreign key: a field in a table that refers to the primary key in
another table
Q Remember
The software that is used to manage the database is
called a database management system (DBMS).
Normal form: the extent to which a database has been normalised Sometimes, this is referred to as a relational database
Index: a list of keys or keywords which identify a unique record management system (RDBMS) as it is managing a
and can be used to search and sort records more quickly database that includes relationships.
Entity relationship diagram: a diagram that represents the
relationships between entities
Flat file: a database stored in a single table
TASK
Compound key: two or more fields that form the primary key
CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb
Referential integrity: data in the foreign key of the table on
the many side of a relationship must exist in the primary key of Open CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb and then open the
the table on the one side of a relationship table Product.
Query: a question used to retrieve data from a database 1 Identify four field names in the Product table.
Parameter: data used within the criteria for a query 2 Identify the primary key in the Product table.
3 How many records are in the Product table?
4 Identify two other tables within the database.

Introduction to databases
Data types and field sizes
Remember
A database is a structured method forstoring data in
sets of tables. Each table contains similar data about
people, places, objects or events.
o DISCUSSION POINT
You should read the section about data types in Section
9.03 below.

EXAMPLE

Figure 9.01 from CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb Each field in a table will have a data type assigned to it.
contains data about customers (people): Data types include:
Customer ID Contact Forename » Contact Surname * Street Address
1Reina Wolchesky 305 W Washington St • text
2 Marc Wenger 33 Harrison Ave
3 Damion Matkln 5830 Downing St *-d • alphanumeric
4 Lucius Winchester 670 S Barrington Rd
5 Petra Mcnichol 670 S Barrington Rd • numeric (integer/decimal)
6 Katina Ramano 580 Fountain Ave
• date/time
Figure 9.01 - Customer table. • Boolean.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• Order Date is Date/Time and has been set as a

date.
CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb
• Notes is alphanumeric but has been further
The Product table in CD 9.02 Sales processing 2. defined as long text which means that any amount
mdb has the following data types: of text can be assigned to it.

Field Name Data Type

Y Product ID AutoNumber
Product Name Short Text DISCUSSION POINT
Supplier ID Number Different database management systems use different
Category ID Number names for data types. If you are using Microsoft Access,
Quantity Per Unit Short Text you will notice that text is used for alphanumeric data
Unit Price Currency and number is used for numeric data. Sometimes the
Units In Stock Number software will also use formatted data as a data type such
Reorder Amount Number
as currency. Currency is actually numeric (usually decimal)
Units On Order Number
and is just formatted by displaying a currency symbol with
Reorder Level Number
the number.
Discontinued Yes/No
Figure 9.02 - Product data types.

Fields within a table will have field sizes applied to them.

• Product Name and Quantity Per Unit are
This is because most fields are a fixed length. This means
alphanumeric (short text is the term used by
that only a specified amount of data can be stored in each
Microsoft Access) which means they can include
letters, numbers and symbols. field.
138 Text and alphanumeric fields will have a length to specify
• Units in Stock is a Number (numeric) which has
been set as an integer because it only contains the maximum number of characters that can be stored.
whole numbers. For example, the Product Name in the Product table is
limited to 40 characters. This avoids having lots of wasted
• Unit Price is currency (numeric) which has been set storage space where field space is not used up if the
as a decimal (real) because it can contain decimal length is too long.
values.
Numbers can also have a field size. This could be defined
• Discontinued is Yes/No (Boolean) because it can as the number of digits or it could be defined as the
only contain Yes or No values. maximum numeric value.
The Order table has the following data types: Dates will always be the same field size as they will always
store the date is the same way, but they can be formatted
Field Name Data Type to be displayed differently.
Y Order Number AutoNumber
Customer ID Number Some text fields can be formatted to be a variable length
Order Date Date/Time which means they can store as little or as much data as
Notes Long Text possible. These are sometimes referred to as memo or
Figure 9.03 - Order data types. long text data types. These are useful for fields that will
contain notes or comments.
Order Number is numeric but it is also set as an
AutoNumber which means a numeric value will be
automatically assigned.
• Customer ID is numeric which has been set as
© DISCUSSION POINT
It’s important to ensure that the field length is not too
an integer. It also matches the data type of the long because this will waste storage space, but it is also
Customer ID in the Customer table which you can important to ensure that the field length is long enough to
find within the database. store the longest required data item.
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

TASK
9.01 Sales processing.mdb
Open CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb and explore the
Sales Rep ID *
1
Last Name * First Name
Davolio
» Job Title
Sales Representative Msÿ
- Employee ID*

data types and field sizes used within the tables. : 2

3
4
Fuller
Leverling
Peacock Margaret
Vice President, Sales
Sales Representative
Sales Representative
Dr
Ms
Mrs
6

Employee ID -1 Birth Date - Hire Date - Address

The three relationships + 08-Dec-48 I 01-May-92 | 507-20th Aye, E.
+ 2 19-Feb-52 14-Aug-92 908 W.Capital Way
Relationships within a database can be used to connect 3 30-Aug-63 01-Apr-92 722 Moss Bay Blvd.
entities together. A foreign key is an attribute (field)
* 4
* 19-Sep-37 03-May-93 4110 Old Redmond Rd.

in one entity that connects to a primary key in another

entity. This allows related data to be looked up and
: 5ÿ 04-Mar-55
6 02-Jul-63
17-Oct-93
17-Oct-93
14 Garrett Hill
Coventry House

found. Figure 9.05 - One-to-one relationship, a) Sales Rep

table; b) Employee table.

The Sales Rep table stores details of the sales

representatives within a business. This only
Order Number - Customer ID »

2
Order Date -
28/05/2015]
contains basic information about their name
but their full employee details are stored in
2 1 22/05/2015 a separate table called Employee. Each sales
3 5 06/05/2015 representative only has one employee record and
4 3 05/04/2015 each employee record can only refer to one sales
5 7 06/05/2015 rep record.

+
Customer ID »t Contact Forename » Contact Surname
1 Reina Wolchesky
-
+ 2 Marc Wenger __ One-to-many
+ 3 Damion Matkin
+
A one-to-many relationship is when each record
4 Lucius Winchester
+ 5 Petra Mcnichol in one table can connect to many (zero or more)
+ 6 Katina Ramano records in another table. A foreign key will exist
within the table on the many side of the
Figure 9.04- Foreign key. a) Order table; b) Customer
relationship and will connect to a primary
table.
key in the one side of the relationship. This is
the most common type of relationship within
In the Order table, the foreign key is Customer ID relational databases.
which connects to the primary key Customer ID
in the customer table. For Order Number 4, the
Customer ID 3 is looked up in the Customer table to
find Damion Matkin.

One-to-one The Category table stores data about the different

categories of products being sold. Its primary
A one-to-one relationship is when each record in one table
key is Category ID. The Product table stores
only connects to one record in another table. Each foreign
data about the products. The Product table has
key value will link to one primary key value and each
a foreign key of Category ID. Each product can
primary key value will only be linked to by one foreign
only have one category. Each category can have
key value. The foreign key can exist on either side of the
many products. There is one Category to many
relationship.
Products.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Product ID » Product Name Category ID The Order table stores data about the orders that are
+ 1
1 Chat 1
placed including which products are being sold. It
+ 2 Chang 1
+ _3| Aniseed Syrup 2j has a field called Product IDs which lists the products
+ 4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 being sold on each order. Each order can have many
+ 5; Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 products. Each product can exist on many orders.
+ 6 Grandma's Boysenberry Spread 2
+ 7 Uncle Josefs Organic Dried Pears 7
There are many Orders to many Products.
+ 8 Northwoods Cranberry sauce 2
+ 9 Mishi Kobe Niku 6
+
+
+
10 Ikura
11 1 Queso Cabrales
12| Queso Manchego La Pastora
8
4
4
O DISCUSSION POINT
The problem with the many-to-many relationship is that it
Category ID * Category Name » Description is not possible to store single data items within the foreign
11 Beverages _ Soft drinks, coffee, teas, beers and ales
2 Condiments Sweet and savory sauces, relishes, spreads and seasoning
key. In the Order and Product example, the Product ID field
_ 3i Confections Desserts, candies and sweet breads contains more than one Product ID per Order and this causes
4 Dairy Products Cheeses
5 Grains/Cereals Breads, crackers, pasta and cereal a problem of non-atomic data, breaking the rules of first
6 Meat/Poultry Prepared meats normal form which you will learn about later in this chapter.
7 Produce Dried fruit and bean curd
8 Seafood Seaweed and fish

Figure 9.06 - One-to-many. a) Product table;

b) Category table.
TASK
CD 9.01. Sales processing.mdb
Many-to-many Open CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb and examine the
Many-to-many relationships are only conceptual. They relationships. Identify the relationships that currently
are not used in relational databases because they are exist. For example, the relationship between Sales Rep
converted into two sets of one-to-many relationships. In a and Employee is One Sales Rep to One Employee.
many-to-many relationship, each record in one table can
connect to many records in another table but each record
in the other table can also connect to many records in the Create and use relationships
original table. One-to-many
When creating a one-to-many relationship, there are some
rules to follow:
• the table on the one side must have a primary key
±
Order Number -
1
Customer ID
2
- Order Date
28/05/2015
-I Product IDs
1,8,4, 3
»

• the table on the many side will have a foreign key

+ 2 1 22/05/2015 1,7
• the data type and field size of the foreign key must
i 3 5 06/05/2015 2,5,6
T 4 3 05/04/2015 4
match the primary key on the one side
n 7 06/05/2015 | 3,8 • only data items that exist in the primary key on the one
side can be used in the foreign key.
+
Product ID -
1 Chai
Product Name Category ID
I
-
+ 2 Chang 1
+ 3 1 Aniseed Syrup 2
TASK
+ 4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2
+ 5 1 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 IÿGD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb
+ 6 Grandma's Boysenberry Spread 2
Open CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb and open the
+
+
7 Uncle Bob's Organic Dried Pears
8 Northwoods Cranberry sauce
j Z32 relationships.
1 Create a one-to-many relationship between Supplier
+
+ l Mishi Kobe Niku
10 ikura
6
>.ÿ
and Product,
+ 11 Queso Cabrales 4 2 Create a one-to-many relationship between Order
+ 1 2 Queso Manchego La Pastora 4
and the Sales Rep that dealt with the order. You will
Figure 9.07 - Many-to-many. a) Order table; b) Product need a new foreign key in the Order table.
table.
One-to-one
Figure 9.08 shows a one-to-one relationship
When creating a one-to-one relationship, there are also
between a Sales Rep and an Employee. Each sales
some rules to follow:
rep is related to one employee and each employee
• at least oneofthe tables (table A) must have a primary can only be one sales rep.
key
• the other table (table B) must either have
* a primary key that is also a foreign key and will link to Category Product
the primary key in table A
or a foreign key field with a unique index that will link Figure 9.09 - One-to-many relationship.
to the primary key in table A
• the data type and field size of the foreign key in table B Figure 9.09 shows a one-to-many relationship
and primary key in table A must match between Category and Product. Each category can
• only data items that exist in the primary key in table A have many products, but each product has only one
can be used in the foreign key in table B. category.

TASK
CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb
Order
bA Product

Figure 9.10 - Many-to-many relationship.

Open CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb and open the
relationships.
1 Create a one-to-one relationship between Sales Rep Figure 9.10 shows a many-to-many relationship
and Employee. Employee ID should be used as the between Order and Product. Each order can be
foreign key in the Sales Rep table and it will need a for many products and each product can exist
unique index. on many orders. This is a conceptual diagram
only.

o DISCUSSION POINT
If you don’t have a unique index or a primary key as the
TASK

foreign key, then the database software is likely to assume

Describe each of the relationships in Figure 9.11.
you want to create a one-to-many relationship instead of a
one-to-one relationship.

VEHICLE I TAX DISC

Create and interpret an entity relationship

HUSBAND WIFE
diagram
An entity relationship diagram (ERD) shows the
relationships (connections) between each entity. Each
BOOKING HOTEL ROOM
entity is represented by a rectangle. Each relationship is
represented by a line.
CAR SERVICE

BOOK AUTHOR
Sales Rep [j-\ Employee
Figure 9.11 - Relationships.
Figure 9.08 - One-to-one relationship.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

o DISCUSSION POINT
Different RDBMSs use different symbols. For example,
Branches
© BranchJD
© Address_/D
© Bank_/D
© Branch_ Type code
Microsoft Access uses the infinity symbol for the many side Branch_Details

of a relationship.

Product
I
Customers
© CustomerJD
Product ID © AddressJD
Product Name © BranchJD
Personal_Details
Supplier ID Category Contact.Details
oo
Category ID Si CategorylD
Quantity Per Unit CategoiyName
Unit Price Description
Units In Stock
Ret_Account_Types Accounts Transactions
Reorder Amount
© Account_Type_Code © Account_Number © TransactionJD
Units On Order Account_Type_Description -|-o< © Accounl_Status_Code © Account_Number
e.g. Checking, Savings etc.
Reorder Level © Accounl_Type_Code © MerchantJD
o< ©
© CustomerJD Transaction_Type_Code
Discontinued Current_Balance Transaction_Date_Time

Figure 9.12 - Infinity symbol.

OtherDetails
_
Transaction_Amount
Olher_Detalls

Other RDBMSs may use two symbols at each end of the Figure 9.14 - Bank relationships.
relationship. For example, 0:1or 0| could be used to depict
;
that there can be between zero and one related record on
that side of the relationship, whereas 1:1 or || could be used
to depict that there must be exactly one related record on
that side of the relationship. CD 9.02 Sales processing2.mdb

One The Product table in CD 9.02 Sales processing

One
(Optional)
O -H- (Compulsory) 2.mdb has the following relationships that have
been implemented:

SL
r EL
One Many IT"
(Optional) (Compulsory)
r

EL
sr
Many O One
(Optional) (Compulsory)
Figure 9.15 - ERD Implemented.
Figure 9.13 - Alternative symbols.
0:M orO<can be used to depict between zero and many
related records and 1:M or |<can be used to depict that
at least one record must be used on the many side of the TASK
relationship. Draw ERDs to represent the following relationships:
1 One Airline Seat to one Customer.
2 One House to many Occupants.
An ERD will usually have more than just two tables. The 3 Many Coaches to many Drivers,
ERD in Figure 9.14 shows the relationships that exist within Draw an ERD to represent a library model. Within the
a bank. library, there are several books. There may be many
copies of the same book which are known as book copies.
Each branch of the bank can have many customers. Each customers can loan a book copy, a customer can have 1
customer can have many accounts. Each account can many loans but a loan will be for just one customer. Each
have many transactions taking place. Each account can loan will be for one book copy, but over a period oftime
be of only one type but each type of account can exist as each book copy, can be loaned out many times.
many accounts.
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

When a many-to-many relationship exists, it is necessary KITCHEN PART

to break it down into two one-to-many relationships. The
Part ID Description Cost
general rule for this is to put a LINK table between the two
entities as shown in Figure 9.16. HNG Hinge 0.30
HND Handle 1.45
ENTITY A ENTITY B SHL Shelf 4.50
Primary Key A
ibute A1
Attribute A2
> < Attribute 81
Attribute B2
KITCHEN ASSEMBLY
Assembly ID Unit ID Part ID Quantity
ENTITY A LINK-A-B ENTITY B
Primary Key A
Attribute A1
Primary Key A-B
Foreign Key A
Primary Key B
Attribute B1 1 DR3-700 HND 3
Attribute A2 Foreign Key B Attribute B2
2 BU-700 HND 1
Figure 9.16 - Many-to-many. 2 BU-700 HNG 2
2 BU-700 SHL 2
A new primary key (Primary Key A-B) is created in the LINK
3 LR-2000 HND 1
table. The primary keys for each of the original entities are
the used as foreign keys in the LINK table. 3 LR-2000 HNG 4

TASK
Resolve the following many-to-many relationships and
KITCHEN PART KITCHEN UNIT suggest attribute names for all three tables:
Part ID Unit ID
Description Description • many Orders to many Products
Cost Height • many Hire Car to many Drivers
• many Authors to many Books
Figure 9.17 - Kitchen. • many Students to many Classes
• many Employees to many Skills
In this example, each kitchen unit can include many • many Doctors to many Patients.
kitchen parts. As each kitchen part can be used for
many kitchen units, a LINK table is required.
The difference between a flat file and a
KITCHEN KITCHEN
ASSEMBLY
KITCHEN
UNIT
relational database
PART
A flat file is a database that consists of a single table with
Part ID
Description +—4, Assembly
Pari ID
ID Unit ID
I tescription
no relationships. It is like looking at all the data in a single
Cost Unit ID Height
Quantity
worksheet in a spreadsheet. It is called ‘flat’ because it
only has two dimensions - fields and records.
Figure 9.18- Kitchen resolved.

The LINK table kitchen assembly is for each

combination of unit and part. It has its own primary
key, but the primary keys from kitchen unit and This is an example of a simple flat file to store data
kitchen part are also used as foreign keys. The
about cars:
quantity of each part needed for each unitisalso Reg
ID Registration Make Model Transmission
stored. This is what some of the data might look like: Year
KITCHEN UNIT 1 BX03HMW Ford Focus 2013 M
2 BR54URS Vauxhall Astra 2011 M
Unit ID Description Height 3 BA55WEP Volkswagen Beetle 2012 M
DR3-700 3 drawer unit 700 4 BC53PRS Mini Cooper 2013 M
BU-700 Base unit 700 5 BD05ABC Nissan Almera 2012 A
6 BE04RTJ Renault Megane 2011 M
LR-2000 Larder unit 2000
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

The flat file below stores data about driving lessons, the cars used and the learners taking the lessons.
LESSON
Lesson Lesson Time Registration Make Model Reg Transmission Forename Surname Telephone
ID Date Slot Year
Start
1 27/08/2013 08:00 BR54URS Vauxhall Astra 2011 M Aimee Fenson 0555555 777
2 28/08/2013 08:00 BD05ABC Nissan Almera 2012 A Roger Drake 0555 555 555
3 31/08/2013 11:00 BD05ABC Nissan Almera 2012 A Roger Drake 0555 555 555
4 31/05/2014 16:00 BC53PRS Mini Cooper 2013 M Aimee Fenson 0555555 777
5 01/06/2014 16:00 BR54URS Vauxhall Astra 2011 M Aimee Fenson 0555555 777
6 29/08/2013 19:00 BC53PRS Mini Cooper 2013 M Salty Mastock 0555 555 777

The data about the car is repeated and the data about the learner driver taking lessons is also repeated. This
example only contains a small amount of redundant data, but imagine if data about the distance each car had
travelled was stored, or the full address of the learner and their date of birth.

In the flat file example box, the data about cars was very Relational databases are used to reduce redundancy.
similar to a table you would find in a relational database. Where data is likely to be repeated if stored in a single flat
However, with larger flat files there is a problem when all the file then it is preferable to store this data in a set of related
data is in one table because there will be redundant data. tables. For example, a relational database about a library
Redundant data is data that is unnecessarily repeated. would include separate tables for books, borrowers and
Redundant data uses up additional memory. It can also loans. Flat files are used when processing speed is essential.
cause problems with inconsistency and maintaining the Data is likely to have been stored in a relational database
flat file. If Aimee Fenson changes her telephone number, originally but exported to a flat file for processing. Flat files
then it will need to be changed for every lesson that would be used in transactional processing systems such as
Aimee has taken. If some are missed, then there will be when processing monthly salary payments by updating the
inconsistent data, meaning that a search will not produce master payment file from employee transactions such as
accurate results because Aimee has more than one phone hours worked and expenses claimed.
number. When a new lesson is entered, all the details of Links are created between the tables which means data
the car and the learner have to be entered rather than just can be looked up from one table to another. This takes
their primary keys. This can lead to further inconsistent time and expertise to plan in order to ensure that it is all
data and errors. set up correctly. It also means that processing time can be
Flat files do have their uses though. They are often simple a bit slower, especially when there are large data sets. It is
to set up as sometimes data can be entered into the possible to share a relational database across a network
file without needing to set up data types, field sizes or or even the internet and apply security permissions to
relationships. They can be shared easily through email and each table so that different types of users can access
across the internet because the data is not dependent upon different tables. This is not possible with a flat file as it is all
specific file types or software. It is also easy to add additional in one table. Queries can be created that enable data to be
information to a flat file because it’s a simple case of adding searched and sorted efficiently using a relational database
new columns. As all the data is in one single table, it is also and they can also join data together from related tables.
very quick for the computer to process the data. It’s also possible to produce detailed and customised
Relational databases are more useful when data needs reports of the data stored within a relational database.
to be managed properly. They resolve the problems of Relational databases are also flexible because additional
inaccurate data, inconsistencies and redundant data by fields and tables can be added without disturbing the rest
using related tables. of the data.
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

The flat file in the previous example could be stored in a relational database as a set of three tables:
LESSON
Lesson ID Lesson Date Time Slot Start Registration Learner ID
1 27/08/2013 08:00 BR54URS
2 28/08/2013 08:00 BD05ABC
3 31/08/2013 11:00 BD05ABC

CAR
ID Registration Make Model Reg Year Transmission
2 BR54URS Vauxhall Astra 2011 M
4 BC53PRS Mini Cooper 2013 M
5 BD05ABC Nissan Almera 2012 A

LEARNER
Learner Forename Surname Address 1 Address 2 Post Gender Telephone Mobile Licence Number
ID Code
9 Sally Mastock 15 Cloud Kingston- KI8 F 0555555555 0777777777 MAST9999999SA9XX
Road Upon-Hull 6GU
10 Aimee Fenson 23Yandle Shrewsbury KN3 F 0555 555 556 0777777778 FENS9999999AI9XX
Lane 7YY
11 Roger Drake 19 Spion Liverpool L15 M 0555 555557 0777777779 DRAK9999999RA9XX
Kop 9PL

Table 9.01 further examines the types of searches and queries that can be applied to flat files and those that can be
applied to relational databases.

Flat file database Relational database

A search or query has to load the entire database in order A search or query only has to load the tables required. For
to find the data needed. For example, to find information example to find the same information, only the CAR table
about the car with registration BC53PRS, the database would need to be loaded.
would need to search for every occurrence in the whole
lesson flat file.
A search or query will find all the data required in one file. A search or query would have to assimilate data from
For example, to find all lessons taken by Aimee Fenson, more than one table. For example, to find all the lessons
a filter could be applied to the Forename and Surname taken by Aimee Fenson, her Learner ID would need to be
Columns. looked up in the LEARNER table and then the Learner ID
would need to be found in the LESSON table.
Running a query to find the number of vehicles with To run the same query would simply require filtering the
manual transmission would mean searching the whole file CAR table to show only manual transmission and then a
and then identifying unique occurrences of each car and summary count of the number of records.
then counting only those that are manual transmission.

Table 9.01 - Types of searches and queries that can be applied to flat file databases and relational databases.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Import data
Data can be imported from text files so that data that has
been created in another system or for another purpose Figure 9.19 is a RTF file with field headings as the
can be used within the database. The text files must be top row of the table.
structured in such a way that fields can be recognised ID | Loan date |Return date | Student IP| Copy ID |
and records can be separated. Comma separated values
1 12/11/2010 29/11/2010 9 21
(CSV) is a common format used for this purpose. Fields 2 12/11/2010 24/11/2010 3 22
are separated by commas, records are separated by 3 05/01/2011 01/02/2011 4 23
line breaks and speech marks are used to identify text. 4 01/02/2011 9 17

The use of a separation character means that the field Figure 9.19 - RTF file.
lengths are delimited, which means each field can be any
length.

TASK
CD 9.03 Book
This is a CSV file for books. The first row contains CD 9.04 Student
the field names. Create a new database and import the following files:
“ID”,”Book title”,”Genre”,"Reading • CD 9.03 Book (file includes row headings)
age”,"ISBN”,’’Author” • CD 9.04 Student.

1,”A Soldier’s Tale”,’’Thriller”,12,”0-321-93561-1”,”B

Rushmore”
Create a relational database

m 2,’’Hidden Gold”,’’Mystery",10,”0-342-92763-X”,”J T
King”
3,’’Fearless”,’’Action",14,"0-250-34751-9”,”K
The first step in creating a database is to create the file
that will be used. Other steps can then include creating:
• tables
Lawrence”
• relationships
• forms
CSV is only one common format. Text files (TXT) can also • reports.
be used. Text files can be formatted in exactly the same
way as a CSV file or they can use different characters to
separate fields. They can also be structured to have fixed TASK
length fields, which means spaces are used to fill the CD 9.03 Book
gaps.
CD 9.05 Student
CD 9.06 Copy
CD 9.07 Loan

This is a fixed length field text file for students. Create a new databasecalled CD 9.15 My library that will be
used to store information about books in a school library.
1 Smith Larry 9F 1 Cteate a new database file.
2 Import the files:
2 Nyakatawa Paul 9B
a CD 9.03 Book
3 Kalsi Waheed 10R b CD 9.05 Student
c CD 9.06 Copy
4 Woolfenden Howard 11M
d CD 9.07 Loan.
5 Patel Poonam 9N 3 Check the data types for each field in each table and
change if necessary.
4 Check the field lengths for each field in each table
Some DBMSs allow data to be imported from rich text and change if necessary (do not leave them as 256
format (RTF) files. The data must be in a table within the characters in length).
RTF file.
 i
Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

Keys
The Order Line table below shows the products and
Primary key
quantities ordered for each order. As long as each order
A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in a only includes each Product on one Order Line, then
table. Therefore, the field used for the primary key must the combination of Order Number and Product ID is
contain unique values and not have any repeating values. unique.
Examples of primary keys could include:
Order Number Product ID Quantity
• registration plate for a car
1 1 1
• student number for a student
• product code for a product. 1 2 2
2 3 1
It is important that data within primary keys never
changes as it can be used within a relationship. Therefore, 2 3 1
some fields that may appear on the surface to be suitable 3 4 1
as a primary key may not be suitable in the long run. For 4 5 1
example, a registration plate for a car can be changed in 4 6 1
some countries. For this reason, it is always best to use
5 5 1
separate ID fields as primary keys.
5 6 2

Table name Primary key

o DISCUSSION POINT
The table below shows appointments for a doctor. If
Car CarlD
Doctor ID and Patient ID were selected as the compound
Student StudentID key, then this would mean each patient could only see
Product ProductID each doctor once and so this combination would not be
suitable. If Doctor ID, Patient ID and Date were selected
as the compound key then this would mean each patient
could only see each doctor once each day. It may be
These ID fields should be used purely for the structure acceptable to the doctor to see a patient only once per
of the database. It is still possible to set another field day, but if the doctor needs to see the same patient more
to be unique, but the primary key should be used for than once on the same day, then a combination of all four
fields including Time would be needed as the compound
relationships. If possible, the primary key should be set key.
to increment automatically (e.g. AutoNumber).
Doctor ID Patient ID Date Time
Compound key l 1 5/11/17 12:00
A compound key is two or more fields combined to form 1 2 2/9/17 13:00
a unique identity. These should not be used in relational 2 3 18/9/17 13:00
database design as they can be complex to use, especially 1 1 12/11/17 12:00
within relationships. Instead, you should use a separate 2 3 18/9/17 17:30
field as a primary key. '

Foreign key
A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary
key in another table. It is used to create the relationship
The Order Line table below shows the products and
between the two tables. The foreign key must always have
quantities ordered for each order. As long as each order
the same data type and field size as the primary key it is
only includes each Product on one Order Line, then
linking to. The foreign key must always be on the many
the combination of Order Number and ProductID is
side of the relationship. The foreign key will always link to
unique.
a single primary key field.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT
I

Each car can be used in several lessons. Each student

can have several lessons. Each instructor can give
Customer ID in the Order table is a foreign key which
several lessons. Each lesson will be for one student with
links to the Customer ID in the Customer table. one instructor in one car.
7 Create relationships between the tables.
Order
Order Number Customer ID Order Date
1 2 28/05/2015 Referential integrity
2 1 22/05/2015 Referential integrity exists when data in the foreign
3 5 06/05/2015 key of the table on the many side of a relationship exists
4 3 05/04/2015 in the primary key of the table on the one side of a
5 7 06/05/2015 relationship.

Customer
Customer ID Contact Contact Surname
Forename In the Order table below, Customer ID 5 does
1 Reina Wolchesky not exist in the Customer table. This means that
2 Marc Wanger the Order table does not contain referential
3 Damion Matkin integrity because the related customer does
4 Lucius Winchester not exist.
5 Petra Mcnichol
Order
6 Katina Ramano
Leslie Cackowski Order Number Customer ID Order Date
7
8 Cristopher Wiget 1 2 28/05/2015
2 1 22/05/2015
Figure 9.20 - Foreign key. 3 5 06/05/2015
Customer
Customer ID Contact Contact Surname
TASK Forename

CD 9.15 My library 1 Reina Wolchesky

Open CD 9.15 My library that you have created earlier. 2 Marc Wanger
1 Assign primary keys to existing fields in each table. Figure 9.21 - No referential integrity.
Each book has several copies. Each copy of the book can
be loaned out several times. Each loan is for only one
student and only one copy of a book. Each student can Without referential integrity a relationship cannot be
take out several loans.
properly set within a database. It is a type of lookup
2 Create relationships between the tables.
validation where the database will check to see if
Hg* CD 9.09 Drivingschool.mdb the related record exists before allowing it to be
Open CD 9.09 Driving school.mdb entered. If the related record does: not exist, then
3 Set the primary key forthe Instructor table. the database will prevent the foreign key data from
4 Create a new primary key for the Car table (do not being entered.
use Registration).
5 Create a new primary key forthe Learnertable. This is important for maintaining the accuracy of the data
6 Create a compound primary key for the Lesson within the database. If details of which classes you attend
table. You will need at least three fields for were entered into a database, but those classes did not
this. exist, then the database would not be able to give you any
information about the classes.
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts I

The rule ensures thatthe only data that can be entered

TASK
must exist in the list that contains “Mr”, “Mrs”, “Miss”
O CD 9.10 Sales processing 3.mdb and “Dr”. It is a lookup in list method of validation.
Open CD 9.10 Sales processing 3.mdb
1 Open the order table and add Sales Rep IDs 4, 5, 8, 11
and 15 to the records.
a Which ones worked? TASK
b Which ones did not work? O CD 9.11 Sales proeessingvatidation.mdb
c Why didn’t they work? Open CD 9.11 Sales processingvalidation.mdb and open
2 Try to create a relationship between Product and the table Employee.
Category and enforce referential integrity. 1 Create a validation rule that will only allow the entry
a What happens? of "UK” or “USA” for the Country.
b Why has this happened? 2 Create an appropriate error message.
c Correct any data that is causing this problem and
try to create the relationship again.
There area variety of validation rules that can be used
within a database including:
Validate and verify data
• lookup in list (by looking up in a list entered within the rule)
Validation rules
• lookup in list (by using referential integrity)
The principal of validation was introduced in Chapter 1.
• lookup in list (by using a lookup table)
Database management systems can apply validation rules
to data that is input. If data passes the validation rules, then
• range
they will be accepted. If data fail the validation rules, then • data type
they will be rejected and an error message may be shown. • format
149
• length
• presence.

In this database, the user is attempting to enter the

title that a Sates Rep will be addressed by. They
have four valid options - “Mr”, “Mrs”, “Miss” or “Dr”. Type Field Rule
The user has accidentally entered “Msr” which is Lookup in list Gender ”M"or“F”
not a valid option. An error message has appeared Lookup in list Title IN (“Mr”, “Mrs”,
telling the user what to do to fix the problem. "Miss", “Dr”)
In this database, the user is attempting to enter the Range Date of Birth >DATE() (must be
title that a Sales Rep will be addressed by. They after today's date)
have four valid options - “Mr”, “Mrs”, “Miss” or “Dr”. Range Date Joined >28/02/1995
The user has accidentally entered “Msr” which is Range Reorder Between 1and
not a valid option. An error message has appeared Amount 2000
telling the user what to do to fix the problem. Range Reorder >0
» Employee ID • Click to Add
- Level
1Davollo Nancy Sales Representative
2 Fuller
3 leverling
Andrew
Janet
vice President, Sales
Sales Representative
Microsoft Access
Data Type State Like "[A-Z][A-Z]”
Margaret Sales Representative is m,‘
(must be two text
Steven Sales Manager
Michael Sales Representative
characters) _
Figure 9.22 - Error message. Format Email Like “*@*.*” (* means
This is the rule that had been set up: Address any character)
Validation rule InCMr’, 'Mrs', 'Miss', 'Dr')
Length Colour Like “??” (must be
Validation text Title must be Mr, Mrs, Miss or Dr two characters)
Figure 9.23 - Validation rule.
Presence Forename IS NOT NULL
 hi [SR73 W

TASK b Identify eight items of test data that could be used

to test this validation rule. You should use valid,
O CD 9.11 Sales processingvalidation.mdb
invalid, valid extreme and invalid extreme data.
Open CD 9.11 Sales processingvalidation.mdb and open
the table Customer.
1 Create a validation rule to ensure the surname is
present. Verify data entry
2 Create a validation rule to ensure that an email In Chapter 1you learned that data that has been validated
address includes the @ symbol and a full stop. is not necessarily correct. It is therefore necessary to
3 Create a validation rule to ensure the telephone verify data. When inputting data into a database, you
number is 12 characters long.
should verify that the data input has been input correctly
Open the table Product. by comparing what has been entered with the original
4 Create a validation rule to ensure the Units in Stock is source.
a positive number.
5 Create a validation rule to ensure the Reorder Amount
is less than 1000.
6 Create a validation rule to ensure the Reorder Level is TASK
at least 0 and no more than 100. O CD 9.11Sales processingvalidation.mdb
Open the Employee table. Open CD 9.11 Sales processingvalidation.mdb and open
7 Create a validation rule to ensure the Hire Date is at the table Customer.
least today. 1 Visually check thatthe data for Damion Matkin
8 Create a validation rule to ensure the region is two matches the original data below:
characters long and only contains letters.
9 Create a validation rule to ensure the extension is either Contact Contact Street City County State
three orfour characters long and only contains numbers. Forename Surname Address
150
10 Create a validation rule to ensure the Hire Date is after Damion Matkin 1 5830 Denver Denver CO
the Birth Date. Downing St

ZIP Telephone Email Marketing Notes

Code
Validation applied to a database
80216 303-295-4797 damion@matkin. Yes
You should follow the same process that you learned com
in Chapter 8 by using valid, invalid, extreme valid and
extreme invalid data. 2 Add the following data to the customer table and
then visually check the data matches the source:
Contact Contact Street City County State
Forename Surname Address
TASK
Joel Nardo 5150 Town Cir Boca Palm FL
CD 9.11 Sales processingvalidation.mdb
Raton Beach
Open CD 9.11Sales processing validation.mdb and open
the table Customer ZIP Telephone Email Marketing Notes
1 The State field has a validation rule applied to it. Code
a Try changing the state for Reina Wolchesky to NN. 33486 561-395-2277 [email protected] Yes
What happens? Why does this happen?
b Try changing the state for Reina Wolchesky to
NM instead of MN. Why was this errorallowed to
happen?
c Identify five items of test data that could be Used Searches
to test this validation rule. So far you have looked at whole tables. It is also possible
2 The ZIP Code field has validation applied to it. to view only records which meet certain conditions known
a Try different combinations of data to see if you can as criteria. This can be achieved by creating a query which
work out what the validation rule is. asks questions about the data in order to retrieve the
required records.
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts
1

Simple queries When creating a simple query, it is also possible to specify

A simple query is a query that only has one criterion which fields will be listed.
(singular for criteria). A criterion is the rule that will be
applied to the data.

O CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb

In CD 9.02 Sates processing 2.mdb a simple query
The following table shows examples of when you
has been created to show all Sales Reps who have a
would use a simple query for a particular outcome.
Job Title of Sales Representative:
Field Criterion Outcome
Qiy Sales Representatives n x
Lists all customers
State =”CA”
who live in CA Sales Rep
-
(California) Sales Rep ID
Marketing True Lists all customers who Last Name
First Name
have agreed to receive Job Title

marketing _ Title
Employee ID
Mark 100 Lists all students who
achieved 100 marks ran *
Mark <50 Lists all students who
achieved less than 50
Field: Last Name
Table: Sales Reo
Sort:
First Name
Sales Reo
Job Title
5ales Reo 1
Show: 0 0 LI
marks
.
Criteria: 'Sales Representative'
on

Price >3.99 Lists all products with i

a price more than 3.99 Figure 9.24 - Sales Rep query.

(i.e. 4.00 or above)
Distance >=50000 Lists all cars with a The criterion of Job Title = “Sales Representative”
covered by distance travelled means that only sales reps with that job title will be
car of at least 50 000 listed. The only fields that will be listed are Last Name
kilometres and First Name. Job Title will not be listed because the
option to show it has been deselected. This is what the
Width <=50 Lists all products with
a width up to and result of the simple query looks like:
including 50 mm
Date of <01/01/2010 Lists all employees Qry Sales Representatives — X
Joining who joined the Last Name * First Name »
company before 1
Davolio Nancy
January 2010
Leverling Jean
Appointment > 12:00pm Lists all appointments
Time in the afternoon Peacock Margot
Surname Like "A*” Lists all customers with Suyama Eduardo
a surname starting King Robert
with A Dodsworth Anna
Product Like “??B??” Lists all product
Code codes where the third *
Record: M 7 of 7
character is B *
Allergy NOT "Nut” Lists alt students who Figure 9.25 - Sales Rep query result.
do not have a nut
allergy
It is also possible to include data from a related table.
 i
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

TASK

9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb

CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb
Open CD 9.02 Sales processing2.mdb, identify which query
In CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb a query has been is most suitable and then create queries for the following:
created to show all Products over $75 including 1 All UK employees.
their categories: 2 All employees from Seattle.
3 All employees who were born on or after 1/1/1960.
4 All products that include the word “bottles” in the
Qry Products over S7S - X
quantity per unit.
Product
Category 5 All products with no units in stock.
Product ID 6 The product name and supplier company name of all
Si
Product Name
Supplier ID
CategorylD
CategoryName
products that have been discontinued.
Category ID Description 7 The names and categories of alt products with at least
Quantity Per Unit
100 units in stock.
Unit Price
Units In Stock 8 The names and price of products that are in the
Reorder Amount
category “Condiments”.
Units On Order
Reorder Level 9 A list of all orders that were not placed on 6/5/15.
Discontinued
10 A list of aII Sales Reps who do not have a job title of
HO "Sales Representative”.
11 A list of all products where the Units in Stock is less
Reid: Product ID
Table: Product
Sort
z duct Name
duct
CategoryName
Category
Unit Price
Product
*
than or equal to the Reorder Level.
Show: 0 0 0 0
Criteria: >75

Complex queries
Complex queries are queries that have more than
Figure 9.26 - Product Category. one criterion. They use either the AND or OR Boolean
operators. If all specified criteria need to be satisfied, then
The CategoryName has been included from the the AND operator is used. If any one of the specified criteria
Category table which is related to the Product Table needs to be satisfied, then the OR operator is used.
through the Category ID.
Complex queries are not restricted to just two criteria.
They can have as many criteria as necessary for the query.

The table below lists characteristics about some people.

Surname Forename Height Shoe Size Eyes Nationality Occupation Sex
Greer Wendy 1.85 7 Blue British Firefighter F
Percy Hugo 1.75 8 Blue French Welder M
Pearce Madison 1.85 8 Blue American Musician F
Gardiner Felicia 1.85 9 Blue South African Waitress F
Ivanova Sofia 1.65 8 Brown Russian Road sweeper F
Joo Haeun 1.35 9 Brown South Korean Firefighter F
Goswami Lamar 1.75 9 Brown Indian Shop Assistant M
Kaya Yusuf 1.95 10 Blue Turkish Teacher M
Danshov Aleksander 1.8 6 Hazel Russian Politician M
Mallapati Smriti 1.6 11 Hazel Singer F
Martinez Maria 1.85 5 Green Argentinian Bus Driver F
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

The complex query Eyes = Blue AND Shoe Size = 8 would return the following:

Surname Forename Height Shoe Size Eyes Nationality Occupation Sex

Percy Hugo 1.75 8 Blue French Welder M
Pearce Madison 1.85 8 Blue American Musician F
As both parts of the query have to be satisfied, only people with both blue eyes and a shoe size of 8 will be listed.
The complex query Eyes = Hazel OR Eyes = Green would return the following:
Surname Forename Height Shoe Size Eyes Nationality Occupation Sex
Danshov Aleksander 1.8 6 Hazel Russian Politician M
Mallapati Smriti 1.6 11 Hazel Singer F
Martinez Maria 1.85 5 Green Argentinian Bus Driver F
As any one part of the query can be satisfied, all people with either hazel or green eyes are listed.
The complex query Eyes = Brown OR Nationality = Russia would return the following:
Surname Forename Height Shoe Size Eyes Nationality Occupation Sex
Ivanova Sofia 1.65 8 Brown Russian Road sweeper F
Joo Haeun 1.35 9 Brown South Korean Firefighter F
Goswami Lamar 1.75 9 Brown Indian Shop Assistant M
Danshov Aleksander 1.8 6 Hazel Russian Politician M
Aleksander Danshov does not have brown eyes, but he is Russian and so is included in the list. Similarly, Haeun Joo
and Lamar Goswami are not Russian but because they have brown eyes they are included in the list. 153

The following nested query uses a combination of AND and OR and includes more than two criteria:
Sex = F AND (Eyes = Blue OR Eyes = Brown) AND Height < 1.5
These are the results of the nested query:
Surname Forename Height Shoe Size Eyes Nationality Occupation Sex
Greer Wendy 1.85 7 Blue British Firefighter F
Pearce Madison 1.85 8 Blue American Musician F
Gardiner Felicia 1.85 9 Blue South African Waitress F
Ivanova Sofia 1.65 8 Brown Russian Road sweeper F

TASK
9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb
Open CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb, identify which query is most suitable and then create queries for the following:
1 All customers from Texas (TX) or Illinois (IL).
2 All customers who would like to receive marketing and live in Ohio (OH).
3 All products priced at least $50 with no units in stock, showing the Product Name and Supplier’s Company Name.
4 All products over $30 supplied by companies in Germany.
5 All products under $30 supplied by companies in Denmark or Sweden.
6 A list of all products where the Units in Stock is less than or equal to the Reorder Level and the Units on Order is zero.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Nested queries Summary queries

So far, each query that you have seen has been based A cross-tab query is a type of summary query used to
upon existing tables within a database. It is also summarise data. It can be used to show the total number
possible to create a query on an existing query. This of records, the sum of values within a field, averages or
means that the results of the original query will be other statistical data.
narrowed down further by the new query. This is called
a nested query.

OCD 9.12 People.mdb

O CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb CD 9.12 People.mdb contains a cross-tab query
that shows the total number of people of each
In CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb a query has been
nationality. It also breaks this down into how
created to show all customers who live in California
many males and females there are in each
(CA). A nested query is then created on top of the
nationality.
California Query to find customers in the California
Query who placed an order on 6/5/15:
9
5>
Nationality • Total Of Surname F M

~
r-
w
r».
America
Belgium
England
9
8
20
7
1
4
2
7
16
France 6 4 2

,-s:— - sr- Greece

Ireland
8
li
4
2
4
9
154 Israel 1 1
Italy 9 1 8
Russia 11 3 8
Figure 9.27 - Nested query. Scotland 16 10 6
i

The new query is based upon the California query | Spain 1 1

Wales 6 1 5
and the Order table. Record: l< |l of 12 j > w j Search

Figure 9.28 - Cross-tab query.

© DISCUSSION POINT
In order to set this up, it is necessary to identify
which fields will be used as row headings,
A nested query is effectively a query that has multiple
criteria and is equivalent to using AND. However, they can which fields will be used as column headings
be used to make very complex queries easier to follow and and which field the summary of data will be
setup by breaking down the individual steps required to used for:
create the query. There are also occasions when a nested
query is necessary to achieve the desired results, such as
creating a cross-tab query based on two or more tables. | Nationality |Sex1 |Sex2 |Sex3 |
Nationality 1 Count (Surname)
Nationality 2
Nationality 3
Nationality 4 |
TASK Figure 9.29 - Cross-tab wizard.
CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb
Open CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb, identify which This can also be seen in the configuration settings
query is most suitable and then create a query based on where the data is grouped by nationality and sex
the existing query “Qry Products over $75” that will show as row and column headings and the surname is
those products in the Meat/Poultry category. counted:
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

:
Qry People Summary Nationality and Gender - n x
3 The number of products in each category (the
People
HeiflM category names must be showing so you will need to
Shoe Size
Eye*
join the Product and Category tables first).
Nationality
Occupation
4 The total price of each product in each category.

ID
Nationality Sex : Surname Total Of Surname: Surname
People People People
Group By Group By j Count | Count
Crosstab: Row Heading Column Heading Value Row Heading Using simple, complex, nested and summary
queries
Figure 9.30 - Cross-tab configuration. Simple queries should be used when only one criterion is
You will notice that a new calculated field of “Total required, such as Gender = Male.
of Surname” has been added that counts the total Complex queries should be used when more than one
number of people. This is not essential unless the criteria are required, such as Gender = Male AND Country =
overall totals are required. Israel, or Gender = Male OR Country = Israel.
A nested query can be used in the following situations:

• When an OR needs to be combined with an AND as this

DISCUSSION POINT will avoid the problem of having to repeatthe AND part
To create a cross-tab query based on data from more than of the query for each OR. It will also avoid the problem of
one table, you should use a nested query by first creating a not getting the criteria in the correct order.
query that joins the tables together and then creating the
cross-tab query based on the original query. • When there are lots of criteria and nesting the queries
will make the criteria easier to understand.
• When a query can be reused and so creating a nested
query saves the developer having to recreate some of
A pivot table is another type of summary query that allows
the criteria.
data to be summarised by selecting the row headings and
column headings to be used to give summary data. For A summary query can be used in the following situations:
example, within a database that keeps records of orders
placed by customers, a pivottable could be used to show
• When multiple tables are required within a cross-tab
query.
how many customers from each area of the country
purchased each product. • When a cross-tab query is summarising data from
another cross-tab query.

Static parameters
TASK
So far all the queries you have used include static
9.12 People.mdb parameters. The parameters are the values used within
Open CD 9.12 People.mdb and create cross-tab queries the criteria. Each time the query is run, the values of the
to show: parameters will not change.
1 The number of people of each gender with eyes of
each colour.
2 The number of people of each occupation (no need to
have a column grouping).
3 The number of people of each genderwith each shoe The query for all customers from Texas (TX) or
size. Illinois (IL) had static parameters of TX and IL. These
values do not change
O CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb
Open CD 9.02 Sales processing2.mdb and create
cross-tab queries to show:
Dynamic parameters
1 The number of suppliers in each country.
Dynamic parameters allow the values within the criteria
2 The number of customers in each state.
to be chosen at the time of running the query. This can
Cambridge International AS and A level IT
i

be useful when the user needs to decide what those

parameters might be. TASK
9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb
Open CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb and create queries
for the following (identifying whether to use static or
dynamic parameters):
OCD 9.02 Sales processing2.mdb 1 All sales reps with a Title of the user’s choosing.
2 All products with a price below the user's choosing.
In CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb, a query has
3 All products with a reorder amount above the user’s
been created to show all customers in the state that choosing.
will be chosen by the user: 4 All products with more than 100 units in stock that
3> have a unit price below the user’s choosing.
Customer
5 All products with a category of the user’s choosing
that are also above a price of the user’s choosing.
V Customer 10
Contact Forename
Contact Surname
Street Address

Analysing and evaluating when static and dynamic

Contact Forename
Customer
Contact Surname Telephone
Curtomer ZL parameters should be used in queries
Show. a 0

. m
Static parameter values should be used when those
parameter values will not change, no matter how many
Figure 9.31 - Dynamic query. times the query is used. For example, if you wanted to
search a table on a regular basis for all customers based in
The criterion of [Please enter state] will be a prompt China, then you would use a static parameter query with
to the user to enter the state. This is what the the criterion of Country = “China". Dynamic parameters
prompt looks like when the query is run: should be used when the user is likely to want to change the
value each time the query is run. For example, if you wanted
Enter Parameter Value • a query that would enable you to search for a specific
product code, but that product code could be different
Please enter state each time, then you would use a dynamic query with the
criterion of Product Code = [Please enter product code],

OK Cancel
Perform calculations within a database
Within a database, calculations can be performed on
Figure 9.32 - Parameter.
fields. This can be done within forms, reports and queries.
If the user enters AZ then all the customers in Within a form, a text box can be added to the form which
Arizona will be listed:
includes the calculation. As with spreadsheets, the
calculation must start with the equals (=) sign.
Contact Forename * Contact Surname * Telephone »
Prince Kauk 623-581-7435
Oanny Dales 602-225-9543
Lucas Santellana 602-225-3469
Sabrina Deppert 602-954-4343
In the Order Form from CD 9.02 Sales processing
* 2.mdb, the Total Price for each order line has been
Figure 9.33 - Arizona. calculated by multiplying the Quantity by the
Unit Price. The Order Total has been calculated
by adding up all the Quantities multiplied by their
Dynamic parameters can be used with ranges (<, >, <=,
corresponding Unit Prices.
>=) and Boolean operators (NOT, AND, OR). They can also
be used alongside static parameters within a complex The calculation for Total Price is = [Quantity] * [Unit
query. Price]
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

I
The calculation for Order Total is = SUM ([Quantity] * 5 Qiy Pioiiucti left to StH - X
‘
[Unit Price])
V PiodurtlD
Product ll»m«

Category ID
m Order Form X Quantity Per untt
Unit Mu
Unit! in Stock
Order Form
Uniu On Order

T|
Order Number 1
Product Horn* Reorder level
Customer ID 20
0 0 0 0
Order Date 28/05/2015
Notes

Figure 9.35 - Query calculation.

Contact Forename Marta The calculation subtracts the Units in Stock from the
Contact Surname Horner
Reorder Level. In orderto remove any products that
Total Price
are already below their Reorder Level, a criterion has
* Chal

Chang
1

2
$18.00

$19.00
$18.00

$38.00
been added that the total must be greater than zero.
Here is an extract of the result of the query:

Product Name Units In Reorder Sell before

Stock Level Reorder
Order Total $56.00
Chang 17 25 8
Record: M 1 of 2 Search
Aniseed Syrup 13 25 12
Record: M l of 7 > H Search
1
Queso Cabrales 22 30 8 I
Figure 9.34 - Order Form. Sir Rodney’s 3 5 2
Scones

© DISCUSSION POINT
In some database management systems, such as Microsoft TASK
Access, calculated fields such as Total Price cannot be used CD 9,02 Sales processing 2.mdb
in a SUM function. Therefore, the SU M has to use the full
Open CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb and create a query
calculation rather than simply referring to =SUM([Total
Price]). to calculate the new Units In Stock when the Units On
Order are added to the current Units In Stock.

Calculations within reports are carried out in the same

Sort data
way as within forms. Within a query, the calculation needs
to be defined by giving it a name and then identifying what
Ascending/descending
the calculation will be. Data can be sorted in ascending or descending order.
This can be done within a table, within a query or within a
report. The order can be based on numbers, alphabetical
characters, dates or times.
EXAMPLE
Grouped
V'*CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb More than one field can be used to create the sort. This
is commonly used when sorting names into order. The
In CD 9.02 Sales processing 2.mdb, a query has
surname would be set as the first sort order and then
been created to calculate how many products are
if there are any people with the same surname, the
left to sell before more need to be reordered:
forename would be set as the second sort order.
 -

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

'i

Data entry forms

As its name suggests, a data entry form is used for the
The data below is sorted in order of colour of eyes entry of data. It can also be used to view existing data.
and then within each colour, it is sorted by height: When designing a data entry form, you should consider
Surname Forename Eyes Height who wilt be using it and how to make the form effective
Percy Hugo Blue 1.75 and user friendly by using some of the following
Hughes Carl Blue 1.8 techniques.
Gardiner Felicia Blue 1.85
Wendy Blue Appropriate font styles and sizes
Greer 1.85
Young Rose Blue 1.9 Fonts should be plain and easy to read. A consistent
Cox Arnold Blue 1.9 font style should be used throughout so the user does
Inan Menekse Blue 1.9 not have to adjust to viewing different font styles.
Hansen Mathias Blue 1.95
The colour of fonts should either be dark on a light
Xu Huan Brown 1.35
background or light on a dark background so that the
user can read the fonts clearly. The size should be big
Li Fen Brown 1.64
enough for the user to read but not so big that all the
Petrova Alisa Brown 1.7
data does not fit on the screen. Titles and subtitles
Truong Dinh Brown 1.85
should be in larger fonts.
Saltings Damien Brown 1.85
Fontana Giuseppe Brown 1.95
Spacing between fields
Himura Yuki Green 1.75
There should be enough space between each field for
Martinez Maria Green 1.85
the user to be able to distinguish between the data
Brown Joseph Green 1.9
within each field. If you look at Figure 9.36, you will see
Danshov Aleksander Hazel 1.8
that the fields on the left are separated by providing
Banton Cedric Hazel 1.85
space between them and each field has a box around it
Hammer Daniel Hazel 1.9
to separate it from other fields. On the right you will see

OCD 9.13 Outlet monitoring.mdb

The form from CD 9.13 Outlet monitoring.mdb is used for monitoring inspections carried out at retail outlets within a
shopping centre.

Outlet Inspection Data Entry Screen

Outlet Code 01029 Inspections
Outlet Name Pizza Parlour Inspection Name Agency Inspection Date Pass Penalty Incurred
Floor 1 Health & Safety v| H&S Executive 07/01/2011 0 0
Location B9 Health & Safety v H&S Executive 11/06/2011 0 0

Telephone 0121392038 Food Hygiene i v | Trading Standards 28/02/2011 35

Opening Date 05/01/2011 Food Hygiene | v | Trading Standards 14/03/2011 0 0

VAT | v | HM Revenue & Customs 19/08/2011 20
Annual Fee
Penalty Percentage

Penalty Fee
£140,000.00

1.65

£2,310.00
- a

Total Fee £142,310.00

Total Penalty Points: 55
Renewal is due shortly - write to 1 Record: H 1 of 5 Search
outlet
Print Record M Main Menu
Renewal Letter

Figure 9.36 - Good data entry form.

 l-ln[x|
Appkart Inlomabon

SocMlStcmyl SaMafaon CimriOm Othw Information

r When printing a document, print options may be

FufHvm S<at<
T3 available regarding how much of the document to
I
\T\3 print, such as all of the document, a range of pages
PF--
Mu)* Nam

I or selected records (or pages).

Or u»i Print Range
r (•) All
Mint lr» 2
<b) O Pages From: | | To: |
OSelected Record(s)
Figure 9.37 - A badly designed input.
Figure 9.38 - Radio buttons.
that there is sufficient horizontal space between each Only one of the radio (option) buttons can be
field to know which field belongs to which title. chosen at a time.

Character spacing of individual fields

and tick boxes have been used to identify whether each
There should be enough space between each character
within the data for each field to enable the data to be viewed. inspection was passed or not.
If there is too much spacingthen the user will struggle to
read the data because it is spread out too much. If there is Drop-down menus
too little spacing then characters will overlap. If single words Drop-down menus allow the user to select from a set of
have been used for field names (e.g. OutletCode), then when options. They are used instead of radio buttons when
usingfield names on the form, the labels for the fields should space is limited. In Figure 9.36 you can see that each
include appropriate spacing (e.g. Outlet Code). inspection can be selected from a drop-down menu. This
means that the user is only able to select from the list so
Use of white space will not make any spelling mistakes or enter an inspection
White space can be used to separate data and also to
that does not exist. This also helps to maintain referential
integrity.
make sure a screen does not look too cluttered. In the
example, you will see that there is white space used
between the left and right hand sides, between field Highlighting key fields
names and the data and between buttons. Having white If the key field is useful to the user, then it may be
space between controls such as buttons means that the appropriate to highlight it. Figure 9.36 shows the Outlet
user is less likely to select the wrong button by having the Code in bold. However, if the key field is only used for the
pointer slightly in the wrong position.

Navigation buttons TASK

Navigation buttons allow the user to browse through kÿCD 9.14 Library.mdb
records by choosing the next record, previous record, first Evaluate the data entry form from CD 9.14 Library.mdb.
record in a file or last record in a file.

Radio buttons
Book title tSJiifthb
Radio (option) buttons allow a user to select one mutually
Reading age
exclusive option. D-32I-9356M
MLatnw*

loan date Keiuin dale

Check boxes ”*ÿ“1i _f
Check (tick) boxes can be used to select an item. It can be
true (ticked) or false (not ticked). Check boxes are used
for Boolean data types. In Figure 9.36, a tick box has been Figure 9.39 - Bad data entry form.
used for whether or not a renewal was sent to the outlet
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

database structure, then it may not even be displayed.

In Figure 9.36, there are no key fields displayed for the
inspections or agencies. 1 Define the term primary key.
2 Describe the difference between a simple query and
a complex query.
Switchboards/menus
A menu can be used to help users navigate 3 Give an example of when a dynamic parameter
between elements of a database including forms, query might be used.
reports and action queries. A menu should include 4 Identify the decisions involved in exporting data
a title, clear instructions and buttons to each from a table.
element. 5 Explain the importance of referential integrity.

Export data
In the same way that data can be imported from
common formats, it can also be exported to common 9.02 Normalisation to third
formats. This allows data to be used by other users who
either do not have DBMS software or do not know how normal form
to use it. It can also be used to transfer data to other
systems.
Normalisation: process of structuringdata in a database
Table
Data in tables can be exported as a delimited file in CSV
format, as fixed length fields in text format or as a table Normalisation is the process of structuring data within
within a RTF file. It is sensible to save the field names when a database. The process starts with a flat file and finishes
saving to CSV or text files. with a set of related tables. It is a formal method of
ensuring that each table is structured correctly and does
Query not contain redundant data. There are stages throughout
Data from queries can be exported in the same way as the process known as normal forms. Each normal
tables, but only the data that meets the criteria of the form measures the extent to which the data has been
query will be exported. normalised.
When describing tables, the following conventions will be
Report used:
Reports include formatting, so the best method of export TABLENAME
is to a RTF file which will include all the original formatting. Primary Kev
Data that is exported from a report to a text file will lose its Attribute 1
formatting. Attribute 2
TABLENAME (Primary Key. Attribute 1, Attribute 2)
Table names will be in capitals, primary keys will be
TASK
underlined and all attributes will be listed below the table
CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb name or within brackets.
Open CD 9.01 Sales processing.mdb and export the
following:
1 The Customer table in CSV format.
Unnormalised form
2 The UK Sales Reps query in fixed length fields text Data in unnormalised form (ONF) is a flat file. It will contain
format. non-atomic data, repeating groups of data and possibly
3 The Categories of Products report in RTF format. redundant data. Non-atomic data is where a field contains
more than one item of data.
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts :

Repeating groups of data is when fields are repeated for

each record or a record appears to have more than one set
of data for a group of fields.
This table contains non-atomic data:
Redundant data exists when data is repeated
Product ID Description Price unnecessarily. This can be spotted when data can be
327BLF Brown, Leather, Female ?3510 identified by knowing it is dependent upon another field.
327BPM Brown, Plastic, Male ? 2540
327CLF Cream, Leather, Female ? 3510 First normal form
The colour, material and gender are three separate Data in first normal form (INF) must satisfy the following
items of data within the description. This causes criteria:
a problem when trying to sort data by a specific • all fields must contain atomic data
characteristic, such as colour, or when trying to
• there must be no repeating groups of data
search by a specific characteristic. (Note: ? is the
symbol for rupees.)
• there must be a unique key.

This table contains fields that are repeated for each record:
Surname Forename Subject 1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Subject 4
Jones Ifor Welsh English History 161 g
:
Rushton Ken Politics Literature Philosophy Physics
Smallwood Steven Maths Physics German

The Subject field has been repeated. This can be a problem when trying to search for all students studying the same
subject or when a student only studies one subject (leaving several blank) or when a student needs to study a fifth
subject.
This table contains more than one set of data fora group of fields:

Surname Forename Book Date Out Date Due

Jones Ifor Everything 12/5/16 12/6/16
in Colour
12/5/16 12/6/16
Guardian
Rushton Ken Saving 14/5/16 14/6/16
Grace
Smallwood Steven Delirious 26/11/16 3/1/17
Stretch Out 5/1/17 5/2/17
Always 5/1/17 5/2/17
Faithful

Each student is borrowing more than one book and so the fields Book, Date Out and Date Due contain more than
one set of data per record. This could also be classed as non-atomic data as there is more than one data item per
field.
 £gHrvgftPa* i:j~

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Indented fields are a repeating group for each order.

The table below contains redundant data: To be in INF, this table needs:

Order Order Product Quantity Price • a unique key (Order Number)

ID Date • atomic data (Customer Name and Customer
3857 12/9/16 Marzipan 1 $1.50 Address need breaking down)
Flour 2 $0.75 • no repeating groups of data (products being
ordered).
2320 15/10/16 Marzipan 3 $1.50
Sugar 1 $0.83 The ORDER table becomes:

Eggs 6 $0.15 ORDER (Order Number. Order Date, Customer ID,

Customer Forename, Customer Surname, Customer
The price is dependent upon the product and Address 1, Customer Address 2, Customer Address
therefore it is being repeated unnecessarily. If we 3, Customer ZIP Code)
know the product, we know the price. A new table for the order of products needs to be
added, but it needs to retain information about
which order each order of products belongs to:
ORDERUNE (Order Number. Product Code.
TASK
Description, Quantity, Price)
Describe the characteristics of data in 0NF using
examples from the table of driving lessons: Order Number is retained in the ORDERUNE table
as a foreign key. However, it is not unique and so
Learner Lesson Instructor Instructor Price cannot be used as the primary key. However, a
Date ID combination of Order Number and Product Code
Rob 30/5/16 4 Marcus $35 are unique and so these becomes a compound
Pocock 6/6/16 4 Brown $35 key
Marcus
Brown
Graham 31/5/16 3 Mike Joyce $30
Alkins 1/6/16 4 Marcus $35 TASK
Brown Normalise the table of driving lessons below to INF:
LESSON (Learner, Lesson Date, Instructor ID, Instructor, Price)

Learner Lesson Instructor Instructor Price

Date ID
Rob 30/5/16 4 Marcus Brown $35
Pocock 6/6/16 4 Marcus Brown $35
The ORDER table below contains details of products Graham 31/5/16 3 Mike Joyce $30
ordered by customers: Alkins 1/6/16 4 Marcus Brown $35

ORDER
Order Date
Customer ID
Second normal form
Customer Name
Data in second normal form (2NF) must have no
Customer Address
partial key dependencies. This means that no non-key
Product Code
fields can be dependent upon part of a primary key.
Description
This therefore only applies to tables with compound
Quantity
keys because they are the only tables that can have
Price
partial keys. Dependencies exist when the data is
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

known because of its direct relationship to another Third normal form

field. Data in third normal form 3NF must have no non-key
When identifying partial key dependencies, there dependencies. This means that there should be no
will be fields that are dependent on just one part of fields that are dependent upon another field that is not
the compound key. These fields and that part of the a primary key. Therefore primary keys and compound
compound key will form a new table. primary keys can be ignored. All other fields should be
examined to see if they are dependent on any other non¬
key field.

The orders database from the previous example

now contains two tables:
ORDER (Order Number. Order Date, Customer ID, The orders database from the previous example
Customer Forename, Customer Surname, Customer now contains three tables:
Address 1, Customer Address 2, Customer Address
ORDER (Order Number. Order Date, Customer ID,
3, Customer ZIP Code)
Customer Forename, Customer Surname, Customer
ORDERLINE (Order Number. Product Code. Address 1, Customer Address 2, Customer Address
Description, Quantity, Price) 3, Customer ZIP Code)
Only the ORDERLINE table contains partial keys. PRODUCT (Product Code. Description, Price)
Description and Price are dependent on Product Code
ORDERLINE (Order Number. Product Code.
which is part of the compound primary key. Therefore,
Quantity)
a new table needs to be created for products:
In the ORDER table, all the customer data is 163
PRODUCT (Product Code. Description, Price)
dependent on the Customer ID which is a non¬
The information stored in the ORDERLINE table key field. A new table needs to be created called
that is not part of the PRODUCT table needs to be CUSTOMER:
retained:
CUSTOMER (Customer ID, Forename, Surname,
ORDERLINE (Order Number. Product Code. Address 1, Address 2, Address 3, ZIP Code)
Quantity)
The ORDER table now becomes:
The Product Code field is retained in the ORDERLINE
ORDER (Order Number. Order Date, Customer ID)
table as a foreign key because it is still necessary to
know which products were ordered. Customer ID is retained in the ORDER table as
a foreign key so it is still known which customer
placed the order.

TASK
Normalise the table of ingredients below to 2N F:
RECIPE-INGREDIENT (Recipe ID. Ingredient ID. Ingredient TASK
Name, Measure, Quantity) Normalise the table of students below to 3NI :
Recipe Ingredient Ingredient Measure Quantity STUDENT (Student ID. Forename, Surname, Class,
ID ID Name Teacher Forename, Teacher Surname)
1 B Flour Grams 200 Student Forename Surname Class Teacher Teacher
1 D Eggs Eggs 2 ID Title Surname
1 K Water Tablespoons 2 1 Hayley Barrow 3 Mrs Stokes
2 C Milk Millilitres 250 2 Harriet Chew l Miss Spicer
2 B Flour Grams 100 3 Jessica Lang 3 Mrs Stokes
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Normalise a database to 3NF

TASK
The PROJECT table below contains details of the employees working on projects for clients. It is currently in ONF. Normalise
the data to 3NF.
PROJECT
Description
Start Date
End Date
Client ID
Company
Contact Name
Employee ID
Employee Name
Employee Hours
Here is an example of the data:

Description Start Date End Date Client Company Contact Employee Employee Employee
ID Name ID Name Hours
Barton 28/2/15 31/12/16 512 Barton Jerry PK32 Fred Havers 1052
Towers Estates Dean Janice Spring
JH45 575
Haywood 31/3/15 15/6/15 987 Haywood Peter JH45 Janice Spring 153
Manor Estates Gates Mike Rawson
YR27 372

o DISCUSSION POINT
There are also fourth (4NF) and fifth normal forms (5NF)
The database will perform better if it is normalised
because searches can be carried out on indexed fields
and data can be looked up from related tables. However,
as well as another one called Boyce-Codd Normal Form
(BCNF). However, these have little relevance to a designer
each lookup does take time to perform and will use up
of a database and are used mainly in higher academic processor time, which means that some queries that
studies. require access to more than one table may be slow.
As tables no longer contain redundant data, maintenance
tasks such as rebuilding indexes can be completed more
quickly. However, it can be difficult to understand the
Advantages and disadvantages of data stored in each table because foreign keys consisting
normalisation of numbers or codes are used and they mean very little
Normalisation removes duplicate data from a database. to the user. This means that the user will need to build
Not only does this reduce the size of the database, it also queries to look up data from related tables. These
removes the potential for errors and inconsistencies. queries can be quite complex and require expertise from
Data that is duplicated may be edited for one record but the user.
not another, meaning that it becomes inconsistent. This
causes problems when searching for matching data. The database becomes more flexible in that it is easy to
add new fields to tables without affecting other columns
 ibaseand file concepts
*

and it is easy to add new tables without affecting • what sort order to use when displaying data
existing tables. Having smaller tables also means that relationships to othertables
data can fit onto one screen or one page more easily total number of records
because there are fewer fields and security permissions validation rules that apply based on multiple fields
can be applied to individual tables. However, it is within the table
also necessary to design the database properly and permissions and security as to which users can
to understand the process of normalisation. This is
access the table.
a high level skill that requires a database designer to
understand the real world data structures and represent
them in a relational database. An average user would
not be able to do this.

This is part of a data dictionary for fields in a

product table:

6 Identify two characteristics of data in INF. Attribute Data Type Field Size Format
7 Describe one characteristic of data in 3NF. Product Code Alphanumeric 6 XX99XX
8 Explain two advantages of normalisation. Description Alphanumeric 20
Category Integer 4 9999
Code
Price Decimal 3.2 $999.99
9.03 Data dictionary

Data dictionary: metadata (information) about the

Attribute

Product
Validation Rule
Type
Format Must be
Error
Message
Please
m
database Code in the enter a
format code that
of two is two
A data dictionary is a document or file that describes the letters, letters, two
structure of the data held within the database. It is known two numbers,
as metadata which means ‘data about data’. It is a tool numbers, two letters
that is used by database developers and administrators. It two
wilt include the following items: letters
Description Presence Must be Please
• data about fields:
present enter a
field names to identify each field
description
• data types, such as text, integer, date/time
Category Look up in Must Please
field size, such as the length of a text field or the
Code List exist in enter a
maximum value of a numeric field
Category category
format of fields Code in code that
• default values which are values a field is set to be Category exists in the
initially when a new record is created table category list
primary keys, compound keys and foreign keys Price Range Between Enter
indexed fields which improve search times 0.01 and a price
• validation rules that restrict data entry for that 999.99 between
field 0.01 and
• data about tables: 999.99
• the primary key of the table
 •
•
-

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Numbers can also be formatted as percentages or as

TASK currency. Currency values are presented with a currency
Complete the data dictionary below for employees: symbol. The currency symbol isn’t actually stored with the
data, but is presented when the data is displayed.
Attribute Data Type Field Size Format
Employee ID Percentage values are stored slightly differently to other
Surname
number values. The number that is displayed is stored as
a one hundredth (1/1Q0) of the value. When using 25%,
Forename
for example, the computer would store it as 0.25 (25/100).
Date of Birth However, it would display 25%. So when the computer
Telephone displays a percentage data type, it multiplies what is stored
Email (e.g. 0.63) by 100 and adds the percentage symbol (e.g. 63%)
Year Joined Company
Pension Scheme?

Integer Real Currency Percentage

Data types
9 9.05 $9.05 0.09 (9%)
It is necessary to know the type of data in orderto store it
-6 -6.2 -$6.20 -0.06 (6%)
correctly and process it efficiently.
232382109 232383109.00 $232383109.00 2323821
3 Product -238 -238.00 -$238 2.38 (238%)
Field Name Data Type
Product ID Number
Description Short Text
166 Retail Price Currency
TASK
Date Started Date/Time
Use a spreadsheet to enter the following numbers:
Figure 9.40 - Product data types. 5
Text 60
Text data types come in different formats. They can 0.32
sometimes be known as string or alphanumeric, too. A 0.2
text data type can contain any letter, number or symbol. Now format the cells as percentages. What has
happened to the data and why?
EXAMPLE

Jane Atkins
M
Female
o DISCUSSION POINT
Some people get confused with telephone numbers
W6749PR because the word ‘number’ is used. However, a telephone
O’Connor number is actually a set of digits. The number data types
[email protected] cannot include the spaces or hyphens or brackets which
00 44208 5555555 are often used within telephone numbers. The number
data types also cannot start with a zero because numbers
cannot start with a zero. Arithmetic calculations can be
Numeric performed on numbers but not on telephone numbers.
Therefore telephone numbers are stored as text.
Numbers can be stored in two main formats which are
integer and real. Try typing this telephone number into a spreadsheet (without
using spaces) and see what happens: 00442085555555
Integers are whole numbers. These can be negative or
If this was a number it would actually be 442 085 555 555
positive but must not contain decimals.
which is 442 billion, 85 million, 555 thousand, 5 hundred
Real numbers can contain decimals. They can be positive and fifty-five.
or negative.
 %
Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

Date/time Microsoft Access you wilt notice that this data type is
This data type is used to store dates and times. The referred to as the Yes/No data type.
number data type cannot be used because it works in 10s,
100s, 1000s, but a date/time data type will be able to work
with days, months, years, hours, minutes and seconds. It
will also enable dates and times to be sorted into a logical
o DISCUSSION POINT
Data is only a Boolean data type if the two possible
order.
answers are TRUE/FALSE or YES/NO. Boolean/logical data
types do not include data like ‘M’ or ‘F’ for Male or Female.
These are actually text data types. Just because there are
two possible answers for the data does not mean that it is
a Boolean.
Dates can be formatted in a variety of ways such as:

18/7/1965
18-07-65
18th July 1965 Select appropriate data types
July 18, 1965 You will need to know how to choose an appropriate
data type for a given situation. You will also need to be
However, they are always stored in the same way: day 18, able to select appropriate data types when creating
month 7, year 1965. The symbols (such asth,/ and -) are spreadsheets and databases. The following guidelines
not stored. They are just displayed. should help you:

Rule Data type

The data contains whole numbers only Integer m
Times can also be formatted in a variety of ways: The data contains a decimal number Real
12:55 p.m. The data starts with a zero (e.g. telephone Text
14:02.45 (hours, minutes, seconds) number)
0305 hrs (five past three in the morning)
The data includes letters, symbols or Text
spaces
Dates and times can also be combined to give a specific
time on a specific date, for example: The data is a date, a time or both Date/Time
12:55 18-07-65 The only values for the data are TRUE/ Boolean/
FALSE or YES/NO Logical
Table 9.02 - Data type rules.
O DISCUSSION POINT
Internationally, days, months and years can be stored in a
different order. It is important to specify this order when TASK
setting up a data type. For example, in America, they use
month, day, year (e.g. 7/18/1965), whereas in the UK they Data is to be stored in a database about party bookings.
use day, month, year (e.g. 18/7/1965). This can become Select the most appropriate data type for each of the
a problem when the day part is 12 or less. What date is following fields:
5/10/2019? Is it 5 October or 10 May? • Date of Party
• Time of Party
• Room being Booked
Boolean/logical • Number of Guests
• Deposit
Boolean or logical data types can have only one of • Price Charged
two values. These two values are TRUE and FALSE, but • Paid?
are sometimes represented as YES and NO. If you use
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

9.04 File and data management

9 Identify and describe three components of a data File types
dictionary. When data is saved it is stored in a file. Different software
10 Select the most appropriate data type for the applications use data in different ways and so the way
following information stored about flights: the data is stored differs between application types.
For example, a database stores data in tables, whereas
Flight number (e.g. BA372) graphics software stores data about pixels.
Departure date
Departure time Each file will typically include a header, which will be
Airport code (e.g. ACF) metadata (data about the file), then the main content will
Max number of passengers be stored followed by an end-of-file marker.
Type (e.g. scheduled or charter)
To a user, file types are usually identified by their
Arrived?
extension. For example, Students.txt has an extension of
11 Give reasons for the use of the text data type for txt which identifies it as a text file.
storing a mobile phone number.

Examples of file types include:

Extension File type Purpose
.txt Text Stores plain text without any formatting. It is useful for transferring data
between applications, but any formatting is lost. _
.CSV Comma separated Stores structured data as plain text in rows with each column separated
values by commas. It is useful for transferring data between databases and
spreadsheets or other applications which require data in a structured format.
.rtf Rich text format Stores text-based documents and includes the formatting (rich text). It is used to
transfer data between different word processing or other text-based applications.
.docx Microsoft Word XML Stores Microsoft’s word processing documents in open XML format by saving
document all objects separately within a compressed file. _
.pdf Portable Document Used to share read-only documents in a common format that can be
Format accessed by any PDF reader software. It is commonly used for storing
documents on the web as its contents can be indexed by search engines.
.odt OpenDocument Text An open-source file type for word processor documents that is used by open-
source word processors and is not tied to one manufacturer. _
.ods OpenDocument An open-source file type for spreadsheets that is used by open-source
Spreadsheet spreadsheet software and is nottied to one manufacturer. _
.odp OpenDocument An open-source file type for presentations that is used by open-source
Presentation presentation software and is nottied to one manufacturer. _
.html Elypertext Markup Stores web pages that can be opened by any web browser.
Language _
.xml Extensible Markup A data file that uses markup language to define objects and their attributes.
Language They are used to transfer data between applications and can be read by a
simple text editor. _
.avi Audio Video Interleave Microsoft’s method of storing video files with very little compression. File
(video file) _ sizes are very big but no data is lost. _
 Chapter 9: Dai e and file concepts

Extension File type Purpose

.mp4 Moving Pictures Experts Group Audio and video are compressed and videos can be shared across the
(MPEG) Layer-4 (video file) internet.
.wav Waveform Audio File Format Stores audio files as waveform data and enables different sampling
rates and bit rates. This is the standard format for audio CDs but does
not include compression so files are large. _
.mp3 MPEG Layer-3 audio Stores audio files in a compressed format approximately 10% the size
compression_ of .wav files. Enables audio files to be shared across the internet.
.bmp Bitmap image Stores images as uncompressed raster images, storing each pixel
individually. They are large files but can be accessed by any software.
Joint Photographic Experts Stores images as compressed raster images. It is used by most digital
Group (compressed image) cameras and is a common format for web graphics but its use of lossy
compression can mean some quality is lost. _
.png Portable Network Graphic Stores images as compressed raster images and can include
background transparency colours making it useful when images are
required on different colour backgrounds. _
•svg Scalable Vector Graphics Stores images as two-dimensional (2D) vector graphics. It is a
standard format for using vector graphics on the web._
.exe Executable program file Stores program object code which enables the program to be
executed by the computer. _
Proprietary and open-source file formats Open-source file formats
Proprietary file formats Open-source file formats are file types that have
Proprietary file formats are file types that have been been developed forthe purpose of being used by any
developed by software manufacturers solely for use within proprietary software or open-source software. They are
their software. Using their own formats means that software free from copyright, patents and trademarks, and their
manufacturers are free to develop software features that structure is known publicly. They are usually maintained
will store data in a way that is most suitable forthe software by an international standards organisation or a public
and without waiting for a standard format to adapt to the interest group. Their main advantage is that the files can
software’s needs. This enables software to improve and be shared between users of different software. However,
provide new features that otherwise would not be available. they can hold back development of open-source software
because new features will require the file format standard
to be updated.

Some examples of proprietary file formats include:

Extension Software /file type Manufacturer

docx Word processor Microsoft Word Some examples of open-source file formats include:
wpd Word processor Corel Word Perfect
File Type of data Standards organisation
msg Email message Microsoft Outlook type
ra Audio /video Real Networks JPG Compressed Developed by the
streaming raster graphics Joint Photographic
MOV Movie Apple Experts Group (JPEG)
psd Graphics Adobe Photoshop and standardised
ai Graphics Adobe Illustrator by the International
Organization for
accdb Database Microsoft Access
Standardization (ISO)
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

software. They store the essential data but will not include
File Type of data Standards organisation
any formatting.
type
PNG Compressed ISO The two main file formats used within databases are CSV
raster and TXT. These were described earlier in this chapter in
graphics with the section about importing data.
transparency
support Indexed sequential access
ePub E-book International Digital Many years ago, data was often stored on tape, which required
Publishing Forum records to be written one after another onto the tape. This
was known as storing the data serially. To access the data, all
XML Extensible World Wide Web Consortium
the records would need to be read from the first onwards until
Markup (W3C)
the required record was found or until the end of the file was
Language
reached. It could take a very longtime to read through a whole
MPEG Compressed Developed by the Moving table of data and so indexed sequential files were developed.
video Picture Experts Group (MPEG)
and standardised by the ISO. Indexed sequential files still store records one after each
other but they are sorted into an order based upon a field. For
example, data about customers might be sorted into surname
order or customer ID order. Sequential files are particularly
Generic file formats useful when data is being batch processed such as when gas
Generic file formats enable data to be transferred between bills are beinggenerated and the master customer file will be
software. Data can be exported from software to a generic processed in order of customer ID and any transaction files
file format and generic file formats can be imported into will also be processed in order of customer ID.

Here is an example of part of a master customer file showing the customers, the date the current meter reading was
taken, the previous meter reading (amount of gas used) and the current meter reading:
Customer ID Surname Date of reading Previous reading Current reading
10 Black 12/1/16 32721 34872
11 Brown 15/12/15 02717 03281
12 White 8/1/16 47270 48572
13 Green 8/1/16 21827 23593

Here is an example of part of a transaction file that will be processed to update the master customer file with new
gas meter readings:

Customer ID Date of reading Meter reading

11 12/3/16 03692
13 12/3/16 23997
This is what the master customer file will look like once the transaction file has been processed:
Customer ID Surname Date of reading Previous reading Current reading
10 Black 12/1/16 32721 34872
11 Brown 12/3/16 03281 03692
12 White 8/1/16 47270 48572
13 Green 12/3/16 23593 23997
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

However, when reading the data, it was still necessary to directly access that record without having to read
read the whole file serially from the beginning because through other records.
there was no way of knowing where each record was
stored. Indexed sequential files are stored in exactly the Hierarchical database management
same way as sequential files but the file also has an index
systems
based on the field used to sort the file. A field with an
The hierarchical database model was created in the 1960s
index is known as a secondary key. The index fite stores
and is not commonly used today. The model relies upon a
each secondary key value and the address in storage (e.g.
tree structure where each parent branch is the one side of
tape or disk) where the first record containing that value is
a relationship and each child branch is the many side of a
stored.
relationship. The tree structure can only deal with one-
The index is small enough to store in main memory to-many relationships and can only work in one direction.
and so all that needs to be done to find a record is to Hierarchical databases are only suitable for models which
search the index, find the location in storage and then have a strict hierarchy.
read the records from that point until the record is
One such hierarchy is the file system used within
found.
computer systems. The file system may look something
like this:

Computer
If Employee ID is the secondary key, then an system
index will exist with Employee ID as one column
and the storage address as the other column. HDD SSD
Rather than storing every single Employee ID,
the index may store every tenth Employee ID for
example.
Paul's
documents
Sarah's
documents
Program
files
Windows d
Employee ID Storage address Text book Text book Microsoft System

0001 A8FB2DC3
0011 9AEB08E3 Church Work Adobe Resources

0021 8C4DDDF5
Community Personal Logs

Direct file access Family

The use of indexed sequential file access still
requires some serial access of data and there are Figure 9.41 - Folder structure.
problems with trying to maintain a file in a sequential
order as new records are added and old records Each disk contains folders and there may be further
deleted. subfolders within each folder. Each subfolder has
only one folder at the level above it. To find the data,
With direct file access, records are stored in a random
the user browses through the system, selects the disk
order. There is no sequence. When storing a file, a
the data is stored on, then selects the folder, then
hashing algorithm (calculation) is performed on the
key field to determine the storage address where
selects the next subfolder until eventually the file
is found.
the record should be stored. Then when the record
is searched for, the same hashing algorithm will be This same process is used when searching for data within
performed on the key field to determine where the a hierarchical database. This means that data at the top of
record can be found. The computer system can then the tree is very fast to access.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Using MISs

A bank could store data about customers and the

accounts they hold:
o TIP
Information from a MIS is used by managers to make
Customer decisions. Managers can examine the summary information
and then decide upon actions to take. Reports are provided
at regular times and it’s also possible for managers to
Current Savings request ad hoc reports if they need additional information.
account
Loan
account

Debit Debit Debit

transactions transactions transactions

Managers within a large second-hand car dealership

Credit Credit Credit need to be ableto monitor sales. They need to be
transactions transactions transactions
able to identify trends in sales for different makes and
Figure 9.42 - Hierarchical bank. models of cars at different times of the year. This will
enable them to identify which cars are selling the most
and which are making the most profit. They can then
decide which second-hand cars they want to acquire
Management information systems to sell.

Q Remember
A management information system (MIS) provides
Marketing managers can analyse how effective
a marketing campaign was by comparing sates
figures during an advertising campaign with sales
summary information to managers to enable them to
make decisions. The MIS will collate data from a database figures outside the advertising campaign. This
and present it in the form of reports and charts. These will help them to decide whether to run similar
reports and charts can be produced within the database campaigns in the future.
system itself or they may be part of an additional piece of
software that is used to analyse the data.

QUESTIONS
The additional software is likely to collate data from
12 Explain why generic file types are needed.
more than one database and interconnect the data
from those databases to produce reports that analyse 13 Describe the steps involved to find a file using
all the data together. When additional software is indexed sequential access.
used to collate data from more than one database, 14 Explain why direct access is used for databases in
it is often referred to as an executive information preference to indexed sequential access.
system (EIS). 15 Describe two features of management information
systems (MISs).
A MIS has the following essential features:
• data is collated from databases and other sources
• data is interconnected from different sources
• data is analysed to provide the data that is required by 9.05 Summary
management A database contains structured data in tables which
• summary reports and charts are produced for managers consist of records and fields. Data in fields has a type
that will help with decision making. assigned to it, such as text, alphanumeric, integer/decimal,
The reports and charts are created by people, but once date/time or Boolean.
they are created they can be reused as the data changes A flat file is a single table and has no relationships.
within the data sources. It’s important that the reports Relationships connect entities (tables) together and
and charts provide information that managers need. can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Hierarchical
 Chapter 9: Database and file concepts

databases are based on a tree structure to deal with Indexed sequential access involves the use of an index
one-to-many relationships. Relationships are to determine where to start searching a file for a record.
depicted in an entity relationship diagram (ERD). Direct file access involves using a hashing algorithm to find
A primary key is a unique identifier for a record, a the location of a record in a file.
compound key is a primary key consisting of more than Normalisation is the process of structuring data within
one field and a foreign key relates to a primary key in a database and is measured using normal forms. A data
another table. dictionary, known as metadata, describes the structure of
Referential integrity ensures that data exists in a related the data held within the database.
table. Validation rules can be used to ensure that data Data entry forms are used for inputting data into a
is sensible and allowed. Verification is the process of
database. Data can be imported into a database from
checking data has been transferred correctly.
another data source or exported so it can be used in other
Simple queries use one criterion to search for data software. Different software applications require different
and complex queries use two or more criteria. Summary data types in order to store data.
queries can be used to find statistical information
Proprietary file formats are developed by manufacturers
from a database. Static parameters are used in queries for their own software and open-source formats are
when the value of the parameter does not change and
developed for use by any software.
dynamic parameters are used when the user is likely
to want to change the value each time the query A management information system (MIS) provides summary
is run. information to managers to enable them to make decisions.

Review questions
A website accepts donations for charities. Each donor may make several donations to one or
more charities. This information is stored in a relational database.
la Identify three tables that should be used within the database. [3]
lb Describe two relationships that would be used within the database. [2]
lc Explain how referential integrity is important to this database. [2]
An apartment complex stores data about its customers, their bookings and the rooms they are
staying in. The entity relationship diagram (ERD) is shown below:

Apartment Booking

Customer

Figure 9.43 - Entity relationship diagram.

2a Identify two foreign key fields that should be used within the database. [2]
2b Select the most appropriate data type for each of the fields below in the apartment table: [3]
(i) Telephone Number
(ii) Swimming Pool
(iii) Bedrooms
2c Describe how a dynamic parameter query could be used to produce a list of customers that
have stayed in an apartment during a specified time period. [4]
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

2d Explain why this query would be a complex query. [2]

2e Identify and describe three items of a data dictionary that could be used in this database. [6]
Students in a college belong to tutor groups. Each tutor group has one tutor. The students are
able to borrow books from the college library.
4 Normalise the unnormalised data below to 3NF. Show each table, its attributes and its
primary keys. [4]
STUDENT
Name
Address
Telephone
Tutor Group
Tutor Name
Book ID
Title
Due Date
5 Describe the difference between proprietary and open-source file formats. [2]

m
 t
/

r
itik
Chapter 10
1
i
t
/

It /
175

Sound and video editing

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will understandhow to:

edit a video clip in various ways to meet the requirements of its audience and purpose
edit a sound clip in various ways to meet the requirements of its audience and purpose
describe how video and sound editing features are used in practice
compress video and sound files for different media

1 w f
II M

y
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

KEY TERMS To be able to edit video in the software package, any

clips or images to be included must first be imported into
Pixel: a very small square area of one colour that is illuminated
the software. Each clip or image can then be dragged or
on a display screen. These are combined to create a bitmap
image placed onto the timeline to be edited.
Frame: a single still image in a video file
Rendering: combining the effects created in a video file to Setting an aspect ratio
create an output video file Video today can have several different aspect ratios.
Transition: The movement from one clip to the next
Filters: an effect, often colour related, that can be applied to
a clip Q Remember
An aspect ratio is the ratio of width to the height of a
Track: a single audio section in a sound or video file screen. There are many different formats of media that
Pitch: the highness or lowness of a tone require different ratios, such as television, computer
monitors, cinema screens and mobile devices.

10.01 Video editing software Setting an aspect ratio is determined by the media you are
creating the video for. 16: 9 is the current high-definition
Most video editing software will have similar features. standard fortelevision and monitors, and photography
The level and complexity to which these features can often uses 4 : 3 or 3 : 2 aspect ratios.
be used may differ between the software available.
A resolution can also be set for a video. The resolution
Some will allow simple effects and editing to take
is the number of pixels horizontally compared to the
place. Some will allow much more complex effects to
number of pixels vertically. The current resolution for high
be added and editing to take place. Most software has
definition is 1920 p x 1080 p. This means that each frame
a similar set-up in that they have a preview pane to
in a video has 2 073600 pixels.
view the video creation progress and an area where
the editing takes place, often referred to as the Setting an aspect ratio and resolution can be done when
timeline. initially setting up the video project. It can also beset

I a 'O C ? hV Movie -MovilMst.

Animations O

: & J> !*_

MIMMI ' B!"ÿ»•»« Cttdits * 4" ",:4 ® DH®C3 •• tn SJ
sr

OftOWWWWMO

IS

Figure 10.01 - Layout of a video editing program, Windows Movie Maker. The preview pane is the black space on the left and
the timeline the large white space to the right.
 Chapter 10: Sound and video editing

I U ? I My Movi«- Movie Mika

o ViMMltriUll o
A K X |S| % -ilia
ass“sgr £“:ir L&J

oaoo.oo/ockoo.oo

Figure 10.02 - Setting the aspect ratio in a video editing program.

or changed when rendering a video file at the end of a trim and then highlighting the video to this point, either
project. from the start of the clip, or the end, depending on what
you need to remove. When the trim/cut tool is clicked, it
will remove the highlighted part of the video. The tool can
TASK
also work by dragging the clip from the start or the end,
Change the aspect ratio to each of thesettings available to the point you want to trim to. Some software will allow
in your software package. What effect does this have on you to set a start point and an end point for a clip and will
the preview parte? remove any video that is not within this.
Once you have trimmed the video clips you may want to
join several clips together. Joining together video clips
Trimming a video dip and joining
can be done by dragging video clips in the timeline next
clips together to each other. Clips can also have transition effects
When we trim video clips we cut out parts of the video. applied to make the change between clips more visually
This is mostly from the start or the end of the video. interesting. Joining together clips is done to create effects
Trimming video dips is an essential skill to have when such as jump cuts for action scenes, to start new scenes
editing videos. For a video to be well edited, video or to sometimes imply that time has passed by in the
trimming needs to be a key focus for the project. video.

TIP
TASK
Trimming videos is done to create more concise videos that Import two video clips into your video editing
do not continue for too long, and become boring as a result. software. Trim the start and finish of your video clips
to a suitable point, then join them together. Apply a
suitable transition effect between one video clip to
To trim a video, there is normally a ‘trim/cut’ tool. This is; the other.
often used by simply finding the point in the clip you need
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

|a'u “ -
My Movie Movie Maker X
| rum O
- Set start point Stilt point C.CCi
U X
Save Cancel
Set end point Endpoint 9,31s
turn

CO;W.JO-Uft09.W (3

Item 1 d 1 tea!
----
)

Figure 10.03 - Example of trimming a video.

178

B u Video Tools Te.t Tools My Movie - Movie Maker X

Home Animations Visual Etlects Project View Edit Format ©
X <ÿ>'

-I
Background color *

.A
A

41ii
SegoeUl * -SB • At Transparency
QCOPJ
. A' A’ ti) Start time: rMm **i (*» * _*
ih _
.
Paste B / A mm Edit 4'
- Outline Out i O'

Cupboard Font Pssrsgiapn

te»t Te.t duration 7.00
*4iUtt ttlerti
* ' sire •

.3

A My Movie
IM
My Movie

0G00.KK»I6.W (3

TT*

Item I cfi

Figure 10.04 - Example of adding a text-based slide to the start of a video.

if -
--
-
J
 Chapter 10: Sound and video editing

Creating text-based slides and credits effects have to be very carefully timed with what is being
Text-based slides in videos are often used for a title slide said so as not to distract the viewer from the experience.
at the start of a video, or credits at the end of a video to
show who was involved. They were also used throughout
old movies, before sound was part of films, to show what TASK
had been said by a character. Text-based slides can also Add a caption over part of your video to explain what is
be used at the beginning of videos in order to establish any currently on the screen.
background information that may be importantfor the video.
Text-based slides are often created by having a still
image or block of colour as the background. Text is then Adding animation and effects
layered on top of this to give the information needed. Animation and effects can be added as a transition
between video clips and text-based slides. They can be
added to the text on text-based slides and for captions
TASK
and subtitles. They can also be added to the video
Add a text-based slide to the start of your video. clips themselves to change the overall look of the clip.
Introduce the theme or topic of your video on the slide. The animations and effects available can differ greatly
Experiment With any effects available to display the text
between different software, but most have a standard
on the slide.
set including effects such as fading and adding filters.
Adding fade effects to video clips allows for calm,
smooth transitions. It can be used to overlay two
Adding captions and subtitles video clips, which is often used to convey something
Adding captions and subtitles are often done to provide a happening simultaneously. However, mostly it is used
message, emphasise a point or to help the hard of hearing. simply to either gently establish a scene or close one.
This are created by using text, and sometimes visual effects, A slow fade in an action scene could be unsuitable and
that is displayed over a number of frames in the video. These ruin the action effect. However, if it is a scene that has

-
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Cambridge International AS and A level IT

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Figure 10.06 - An example set of filters available in a video editing program. A sepia tone effect has been applied to the
video. This can make it look older.

a solemn note, a fade can be used to enhance that placing the image onto the video’s timeline. A time can then
feeling. Animation effects can be used to create different be set for the length of time the image needs to be displayed.
feelings and provoke different emotions about a video.
The still image may take up the frame or just be part of
the overall view. Having a still image as part of a frame is
TASK what is often done in news programmes. The news anchor
reads the news and has a still image off to the side giving
Add a filter to your first Video to change the overall look.
some context to the story.
Create a credits slide at the end of your movie. Add a
fade effect from your final video clip to your credits. Inserting still images is done in videos for many reasons, such
as adding visual cues in news programmes, to show a close-
up still of a product in advertising campaigns or referencing
Extracting a still image from a video clip something in a review video on media such as YouTube.
Video footage can often contain some frames that would
make excellent still images. Therefore, we may want to take Adding and removing sound from a video clip
one individual frame and extract it as a still image. It would Adding sound to a video clip is often done by importing
then be more like a digital photograph. Editing software will the sound clip and dragging or placing it onto the timeline
often allow you to navigate through the video to a certain of the project. The sound timeline can be separated from
frame and extract that frame to save as an individual image. the video timeline in most editing software. Sound clips
This can be called taking a snapshot in some software, are often added to videos to provide a sound track, a
extracting an image or taking a picture in others. voice-over or to add sound effects to the video.
Removing sound from a video clip in most software is a
Inserting a still image into a video clip simple process. It often requires clicking on the sound
Inserting a still image into a video is usually done by clip, and either pressing the delete key, dragging it
importing the image into the software, then dragging or off the timeline entirely or right clicking and selecting
 Chapter 10: Sound and video editing

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Figure 10.07 - Example of a sound dip in a video. The sound clip can be seen in green under the video timeline.

‘remove/delete’. This is done to remove any unwanted

sound from a video clip, to either create a silent
© TIP
situation or to add a different sound clip to the video. Slowing down a clip is an effect used in, for example, action
Often videos will be recorded with sound, but when the movies and sporting events. The video clip is slowed down
to show events that happen very quickly in much slower
editor begins to edit the video, they may find the sound
time. This allows the audience to appreciate the action or
is not clear enough or does not work effectively. This to have a prolonged emotional reaction to the clip.
means they may want to remove it and replace it with
something better.

TASK
TASK
Highlight part of your video and experiment with
Add a soundtrack to your video. Make the soundtrack changing the speed of the video for that part. What effect
start after your title slide and end when your movie does this have on your video clip? Does it change what
does. You could try adding a second sound clip and the clip shows? Does it make is funnier? Does is make it
have a different soundtrack on your video for your more sad?
credits.

Exporting video dips in different file formats

Altering the speed of a video dip When we export a video clip we join together all the
Altering the speed of a video clip is another effect that editing elements that we have carried out and create a
can be applied. It can be used for various reason such as single file again. This file can then be used on different
creating time-lapse videos, where an event happens over media. Many people do not realise that different file
a prolonged amount of time. Normally this type of video is formats store video in many different ways. They think
created by having a camera record one frame of video every they are the exact same format or don’t even consider
few seconds/minutes. This video, which can often be quite format at all. It is just a video. This is not the case!
long, can then be sped up to demonstrate the process. Depending on the media for which you are creating your
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

video, the format can be very important. For example could not view videos on websites using them. With the
on YouTube, a social networking video website, you popularity of the iPad growing so much, websites began
cannot just upload any format you want to. It needs to to change their video file formats so that iPad users were
adhere to their rules, so that people can actually watch able to view them.
the video on YouTube from many different devices. Ultimately the format that you export a video to should
match what is allowed by the media you want to work with.

Q Remember
Some formats allow for higher quality but create larger TASK
file sizes and some formats compress video files greatly,
losing much of their quality in the process. MP4 is a Try exporting a video clip into different file formats,
common file format that will compress a large video file Compare the exported files to see what differences can
but retain quite a lot of its quality. be seen between the clips.

Some file formats will be more suitable for different media.

For example, video files on most websites will be .mp4,
10.02 Sound editing software
.avi or .mov files. Many videos on websites used to be flash Similar to video editing software, most sound editing
files. However, with the invention of the iPad, this changed. software will havesimilar features. The level and
The iPad did not support flash files, so many people complexity to which the different features can be used

File Edit View Transport Tracks Generate Effect Analyze Help

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Figure 10.08 - Example of sound editing software called Audacity. The sound clip imported has two different tracks.
 Chapter 10: Sound and video editing

may again differ between the different software available. highlighting the section of the dip that needs to be
Most software has a similar set-up in that it has a way to removed and selecting ‘delete’.
view different tracks in the sound dip. Each track is often
In the same way that video clips can be joined together,
represented as a sound wave.
sound clips can be too. Multiple sound clips can be
To be able to edit sound in the software package, any clips imported, edited and placed straight after the previous
to be included must first be imported into the software. clip. The software will continue from one clip onto the
next. Effects, such as fading, can also be applied between
Trimming audio clips and joining clips together the clips when joining them together.
Trimming audio clips is used in orderto remove
unwanted parts of the clip. This can sometimes be done TASK
to synchronise the sound clip with a video clip. If you’ve
Import two sound clips into suitable sound editingsoftware
already trimmed part of the video, you’d also need to trim Trim each a section off each clip and join them together.
the equivalent audio section in order for the video and the
sound to end together.
To trim an audio clip you simply find what you want to trim Fading in and fading out an audio clip
and then a use ‘cut/trim’ tool to remove the unwanted Like video clips, sound clips can be faded in and out. This
parts. This is often done in sound editing software by often involves the end of one clip becoming quieter and the

File Edit View Transport Tracks Generate Effect Analyze Help

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Figure 10.09 - Example of the end of a sound clip highlighted ready to be removed.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

start ofthe next beginning quietly and getting louder. If a dip is squeaky effects that could be created in speeding the
faded in itwill start quietly and get louder. If a clip is faded out track up.
it will start at a louder volume and get quieter. This is done in
order to create a gradual transition and gentler start to a clip
TASK
that is more pleasant to listen to, rather than just starting a clip
at full volume. Imagine a host on a radio show about to play a Experiment with changing the speed and the pitch ofthe
loud song. Without a fade-in effect, the song would just burst sound clip you have created. What effect does this create
for your sound clip?
into sound and could shock listeners. Instead, it is much more
enjoyable to get a gradual transition over a couple of seconds
to allow listeners to readjust in their own time.
Adding or adjusting reverberation
Fading in or out is normally an effect that can be applied
to an audio track. Normally the part ofthe track that
Reverberation, often shortened to reverb, is the effect
that is created on sound when it repeatedly bounces
needs to be faded is selected and a fade effect can be
applied. You can often choose what volume the clip will back off a surface. In an auditorium, the sound from
be at the start ofthe fade and what it will be at the end of a music band will bounce off all the walls. When this
the fade. You can also often choose how long you want a effect is layered on top of each other, by bouncing
fade effect to last in terms of time. For example, apply a off multiple surfaces, reverberation is created.
fade-out effect to the last 10 seconds of a sound clip. Reverberation is noticed most when a band stops
playing but the sound ofthe guitar and the singer
can still be heard. It lingers on for a time. Adding
TASK reverberation onto a sound track can create a similar
Fade in the start ofthe sound dip you have created for effect. It adds a type of echo onto the section of the
5 seconds, then fade it out at the end for 10 seconds. track selected in order to create a reverberation effect.
This effect can be enhanced and made very obvious,
or can be decreased and made more subtle if you feel
Altering the speed of a sound dip it is too much.
and changing the pitch Most sound editing software will have a reverberation
Altering the speed of a sound clip is similar to altering the effect that can be applied to the sound track. The effect
speed of a video clip. The section ofthe clip to be altered of this can normally be altered, by imitating things such
is highlighted and an effect is applied to the clip to speed as making it sound like the clip is recorded in a large
it up or slow it down. The speed can often be set very auditorium.
accurately with an input method allowing a value to be
entered. Changing the speed of a sound clip has a similar Overdubbing a sound dip with a voice-over
effect to changing the speed of a video clip. It also alters Overdubbing a sound clip is often done to provide a
the mood and emotion felt when listening to the clip. voice-over without removing the noise from the clip
that is already there, such as background noise. This

© Remember
Issues can arise when speeding up or slowing down
sound clips. When playing back a sped up dip the sound
is done to allow many of the originally recorded
sounds to remain, otherwise it becomes a less
interesting clip without some background noise
can appear very high pitched and squeaky. When playing to accompany it.
back a slowed down clip the clip can sound deep and Overdubbing is can be when presenting news dips, using
have too much bass to it.
a translator, reviewing entertainment or just giving extra
information such as in nature documentaries. To overdub,
To counter this, some software is able to allow you you must record an entirely new soundtrack of just the
to adjust the pitch ofthe recording while altering the voice-over work. Once that is recorded it is imported into
speed. This will change the level ofthe sound track to the software as a separate track. This track can then be
be higher or lower in pitch, changing the notes to be edited separately to the other sound track and the two
higher or lower as a result. You may want to lower the can be exported together at the end to create a single
pitch on a sound clip that is sped up to counter the sound file.
 Chapter 10: Sound and video editing

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Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Binary values

TASK i 7ÿ
Record a voice-over to introduce your sound clip. Z X 10
0 X
Import this into your sound file and apply it to start
at the beginning and lay over the start of your sound
clip.
-1
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Figure 10.12 - A 2-bit sample resolution.

X
----
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Exporting sound clips in different file The sample resolution refers to the number of bit values
formats the sample can be taken on. This can also be referred to as
Like video clips, sound clips can be exported in different the sample depth. In a very simple example, a 2-bit sample
file formats. This will again depend on the desired quality resolution would have four possible binary values. These
of the final track and the media it will be used for. would be 11, 10,01 and 00. A sound wave for this can be
seen in Figure 10.12.

Q Remember
MP3 is a common sound file format. It is a formatthat
This level of depth would create a very low quality
recording and is not sufficient for most recordings. The
higher the sample resolution, the higher the quality
allows most of the quality of the sound file to be retained,
of the file and the more accurate the file will be. It
but compresses the file to make it smaller.
will, however, also increase the size of the audio file
because more data is having to be stored. Digital audio
This means the file is easier to steam or download from is normally found in two different sample resolutions:
music or podcast sites. It is possible to export a sound file 8-bit and 16-bit. 8-bit sampling can sample 256 different
without compressing it. This can be done with file formats values. This would still produce quite low quality
such as .wav. audio. 16-bit sampling can sample over 65000 different
values. This is a higher quality than any human ear can
recognise.
TASK
Research further file formats such as Ttac, .wma and 10.03 Summary
.alac. How are they different? What kind of compression
do they use? What can they be used for? Most video and sound editing software that is available
have very similar features. The level and complexity to
which these features can be used may differ between the
Sampling rate and resolution software available.
The sampling rate is the number of samples of the There are many different features that can be used
recorded sound taken in a second. The sample rate to edit a video. In most cases, you will need to set
is normally measured in hertz (Hz) or kHz (1000 Hz). A the aspect ratio and the resolution of the video, then
sample rate of 40 Hz would mean that 40 000 samples of export the video in a suitable format at the end. The
the sound are taken in a second. editing that happens between this will depend on the
The more samples taken in a second, the higher the effect you wish to create and the software you are
quality of the sound file. Therefore, the lower the using.
amount of samples taken, the lower the quality of There are many different features that can be used to edit
the track. When the sample rate goes beyond 50 kHz sound. In most cases, you will need to import the sound
it is thought that the human ear will not be able to ctip(s) into the software to be edited, then export them
recognise any further quality in the track. The standard in a suitable format at the end. The editing that happens
sampling rate used by most digital recording equipment between this will depend on the effect you wish to create
is 48 kHz. and the software you are using.
 Chapter 10: Sound and video editing

Review questions
1 Describe how changing the speed of a video clip can be used to effect the mood or emotion
of the clip. [4]
2 What is a frame in a video file? [2]
3 What is a track in a sound file? [2]
4 Describe how overdubbing is used in sound tracks. [4]
5 Explain what is meant by sample rate. [4]

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earning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

describe a wide range of emerging technologies, including how they work and what they are used for
evaluate the impact of emerging technologies on individuals, organisations, the environment and medicine
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of storing data in the cloud

>>

y
 Chapter 11: Emerging technologies

aids, such as replacement limbs, due to the presence

of technology in medicine. Technology can be used for
Heuristic: discovering knowledge through experience
many of the more complex elements in medicine such as
Biometrics: the measurement of a person’s physical tissue engineering. This is when stem cell technologies
characteristics
are combined with tissue to grow new body parts and
Cloud computing: using remote servers hosted on the
organs. The ability to use technology in this way is hugely
internet to store data
beneficial. One of the main issues with implanting organs
Encrypt: converting data into a scrambled code
from one person’s body to another is that a body will often
Key: a sequence or algorithm used to encrypt or decrypt data
reject the organ and attack it. As tissue engineering allows
organs to be grown from a person’s own cells, their body
accepts it and does not see it as being a foreign part.
11.01Technology and our lifestyle
With the introduction and development of smartphones O DISCUSSION POINT
and other mobile devices, people are able to perform Research the first organ to be grown and transplanted
many of the tasks for which they previously needed a PC using tissue engineering. What do you think about
or a laptop, and they are able to perform them on the go. scientists using technology in a laboratory to grow body
This means that people can often better utilise their time. parts to order in this way?
For example, when travelling on public transport they are
able to use their mobile device to perform many tasks, Technology is constantly evolving. There are better, more
from online banking and shopping, completing work efficient technologies, and new technologies are emerging
tasks, to keeping up with their favourite news sites and all the time. We are going to have a look at a variety of
social networking. As people no longer need to sit down emerging technologies and the impact they are having on
at a PC or laptop to perform many work tasks, such as individuals, organisations and the environment.
creating or editing a word processed document, they have
much more freedom about when and where they are able 11.02 Three-dimensional printing
to complete tasks. This has also had a negative impact,
most especially on people’s working lives. Companies
now expect their employees to be much more available,
often outside working hours, and they often provide the
Q Remember
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is where an object is
technology to enable this. They know their employees created based upon a blueprint made with modelling
software. It works by taking thousands upon thousands of
have the technology to send emails and read and edit cross-section layers of the model, from the bottom to the
reports and documents on the go, so this has become far top, to create the object. It uses heated plastic to print a
more common. This means that people may be working single layer at a time. 3D printing takes a very longtime to
much longer hours than previously and longer than produce an object.
the company actually recognises. This could mean an
increased level of stress and fatigue for employees. Up until now, 3D printing has only been used by larger
organisations and not individuals. Developers are
As a result of this, we tend to want the most up-to-date
currently tryingto make it more readily available with the
technology to make sure we can perform tasks with the
creation of smaller, personal printers that would be more
greatest level of efficiency. This has meant that technology
has become very throwaway to us and this has had a accessible for the use in the home.
profound effect on our environment as this can hugely There have been many uses for 3D printing to date:
increase the amount of landfill created by all the discarded
technology. There are many organisations trying to
• In medicine, 3D printing has been used to create casts
for broken bones. These casts are far more flexible than
counter this effect by encouraging people to recycle their
previous casts and don’t completely cover up the broken
old technologies rather than throw them away. Some even
body part.
offer a monetary award for doing this.
• In medicine, prosthetics have been created, as well as
Technology is extensively used in many areas of our lives. replacement organs.
One area in which it has become highly vital is in medicine.
• In medicine, it is possible to print artificial blood vessels
We are able to provide many cures for disease and many that can be used to replace damaged ones.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• In China, it has recently been used to create houses 11.03 Fourth generation
using large-scale printers.
and fifth generation cellular
• It has been used by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) to print different tools
communications
and automobile parts, and spare parts for vehicles in Cellular communication is progressing through different
space. generations. Initially we had first generation (1G), then
These examples show that 3D printing has a great potential: second generation (2G). This developed into third
generation (3G) and now that has advanced into fourth
• Using a 3D printer to build houses could mean that generation (4G) and fifth generation (5G). All of the names
in the event of a natural disaster, which left many refer to the generation of wireless communications that
civilians homeless, the affected people could quickly be the technology has gone through. 3G developed in the late
rehoused. 1990s and early 2000s. This has more recently developed
• In medicine a big issue is often the long waiting lists for into4G and we are now starting to see 5G.
organs. In the future this may not be an issue as organs
may be printed on demand. Individuals may not have to
worry about theirshort life expectancy or if an organ will
be a blood match.
© Remember
The aim of each different generation development is
to improve the speed and capability of the wireless
• In space, a team may not need to abort its mission if part connection. It is only data that is carried by the later
of the spacecraft becomes broken. It could print out a generations though, as voice is still mostly carried using
spare part using a 3D printer and replace the broken part. 2G technology.

However, not all effects of 3D printing are positive:

3G is the third generation of mobile communication
• A 3D printer can be used to create a gun. This is a huge standards. The development of 3G opened up more
safety concern both for countries with and without guns, services that mobile providers could offer, including
as anyone who previously could not get access to one, mobile broadband. It allows devices that are enabled
could potentially print one. with 3G technology to deliver broadband speeds for the
• 3D printers use plastic to create the objects that are internet. This made it much easier for people to check
printed, and plastic can be a large environmental their emails and browse websites whilst travelling around.
concern as it is not biodegradable. However, some 3D 2G did offer access to the internet, but it was often very
printers now use ‘bio-plastics’ that are plastics made slow and could be expensive. As 3G uses airwaves more
from renewable sources. This means they can be made efficiently than 2G the speed of internet access was
by repurposing waste products from farming or recycling increased and mobile internet access became cheaper.
previous plastic items. This can help lower the negative
The development of 3G was necessary to deal with the
impact on the environment.
growing number of mobile users. 2G technology was not
robust enough or fast enough to deal with the rapidly
increasing number of mobile phone users. The signal used
did not allow enough data to be carried at a time to create
efficient use of mobile devices.
3G services work by using cellular based technology. The
3G signal is passed from each cellular mast or phone
tower. The mast that is nearest to a phone is the one that
will be used when using the mobile device, if a person is
moving, the mast used may change if another becomes
closer. This is why the signal strength that a mobile
device has can change, depending on a person’s
proximity to a mobile mast. 3G technology is capable of
allowing internet speeds that can reach 7 Mbps, but this
Figure 11.01 - A 3D printed prosthetic arm. speed is normally unrealistic and it is often approximately
2 to 3 Mbps.
 Chapter 11: Emerging technologies

People felt that the speeds reached by 3G technology The development from 3G to 4G technology and further
were better, but that speed and access could still be developments into 5G technology will enable a number of
improved regarding the internet and mobile devices. This advancements. These may include:
encouraged the development of 4G technology, the 4th
generation of mobile communication standard.
• greater speed in internet access
• faster loading speeds of applications, such as maps
The development of 4G technology provided two main • the ability to have multiple people in video conferencing
benefits, increased upload and download speeds and calls
reduced latency. 4G technology is approximately five times
• more effective location services to allow for real-time
(and sometimes more) faster than 3G technology. This
updates, such as traffic and weather
meant that the speed at which files could be downloaded
was significantly increased. This increase in speed
• the ability to stream high-definition (HD).
meant that files could be downloaded in a much faster The development of 4G (and in the future 5G) technology
time. Typically with 3G technology, a 2GB file could take can affect the use of mobile devices in many ways. With the
approximately 30 minutes to download. However with 4G increased speeds and reduced latency of the technology,
technology that download time could be potentially cut organisations can make use of mobile technologies in
to approximately 3-4 minutes. This significantly improved their business. This means that workers could be travelling
the experience of mobile devices and internet usage for around meeting clients and having meetings and still keep
the user. in touch with each other and the organisation through the
use of applications such as video conferencing facilities on
The deduction in latency with the development of 4G
mobile devices. They could also use their mobile device as a
technology also improved the experience of using mobile
navigation device to aid theirtravel.
devices. The reduction in latency means that 4G enabled
devices get a quicker response time to the requests The development of 5G technology could influence key
made by their mobile device. The quicker response time areas of society, such as medicine. It will be critical in
improves the experience of streaming online video and enabling specialist doctors around the world to watch
playing online games using mobile devices. and advise in an operation on a patient located in a
completely different place. This would mean that the
Access to 4G technology is still limited in many areas.
best medical attention could be accessible to a person,
Many countries are trying to build the infrastructure to
no matter where they are in the world, as long as the
provide as wide a coverage as possible to enable a 4G
technology needed is available. The doctor would not
signal to be accessed.
need to travel to perform the surgery and may be better
prepared and more rested as a result.
© DISCUSSION POINT
Find out what developments are being made in your 11.04 Artificial intelligence
country to make4G technology accessible.
One of the earliest pioneers of artificial intelligence was
Alan Turing. During World War II he cracked the Enigma
code, the code generated from the Enigma machine used
The race to develop the next mobile communication
by the German army to communicate, and decrypted
standard, 5G technology, is well underway. 5G technology
German messages. He became intrigued by the possible
is set to dramatically affect the use of mobile internet. In
intelligence of machines. This came from the notion of
order to provide 5G access there is a major restructure
providing machines with heuristic knowledge to enable
occurring on parts of the radio network that is used to
them to make decisions in a way more like humans.
transmit data. This restructure is reported to allow data
to be transmitted approximately 100 times faster. In a test
of 5G by Samsung in 2013, a high definition movie could
be downloaded in less than 30 seconds. It is thought that
Q Remember
Artificial intelligence is when a computer is able to make
5G technology has the potential to eventually provide decisions based upon stimuli, much as a human would.
Artificial intelligence is very hard to create. Some say that
much faster speeds than this, speeds of approximately it is not at all possible to have a computer think like a
800 Gbps, meaning that 30 high definition movies could be human being. Artificial intelligence systems are made by
downloaded in a single second! programming rules to be obeyed.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

True artificial intelligence can also be learnt from actions However, artificial intelligence is not without its issues:
taken and modifying behaviour based on them. This can
give the illusion that a computer can think; but in fact it is
• In the case of self-driving cars, there is a debate about
who should pay in the event of an accident on the road,
still responding to programmed elements.
where the self-driving car is at fault. Should the user
A simple example of artificial intelligence is an opponent have to pay? Should the company who made the car
in a game of Tic-Tac-Toe/Noughts and Crosses. If you were have to pay? This issue is as yet unresolved.
to place an ‘X’ in two corners, a computer would know • Voice activated systems are improving, but they still
to place its ‘O’ in-between your ‘X’s, in order to prevent suffer from lots of input errors. If artificial intelligence is
you from winning. This is a very low-level example of dependent on a voice-activated system, it will be limited
artificial intelligence. A well-known example of artificial by the ability of this system.
intelligence is the computer system Deep Blue. Deep • Artificial intelligence is only as good as its programming.
Blue is a computer that plays chess. The more chess If there are errors in the programs that allow the
Deep Blue played, the better it became at chess. This is intelligence to be created, then it will not operate
because it was able to learn from the errors it made in correctly.
previous chess games and become a better chess player
as a result. It became so intelligent that it was the first
computer ever to beat a world chess champion at the
V m
*
j
game. * r.

More recently, artificial intelligence has emerged in

the market of self-driving cars. Car manufacturer Tesla
recently released their line of autopilot cars. These are
cars that are able to automatically change lanes, maintain
speed and slowdown if they sense they are approaching ij

another car. The chief executive officer (CEO) of Tesla

has stated that this is not a fully self-driving car but that
in perhaps five years’ time such a car will have been
developed.
Vi
WM
Artificial intelligence is even in most of our phones today. Figure 11.02 - Inside a Tesla Autopilot car.
Applications such as Siri and Google Now are examples
of artificial intelligence. They can help with tasks such as
searchingthe web and setting up calendar events, all from DISCUSSION POINT
simple voice commands. Many people find the concept of allowing a computer to
be responsible for major tasks, such as driving a car, an
Artificial intelligence has already had a wide impact on our extremely scary prospect. What do you think about placing
lives: your life in the hands of a computer?

• Those with disabilities can use voice-activated systems,

such as Siri or Google Now, to search the web, message
family and friends and more. 0! ented reality
• The development of self-driving cars may mean
that those with disabilities will also be able to travel
independently in a car. It may also make the task of Augmented reality is where technology overlays
computer-generated images onto the real world, It works
driving a car safer, by removing the element of human
by taking signals from the real world using a camera. It
error. then checks to see if there is a point in the camera image
• The level of entertainment provided by games is much that is telling it to draw an image on screen.
greater. This is because an enemy or opponent in a
game can be made more challenging to beat. Imagine using your phone’s camera to take a picture of
• It can be used to create expert systems that allow easy a sign in a foreign language that you cannot read. The
diagnosis or problem solving of issues that require camera uses image processing to understand what is
expert knowledge. written on the sign. It then uses a translation tool to
 Chapter 11: Emerging technologies

translate the sign into a language you do understand. It 11.06 Biometrics

then draws that translation on your camera view replacing
the original image.
Augmented reality is a very interesting technology and
Q Remember
Biometrics is the use of technology that tracks user
one that is gaining a lot of attention at the moment: values. This could be as simple as their heart rate
with fitness devices, or it could be voice recognition
• An example of using augmented reality is Google Glass. software, fingerprint and iris recognition or even
Users can weara pair of glasses that overlay information recognition of DNA patterns.
about the world around them, such as the name of the
street they areon. They allow you to take images and share Biometrics works by taking several examples of whatever
them on social media, and can also provide news updates. is being measured, so for a voice command a user may
• Augmented reality has also been used as part of computer have to say 'Hello’ five times forthe computerto get
games. The Nintendo 3DS has AR Cards’ at which you can an average measurement. This data is then saved and
point your3DS camera lens. It then builds, for example, a attached to a user account, just like a username and
3D model of a Nintendo character in that spot. password. The user simply gives the same command of
Augmented reality does have some potential issues: ‘Hello’ and this is compared with the values stored to
determine if there is a match. If the vocal pattern matches
• Using a product such as Google Glass can mean your closely enough to the original values taken, the user will
vision is impeded. You might easily bump into someone be able to access their account.
or, if driving, it could distract a driver and cause an
Some uses have been developed for biometrics:
accident.
• The technology still has issues with object recognition • Some mobile devices and laptops currently have a
due to lighting or the angle of the camera. fingerprint recognition device attached. When thedevice
• A productsuch asGoogleGlasscansuffersecurity issues is locked, the user places their finger on the scanner to
when streaming data. The streaming is often done from unlock it.
a mobile device to the Google Glass using a Bluetooth • Anyone who has watched enough spy movies has
connection. There is the potential for someone to probably seen biometric devices being used, such as iris
possibly exploit a security flaw and look at your private scanners or hand scanners that measure the size, shape
data or disrupt your Google Glass. and fingerprints of the user’s hand.
• Some airports now have the capability of reading
biometric passports. This means that a person’s
biometric data, often theirfacial and iris image, is
attached to their passport. They can go through a
special gate at passport controlthat will scan their
A passport and theirfacial features and if there is a match
.
they will be allowed to passthrough.
Biometric technology is incredibly personalised because
of the data it takes in and stores. This can cause issues:
• Very personal details are stored about users. These
could be used against them if someone were able to
hack into the database where the data is stored. In fact,
Figure 11.03 - Google Glass. the database could be abused and have data values
replaced, locking original users out and giving access
only to those who hacked into it.
• There isn’t anything stopping a user from presenting
DISCUSSION POINT
fake biometric material, such as a fake fingerprint or
Find out about Microsoft’s augmented reality product
the HoloLens. What impact could this product have on a
a recording of a voice command. These would need
person’s life? to be very high quality to be undetected, but it is
possible.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• Some people feel that their human rights are being that a reasonable computer, or console, can be used
violated through the collection and use of their alongside cloud computing to perform tasks far beyond
biological data for security reasons. They feel that it is a the capabilities of the computer on its own.
huge invasion of their privacy to have this kind of data There are issues with cloud computing:
stored and used in this way.
• A big issue is security. If someone hacked into one of
the services for file management and started reading

ni1
Cheek-In [ÿ] 4, people’s files, this could reveal personal details that could
be used for acts such as credit card or even identity theft.
• Another concern is the need for a constant internet
connection. This is not an issue for some. However, not
everyone has a connection all day or even just one that
does not get interrupted periodically. This is an even
•• 4 bigger issue when you consider that the provider you
choose might have a power outage, which means that

Mat
Figure 11.04 - A biometric passport control system.
even if you did have a perfect internet connection, you
still would not be able to access your files. Therefore it
is important to regularly synchronise the files from the
cloud with the files on the computer or device, to make
sure that the data is always accessible.
11.07 Cloud computing

© Remember
Cloud computing is where a collection of servers are
used to store or process data instead of doing this on your
own computer. Your computer simply needs an internet
6 t *,
connection in order to communicate with the bank of
servers. A
A number of uses have been developed for cloud
computing:
IQ
Figure 11.05 - Data from many different computers and
• There are many online services that provide cloud devices can be uploaded into the cloud.
computing services, most of them emerging in the late
2000s. Providers include Dropbox, Google Drive and
Microsoft’s OneDrive, along with many others. These
11.08 Computer-assisted
services allow you to upload your own files and manage translation
them. This means that you can be away from your
computer and still be able to access those files through
the online service.
Q Remember
Computer-assisted translation tools work by giving
• Data can be uploaded onto a cloud from numerous the software either a document or a string of text. The
software then removes anything that is not text, such as
mobile devices. This means the data can then be
pictures or tables, and simply takes what is left over and
accessed by each device that has access to the cloud. translates it into the language of choice.
This is a great way of sharingfiles between yourown
personal devices and with others. There are some well-known computer-assisted translation
• Cloud computing can also be used to process data. tools, such as Google Translate.
The game Crackdown 3 uses cloud computing to
Access to computer-assisted translation can have its
outsource the calculations needed to be able to render
benefits:
the destruction of very large buildings. Therefore a
high-quality effect can be achieved, while not affecting • When in a foreign country, as long as an internet
the performance of the console too much. This means connection is available, a person can quite quickly and
 Chapter 11: Emerging technologies

easily translate words and phrases by entering them into One of the largest issues with holographic data storage
a site such as Google Translate. This can improve their is the cost. The drive to read the data costs thousands of
ability to communicate with people in that country. dollars and each medium used to store the data will cost
• It can be used to translate whole documents and hundreds.
websites into a language of choice, quickly making it Fourth generation optical media refers to the next
possible to read them. generation of the traditional optical media we know about,
There can be issues with computer-assisted translation: at present. The third generation of optical media allowed
the storage of HD video, with the ability to store data files of
• Sites such as Google Translate are designed to give around 400GB. The fourth generation will bring about the
direct translations, rather than the meaning behind potential to hold up to 1TB of data on optical media. This
the sentence. This means that if you enter a French will be done by using smaller pits and lands (the indents
sentence, the structure is kept the same when it is made on the disk to record data), and using more layers.
translated into English, which can break the grammar.
As an example ‘the blue car1, when in French, might be
directly translated as ‘the car blue’ in English. There 11.10 Holographic imaging
are, however, more sophisticated computer-assisted Holographic imaging, sometimes known as holography, is
translation tools than many of the web-based services, the ability to make holograms. A hologram is a 3D image
which are designed to overcome this issue, such as that is created with photographic projections. A hologram
OmegaT or memoQ. is a free-standing 3D image that you can see around. It
• One of the biggest issues is being able to restructure does not need to mimic depth like a 3D image or virtual
grammar across translations, picking the correct reality. In time, it may become possible to transmit a
meaning of a word that has multiple uses, and also hologram electronically to special devices in our home or
handling issues where there is no actual translation for workplace. Think of the possibilities this could create!
the word in question.
Bj
11.09 Holographic and fourth DISCUSSION POINT
How could the introduction of holograms that can be
generation optical data storage transmitted into our home change the way we live?

o Remember
The traditional methods of data storage, magnetic and
optical, rely on each bit of data being stored as magnetic
11.11 Quantum cryptography
Quantum cryptography is thought to be one of the safest
or optical changes on the surface of the medium.
Holographic data storage works by recording data
ways to encrypt data. Most encryption methods use
throughout the volume of the medium. mathematics and algorithms to encrypt data. Quantum
cryptography uses physics.
Holographic data storage is a developing medium of high
capacity data storage.
Magnetic and optical storage methods store data in a
Q Remember
The process of encryption is carried out in a similar way to
linear way: each bit is placed side by side. Holographic mathematical algorithms, in that it uses a key. This key is
data storage can store bits in parallel, meaning many bits generated using photons, which are tiny packets of light.
The key scrambles the data.
are stored layer upon layer.
Holographic data storage can be beneficial as it can The data will then be transmitted using fibre optic cable.
provide companies with the ability to archive vast The reason the encryption is much safer is because it is
amounts of data fora long period of time. This is because much more difficult to crack the key. In a normal key, a
this medium will degrade a lot less than others. Many mathematic algorithm would be used, but a human could
argue, though, that this benefit may not be completely actually manage to recreate this algorithm and decrypt
worthwhile. Technology develops and moves on so the message. The key in quantum cryptography is made
rapidly that in years to come the technology to read the up of a stream of light particles that individually vibrate in
holographic storage may no longer be available. all different directions. Creating these different vibrations
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

is called polarising. Once transmitted, the light particles Robots can cause issues:
will then be passed through a filter that will reverse the
polarisation and unscramble the data.
• Many people get angry when humans are replaced by
robots to do certain tasks. This takes away jobs from
When the tight photons are polarised, it is not possible people, and often their livelihood.
to accurately measure their activity, it is only possible by • Many people get scared by the ability of robots, especially
using a device to reverse the polarisation. This is what when they are equipped with artificial intelligence. They
makes quantum cryptography a very safe method for fearthat robots could begin to overpower human beings.
data transmission. • Robots cannot respond with any kind of emotion and
At present, quantum cryptography has been successful can only carry out the task(s) that they are programmed
over short distances of around 60 km, but it is yet to prove to do. They can become a little more sophisticated
it can be used without error over longer distances. if they are programmed with a level of true artificial
intelligence. With this, they may be able to respond to
learned situations and experiences and provide a more
11.12 Robotics human-like response.

© Remember
Robotics is the creation of computers that perform tasks
that humans cannot or are less efficient at performing.
m: il'n
The word robot itself has a Slavic origin, robota, which means
slave or work. A robot works by having a processor that
controls its movement. This can be a set task, for example
it *
I &'*ÿ
moving an arm forwards and backwards, repeatedly, or 1“ t 6.
its action can depend upon the environment it is in. This
LA
requires sensors to be attached to the robot and they feed
data back to the processor so it can decide what to do next.
I
© Remember
Robots are heavily used in manufacturing, for example
moving items down a conveyor belt or moving heavy
Figure 11.06 - A robot arm at work in a factory.

items such as car doors or chassis. 11.13 QR codes

When the term robot is used, some people automatically
think of human-like computers from science fiction. This
© Remember
Quick response (QR) codes are a type of barcode that is made
up of black and white squares. They are printed on many
interpretation of a robot does exist and they are able to do
products in orderto give extra information aboutthe object.
many impressive things. One of the most famous examples
of a humanoid robot is ASIMO. It is currently one of the
most remarkable pieces of technology. It is able to visually The QR code is scanned by a camera acting as a QR code
recognise people, understand a lot of people talking at reader, which can then carry out an action, such as linking to
once, run and lift both feet of the ground as it does so, a page of information related to the object.
climb up and down stairs, hop and a great deal more.
Robots can be beneficial:
• They can be used to complete mundane and repetitive
tasks, removing the need for humans to do them.
050
• They can be used for tasks that may possibly be
dangerous to humans or require presence in a

•
dangerous atmosphere, such as in a chemical factory.
They can provide great entertainment value and can be
used for many everyday tasks.
0
Figure 11.07 -QR code.
 Chapter 11: Emerging technologies

QR codes can be used to provide information in a variety Smartwatches are not as popular. This is mainly due
of ways: to their price, but they perform similar functions to
fitness devices, as well as allowing you to pair them
• Some gyms have QR codes on the equipment to show with your smartphone. Currently a range of companies
you how to use them, as well as providing information
make smartwatches, including Microsoft, Apple, Sony,
about what muscle groups are being used.
Motorola and Pebble. Products such as Google Glass
• They can be used on foods to share more about the also count as wearable technology. These headsets can
company who makes the product, or about the product send the wearer news updates, incoming messages and
itself and its nutritional information. information about where they are and directions for
• They are used for marketing purposes. They are printed where they’re going.
in magazines or other advertising outlets to attract a user
into scanning them and viewing the marketing material. There are also some wearable technology T-shirts, often
displaying either a message or a .gif type image that
• They are an easy way of giving the user the choice to
learn more about the product, instead of overloading moves, such as an equaliser for music. These serve no
function otherthan to look stylish and fashionable.
the product packaging itself with information.
• They can be used as a triggerto open different applications. There can be issues with wearable technologies:
They can also register data within the application.
• They are easily subject to moisture, especially fitness
However, QR codes have several issues: devices, and this could affect the operation of the
technology. This could break devices if they are not
• As they are based on image processing, the QR code can
protected or built for dealing with it. They need to be
only be scanned if there is enough light for the code to
carefully designed and be able to deal with this potential
be fully recognised by the camera.
issue, which may increase the cost.
• Companies have to be very careful about QR codes
• Another problem is with connectivity. Using Bluetooth ..
being distorted when they are resized, as the image may
and wireless networks to send data back and forth
not be exactly the same as before and therefore will not
does mean that people may try to hack the connection
scan and link to the information.
and gain access to private information and documents.
• They may require less text placed on a product. However,
they need ample space so as notto interfere with the
recognition of the code. Any text or image that is too
close to the code can make the code very hard to read.
• As QR codes often act as a link, if you do not have a
t SL
stable internet connection, then you may not be able to
access the linked information.

11.14 Wearable computing

Q Remember
Wearable technology can take many forms. However, there
are two major forms with which most people are currently
familiar. These are fitness devices and smartwatches. Figure 11.08 - A range of smartwatches that are available.

Wearable computing, or wearable technology, is either 11.15 Ultra-high definition

clothing or accessories that somehow involve a computer-
based component. Some serve an actual purpose. Others television
are just fashion statements.
Fitness devices are often worn on the wrist, similar to a
watch, but they measure your activity, such as steps taken,
Q Remember
Ultra-high-definition is now firmly established in screen
and monitor definition. This refers to the measure of the
sleeping patterns, calories you have burnt, and they can horizontal number of pixels for the screen, so ultra-wide
even wake you up by vibrating. There are many fitness screens (2560 x 1080) and standard desktop monitors
devices available from several major brands. (1920 x 1080) both count as 2K, which is classed as HD.

SPIV"
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

4K has nearly twice as many pixels horizontally, while

maintaining aspect ratios. It is also possible to get an 8K
screen and this is the up and comingtechnology in ultra-
high-definition. Virtual reality is where a 3D space is made by a
4K and 8K definition is still expensive as they have not computer. The user is then effectively put into that 3D
been adopted widely enough for consumers to benefit space by wearing some sort of technology, usually a
headset, which displays that space and their position
from a cheaper manufacturing process. There are several within it.
companies creating both 4K and 8K televisions and
computer monitors. Cinema screens are sometimes 4K
depending on the size, so you may have already had an The headset uses two camera feeds, one for the left eye
and one for the right, in an attempt to mimic the human
experience with 4K resolution without realising it.
field of vision. The user can then walk around the room
The main issue with 4K and 8K is simply content. While and possibly interact with it. This can require handsets or
films are able to be high resolution and many have been gloves to monitor the user’s hand position.
filmed in 4K for quite a while now, everyday television
Currently there are many game-related virtual reality
programmes and many video games are often not made
projects, such as the Oculus Rift, HTC Vive and
at such a high resolution. Users therefore do not buy 4K
PlayStation VR. As many games already take place in a 3D
and 8K devices because there is not enough content and
environment, it is often a case of splitting the camera view
creators of television programmes do not create 4K and
to match the user’s field of vision. While the headsets do
8K programmes as it would prove very expensive and not
many consumers can currently view them. It is also very place the user into the game, there is no way of interacting
difficult to stream content that is ultra-high-definition with the game other than by controllers, such as keyboard
because of the amount of bandwidth required. Many and mouse or console controller. Google Cardboard is
people stream their movies and television programmes a very inexpensive and simple virtual reality experience
from online providers and this is a further barrier to the that is already available. This requires users to wrap their
regular use of ultra-high-definition. mobile phone in a cardboard structure, and, by using
certain apps, they can create a simple virtual reality
experience.
Virtual reality also has many applications outside games.
For example, several medical procedures make use of
Vision enhancement is a field of technology which is able
to restore, vision, one of our five senses, to those who
virtual reality by allowing doctors to practice surgery. This
can allow them to gain confidence and experience, and
have lost it. The ultimate goal of vision enhancement is
to be able to provide blind people with images of their
become more comfortable with procedures.
surroundings so that they can work and enjoy themselves Virtual reality has been used in several training
just as others do. programmes, including flight simulators to give pilots
However, the field is not solely focused on those who are
experience in dealing with certain scenarios and in
blind. A recent development in the field has allowed those demonstrating military situations.
who are colour-blind to see the world in the same way that Virtual reality does pose some issues:
everyone else sees it. This means that they are better able
to distinguish between colours and in some cases see new
• Achieving calibration between the camera and user has
not yet been perfected. Many users have mentioned
colours that were muted before.
issues with motion sickness because of the difference
between what they feel and what they can actually
see.
Vision enhancement is normally provided in the form of • Virtual reality can also cause users to injure themselves if
a type of glasses or lenses. These alter the stimulus that they are not in a large, empty space, as they could easily
enters through the eyes and filters it in a way that can walk into objects and hurt themselves.
enhance a person’s vision. The glasses or lenses can be
tailored to the person and their current level of vision for
• In some cases, users have experienced seizures
greatest effectiveness.
because of virtual reality, so epileptic users must
be very cautious.
 Chapter 11: Emerging technologies
I

There is a constant race to create the next better, more Discarding technology into landfill is bad for the
efficient, more glamorous, more functional technology. environment. If people choose to do this the amount
This means that more and more technologies are of landfill created will be great. Some countries have
emerging all the time. As a result many technologies, such incentives in place to recycle old technology and
as mobile devices, have become far more throwaway this can discourage people from discarding the old
than they were. The desire to have the newest technology technologies into landfill and having a negative impact
encourages people to discard the items they have in on the environment.
favour of the functionality and services provided by that
new technology. This creates a problem with how to deal
with the technology that is being discarded. 11.18 Summary
Technology is constantly developing and affecting our life
V in a variety of ways.
From faster internet speeds, more accurate and safer
/ systems, to enhanced enjoyment through improved
entertainment, technology is having an impact on
areas of our lives such as sport, manufacturing and
medicine.
y

IK*-: It is also having both a positive and a negative

effect on our environment. With technology advancing
at such a rate, there is a fear it will become more

< and more throwaway, causing our landfill sites to

increase.

*
Figure 11.09 - The Samsung Gear virtual reality experience.

Review questions
1 Discuss the impact 3D printing has on medicine. [8]
2 Evaluate the impact of artificial intelligence being used to create self-driving cars. [8]
3 Discuss the impact of emerging technologies on our personal entertainment. [8]
 V

Chapter 12
The role and impact of IT in society
Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

m explain how technology is used in e-business and evaluate the impact of technology on e-business, society and learning
evaluate the impact of digital currency
discuss how organisations mine data
evaluate how social networking has changed social patterns
describe video conferencing and the hardware and software used
describe web conferencing and the hardware and software used
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of video conferencing on employers and employees
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of web conferencing on employers and employees
describe teleworking
discuss the effects of teleworking on employers and employees
 Chapter 12: The role and impact of IT in society

products end up being returned. This may also increase

the amount of vehicles used.
Transaction: the action of buying or selling an item or service
Public key: used in encryption to encrypt data
Private key: used in encryption to decrypt data
12.03 Online banking
Online banking is a computerised version of the majority
of services that a normal bank would offer. It is a way for
12.01 What is an e-business? customers to manage their bank account and use other

An e-business is one that performs either all or the majority

of its business online. Large online companies such as Q Remember
As well as buying and selling goods, the ability to bank
Amazon are e-businesses, even though they supply online is ever increasing. The speed and capacity of
physical products, mostoftheirtransactions occur computers allows for very complex online models to be
online. Another example is gaming businesses such as the set up to better help serve customers.
Xbox and PlayStation online stores. These are businesses
that are purely online and deal with digital products. banking services electronically via the internet. Online
banking is also known as internet banking or e-banking.
Remember A customer’s bank provides access to online banking using
Commerce has changed hugely through the introduction a website. A customer requests an online banking account
of technology. Online business is now commonplace from their bank. The bank will set up electronic access
and is often seen as an easier way of buying goods and to the customer’s account and send the customer login
services than in a physical store. Goods and services are details to access the account. The customer will enter
often cheaper online because of cost savings from not i.
these login details into the website each time they want to
needing shop space and reduced utility bills.
log onto their online bank account. Many banks now also
provide access to an online bank account using a mobile
app. Customers download the app onto their mobile
12.02 Online shopping
device, set up access to their account by entering their

Q Remember
Information technology has caused the rise of online
personal details and use their login details (or set up new
ones) to access their online account using the app.
shopping by providinga more convenient platform on which Online banking services now allow people to check their
to sell items toa customer or purchase items asa customer. bank account quickly using technology. They can carry out
most banking services online, such as:
One of the main advantages of this is how quickly the
• checkingtheir bank balance
customer is able to receive products. Online shopping
has become even more popular with the rise of smart • viewing bank statements
devices, because of applications that allow you to order • setting up direct debits
anything online by using your phone, regardless of where • applying for loans and overdrafts
you are. This is even more convenient for the customer as • paying bills
they could be out shopping, not able to find their product • transferring money between accounts.
in store, but able to order it from the online store straight
To be able to use services such as these, people would
away from their phone.
previously have needed to go into a bank branch. Often
Online shopping can be better for the environment, as they would only have one or two local bank branches, so
less vehicles may be used as people are not driving to their choice may have been limited if they wanted their
shops. This will depend on whether the amount of people branch to be close to home. Also, those people that live in
travelling to the shops is reduced by people shopping remote locations may have had to travel a great distance in
online. Some people argue that the amount of vehicles order to get to a bank. The introduction and developments
on the road that are delivering the online shopping does in online banking have allowed people to have more choice
not make it much better for the environment. It is also over which bank to choose and saves people a lot of time
very difficult for people to see the quality of products in using banking services. There are many benefits brought
online or check the size of them. This can mean that many about by online banking, these include:
 - - 53
--

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• Needing to visit a branch less as many services can be check the security of any online website that you use to
used online. carry out any financial transactions.
• Avoiding queues in bank branches.
•

•
The ability to use banking services 24 hours a day,
7 days a week.
Using banking services without leaving home.
o
I TIP
The simplest way to check that the website has a secure
• Viewing transaction online without needing to wait for protocol is by looking for https:// at the start of a website
paper statements to be delivered. address, or the security padlock symbol.

Some banks have chosen to encourage online banking

by offering better deals on interest rates and loans online.
They have done this as online banking can help cut their
costs, from printing statements to the number of branches
they need to have.

12.04 Electronic funds transfer i

Information technology can be used in many areas of
business. Many business transactions are carried out
through electronic funds transfer. This is when money is
transferred from one account to another electronically.
This transaction could be from a person paying for
their purchase with a credit card. No actual money will Figure 12.01 - The security padlock symbol that can be
change hands when doing this. The money will be moved checked for on e-business websites.
electronically from their bank account to the business’s
bank account. Another method of electronic funds transfer 12.05 Automatic stock control
is direct debit. This is when a person sets up an agreement
with a business that allows the business to take a set In business, information technology can be used in ways
amount of money from their bank account. This could be other than as a method of purchasing goods and making
just once or could be on a regular basis, for example each payments. It can be used to control other elements such
month. Many people choose to pay their bills in this way. as stock levels. A business that sells or manufactures
This type of transfer can be beneficial as it means that the products will most likely need to keep track of the number
person does not need to remember to pay the business and type of products it has in stock. Stock will most likely
each month, as the money will automatically be transferred. be stored in a warehouse or stock room and it may not
be easy to see how much stock a business has at any
All of these services are, however, not without their issues. moment in time. Therefore a business needs a way to
Online transactions are a cause for concern for many automatically measure the amount of stock it has. It is
people because of the safety of their financial details being important they are able to measure their stock levels for
stored on a company’s or several companies’ servers. several reasons including:
Financial details in the hands of hackers is a great concern.
• holding too much stock means more storage space for
This is identity theft in its very simple and most common the stock is needed and this can be very costly
form. This is a very serious issue. If you use a credit
card, you may not notice fraudulent activity until you
• having too little stock in storage may mean that stock
might run out before more can be ordered and sales
start getting asked for large payments that you cannot
could be affected as a result.
identify. If someone obtains simple personal details such
as full name, current address, credit card number and Products that are purchased can have a barcode that
date of birth, they can do great financial damage. If they will contain data about the product. This data, when
get access to full financial details, then they could have scanned, can be used to automatically control stock
enough information to do many things, such as take out levels. It can look to see what the product is that is being
a loan, access other accounts and even take out a lease sold and deduct one of those products from the stock
or make very large purchases. It is therefore imperative to level available in the warehouse. This means it is easy to
 impact of IT in society

see how much stock for a product a business currently While digital currency can quickly overcome the issue of
has in its stock room or warehouse. This system can then exchange rates, it has a level of anonymity that appeals
also be programmed to reorder stock when it gets below a to criminals. It is used in a lot of transactions involving
certain level. This means that a business does not need to criminal activity, especially on the dark web (a collection
manually count and reorder stock when it is running out. of websites that will not appear when using search engines
As new stock comes into the warehouse, the barcode on and hide the IP address of the server that runs them). This
the product can be scanned and the total stored for that is because it is far less likely for the criminal to be traced as
product will be updated. This means that the business the transaction is anonymous.
can measure how much new stock has arrived in the
Digital currencies can also fluctuate a great deal more
warehouse and add it to the previous total. than most standard currencies. This could result in a
By automatically monitoring stock, a company can great amount of money being made for those people who
perform checks to see whether the stock the system invested by using the currency at the right time, but also
shows they should have actually matches the physical a great deal of money being lost by those people who
stock they have manually counted. If the two stock levels invested at the wrong time.
do not match, for example the physical stock level is lower

ft
than the one shown on the system, this could highlight
possible theft from the store. The business could then
monitor this to establish how and why it is occurring. r
Automatic stock control can be carried out in two ways. The
stock control system could be real-time or batch. If it is a
real-time system it will process each addition or deduction
A
to stock as it is sold or enters the warehouse. This type of 1
1
stock control system is used by businesses such as large V- * 203
supermarkets. This is because they sell large volumes of
stock and need to restock regularly. A stock control system
can also be batch. In this kind of system each item of stock
sold, when scanned, is recorded in a database in a file
called a transaction file. At a suitable time, normally during
an off peak period for the business, for example when it is Figure 12.02 - The currency symbol that is used for the
closed, the transaction files will be processed and a master digital currency Bitcoin.
file in the database will be updated.
TASK
12.06 Digital currency Research two further digital currencies.
Digital currencies are an internet-based form of money.
They have a value that can fluctuate much like normal
currency. However, they can be used instantly and without
12.07 Data mining
the need for exchange rates. This can be seen as beneficial Data mining is the act of sorting through large sets of data
when tradinginternationally. to identify patterns and establish relationships. The goal
of mining data is to extract information from sets of data
that can be used to inform and instruct future decisions,
Q Remember
The simplest way to check that the website has a
by identifying past and present trends.

secure protocol is by looking for https:// at the start of

a website address, or the security padlock symbol. The
digital currency most people are familiar with is Bitcoin.
Q Data mining involves finding trends and then applying a
This allows people to trade anonymously as it requires no theory to new data sets in order to try and validate the
link to your identity. Bitcoin does not keep data on their changes that are occurring. The overall goal is to be able
customers, it only tracks the value attached to an address to predict changes before they actually occur. This means
that is made up of two keys, a public one and private one. that a business can be in the right place at the right time.
 mr Tj

Cambridge International AS and A level IT i

Data mining normally involves analysing data in different on many different topics so that other people can post
ways. These include: replies. Many people use this to get advice on a variety of
subjects and areas of interest. The forms of communication
• Anomaly detection - identifying unusual data that may in each of these services is slightly different and allows for
require further investigation.
different forms of expression. Most have developed to try
• Association rule - finding relationships between variables. and cater for people who want different things from social
This is how recommendation services work forshopping networking websites. Access to social media sites can be an
sites. issue because content disseminated can be inaccessible, for
• Cluster detection - identifying groups and subgroups example, frequent hashtags, abbreviations or acronyms are
in data. not easily decipherable for people with certain disabilities.
• Classification - classifying data into existing groups or
There is also a great concern for young children growing
categories. This is how a spam filter works for an email.
up, who see these sites, and the communication that
• Regression - creating predictive models based on a range takes place on them, as normal. There is a fear that
ofvariables.
this will leave them unable to recognise social cues
Data mining is a huge step forward for businesses. If they and body language, harming their ability to socialise
are able to predict what will be wanted beforehand, they are properly. It is also easier for them to access, or be
able to make the most profit by changing what they offer targeted by, inappropriate content or communication.
early, to easily meet the new demand.

12.08 Social networking Q Remember

Social networking websites are used for many purposes,
Social networking has developed a great deal in a very both good and bad. They have allowed many people to
short period of time. Originally this was limited to very stay in touch over great distances and with greater ease.
However, they leave people open to abuse from issues such
simplistic forms of communication such as email, forums as online bullying, identify theft and other criminal acts.
and chat rooms. Instant messaging and email were early
forms of social networking and both still exist today. Many
more forms of social networking have now developed, Another issue with social networking websites is that they
such as websites like Facebook, Twitter and Tumblr. These enable companies to track and assess your online data
later methods make use of earlier features, such as instant to target advertising. For example, if a company wants to
messaging, which is a form of social networking that advertise a sports product, they can find out how many
enables real-time text communication over the internet - people on Facebook are interested in that product, and
either between two people or, more recently, between information about them. Some see this as a benefit as
groups of people. They also include newer features such as they are only presented with what they would like to buy.
blogs and microblogs. Forums have also become a popular Flowever, this involves tracking and sometimes selling
social networking method and are used to post questions your personal data and online actions and some people
feel this is extremely intrusive. It is also limited in the sense
that not all of a company’s target audience will necessarily
be on a particular social networking site.

TASK
Research how websites track your online activity

r
and use it to target you with advertising on social
network sites.

4 Blogs are also a form of social networking. They are a more

I one-way communication channel as the person blogs about
their life, interests or other topics. The word blog comes
Figure 12.03 - Taking and posting a ‘selfie’ is a popular way from web log. Blogging is probably older than you think. It
of using social networking sites. developed towards the end of the 1990s with services such
 Chapter 12: The role and impact of IT in society

as Open Diary, LiveJournal and Blogger all launching during To carry out a video conference, a range of equipment is
1998 to 1999. Blogging started as the work of one person on needed. This includes:
a single topic. These were often quite personal, such as an
individual opinion on changes in their industry, or something
• a computer system
more personal, such as events in their life. • a web cam
• a microphone
Bloggingthen became even more popular and the amount
• speakers
of authors and subjects increased. Blogging, in fact, has
• a good broadband connection
become so universal as a form of social networking that it
has expanded into several formats. Microblogging is a new • video conferencing software.
format of blogging and is carried out on sites such as Twitter, Specialist video conferencing systems can be purchased
Facebook and Tumblr. Microblogging is when people use that incorporate all the equipment needed to make a
short and frequent posts to inform their followers about video conferencing call.
what they are doing. Video blogs or ‘vlogs’ have become a
Video conferencing has a range of advantages and
popular video format on sites such as YouTube. The content
disadvantages as shown in Table 12.01.
is the same as a normal blog but, with the added visual and
audio cues, points can be presented more coherently. This Advantages Disadvantages
can feel more personal as the person is vocally describing Employers do not need A video conferencing
their passion for a subject. Blogging has become such a huge to pay expenses for system that is suitable for
part of social interaction that some people are able to make employees to travel to business use can be very
money through it orturn it into an actual business. meeting venues._ costly to buy initially.
The effects of these forms of social networking have Meetings can be carried Employees may be in
their benefits and drawbacks. The ability to find others out, without the need to different time zones and
who think as you do can be a comfort to people because travel, between employees this could mean that some
humans like to feel part of a group. Followers of certain from many different employees will need to be
social media figures describe themselves as fans, and offices. present for the conference
can feel as if they are friends. Flowever, those figures outside working hours.
have sometimes abused this by launching online People can be seen as well It may not be possible to
hate campaigns against those with whom they have as heard, so additional see all people involved in
disagreements, rallying support from otherfans. This has conversation aspects can the meeting at the same
also happened in reverse, with some people attacking be seen, such as body time, using the camera.
others even without the public figure wanting them to do language. This would not happen in a
so, because of a public disagreement between the two. face to face meeting.
Social networking has brought the world together in many
Documents can be shown, If any person’s equipment
different ways. At the same time, it has also created some
shared and emailed. breaks down they are
very large divides. The anonymity that people are able to
This can encourage the not able to be part of the
have online, if they choose to, can cause them to do or say
generation of ideas from meeting and may miss
things that they would never do in a face-to-face situation.
employees. _ vital contribution.
It is also nearly impossible to delete data from the internet
once it is published, so once someone has posted text, A very reliable and fast
photos or videos to a social networking site, it is extremely internet connection is
difficult forthem to take it back. required to effectively carry
out a video conference.
This can be an extra cost.
12.09 Video conferencing
Table 12.01 -Advantages and disadvantages of video
Video conferencing is when computers are used to provide
conferencing.
a video link between two or more people. Previously
people made conference calls by logging into a telephone Ultimately, a business will need to look at the benefits of
based system and several people could speak on a using video conferencing against the drawbacks of not
telephone call at any one time. Video conferencing aims to meeting face to face. Video conferencing may mean global
provide this same service, but with the added addition of meetings between employees are much easier to organise
video, so people can see each other as they speak. and cost less because of the lack of travel. Flowever, the
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

equipment to set up the facilities for a video conference is Advantages Disadvantages

costly and if it breaks then meetings are heavily disrupted.
The host controls the It is difficult to tell if a
content on screen and can person is closely following
12.10 Web conferencing make sure everyone keeps the web conference as they
A web conference is another form of carrying out a on task, despite not being mostly cannot be seen.
meeting or event. It is a real-time communication where a in the same location .
number of people are viewing the same content on their Web conferencing saves It can be time consuming
computer screen at the same time. A business may set up time that would be spent for the host to set up all
a web conference to hold a meeting, make a presentation travelling to see, for the content and the ‘room’
or provide online education, amongst other services. example the presentation. for the web conference to
take place.
To carry out a web conference, a range of equipment is
needed. This includes: Web conferencing saves Web conferencing software
travel costs for each of the can be very costly.
• a computer system attendees.
• a web cam (this is optional and only needed if video is Pre-recorded content The host will likely need
required for the conference) can be used in the web a lot of training to use
• a microphone (this is mostly necessaryforthe conference. This saves the web conferencing
host, but optional for other attendees, unless voice the host repeating part of software. Some attendees
communication is required) the content each time the may also need training in
• speakers presentation is given. how to navigate around
• a good broadband connection the ‘room’.

m; web conferencing software.

The web conference host or presenter will lead the web

conference. They will mostly control what is shown on
Documentation can
be made available for
attendees to download as
a quick and easy way to
If an attendee has a poor
internet connection, they
may not have a very good
experience in the web
the screen. To see the same screen, each attendee will be
share resources. conference. They may miss
sent (normally by email) a link to enter the web conference
vital elements.
meeting. This will normally require the person to
download the necessary software to do this, if they have Table 12.02 - Advantages and disadvantages of web
not attended a web conference using that software before. conferencing.
The link will take the attendee to what is often referred to
as a virtual room. To get into the room they may need to 12.11 Teleworking
enter login details, if they are provided with them. Once
Teleworking is essentially using IT to work away from
in the room they will be able to see the content the host an office. Employees of a business use IT to work from
chooses to display. The host can upload documents to their home or another location. This could include using
the web conferencing room. These documents may be
their PC, laptop, tablet, mobile and internet connection,
displayed on the screen for attendees to view, they can
amongst other devices, to carry out their work.
also be made available for download if the host chooses
to do this. Teleworking has a number of advantages and
disadvantages for an employee. It allows an employee
The host will mostly control the content on screen, they more freedom over the hours they want to work. It can
may speak to attendees as they do so. The host can hand
give them freedom as to what time they want to start and
over control of some content on screen to another person
finish their work. They can also take a break and have
attending. They may choose to do this if they want the their lunch whenever they want to. This means they
attendees to read through a document at their own pace. have more freedom to organise other elements of their
This way each attendee can scroll through the document days, such as family commitments around their work, or
at a different rate.
vice-versa. Employees may still be restricted to company
Web conferencing has a range of advantages and working hours though if their employers requires this.
disadvantages as listed in Table 12.02. Employees may also find that there are too many
 Chapter 12: The role and impact of IT in society

distractions in their home and their productivity may of the officials judging the match. Some feel this is a
suffer as a result. welcome addition to the game as it can help the decision
making process become more accurate. Some feel that
If an employee can work from home, this can save on
the system used is not very accurate and will often provide
costs as they will not need to travel to their place of work
incorrect outcomes as a result.
every day. Reducing this travel can also have a positive
effect on the environment as not as much fuel is being
used by transport, so, in this way, the carbon footprint is TASK
lowered. However, the employee will need to use extra
Research the use of Hawk-Eye in tennis.
electricity being at home all day, so the effect may be
countered by this, thus harming the environment.
Teleworking has a number of advantages and
disadvantages for an employer. If an employer does not 12.14 Technology in medicine
have as many employees in an office at any one time, In medicine, technology has given us the ability to monitor
they may be able to have a smaller building, less facilities patients and make sure they are healthy. We’re able to
and use less energy. This will reduce costs forthem, quite measure their heart rate, analyse DNA samples to see if
considerably in some cases. However an employer may an infection is present, and even use technology to train
feel that they have less control over their employees doctors and nurses in how to perform certain procedures
as they cannot see them to monitor how much they through simulations.
are working. They may also have to worry about the
confidentiality of any sensitive documents. They will need Technology has enabled many advancements to occur
to rely on an employee to store and them safely if they in medicine. It is now possible to provide people with
have them in their home or another location. artificial limbs that can be controlled through the use of

12.12 Technology in society

Technology has changed so many aspects of society, and
technology. This means that people who previously had
debilitating disabilities can be provided with a new life
through the use of these artificial limbs. They could be
given the ability to walk again or regain the use of their
m
these effects are mostly global. Many of us own one if not arms and hands, allowing them to live a fuller life. This
several technology devices. Technology also features in a type of treatment has been very beneficial to soldiers who
great variety of industries. Manufacturing, sport, teaching, have been wounded, by providing them with the ability
medicine, banking and commerce have all been heavily to use their wounded limbs again, or have them replaced
affected by developments in technology. altogether.
The use of nanotechnology in medicine has provided
12.13 Technology in sport great advancements, especially in the use of drugs to
treat disease. Nanotechnology is when technology is
In sport, technology has been introduced to aid referees
used to manipulate individual atoms and molecules. In
in making important decisions that could change the
medicine, it can be used to target the delivery of drugs in
outcomes of games. In rugby union, the referee will
a very precise way. Particles can be engineered to locate
regularly use technology to see if the ball was put over
particular cells in the body to which to deliver the drug,
the goal line for a try to be scored. This was very difficult
cancer cells for example. This can help to reduce any
to judge without the use of technology, as the referee
damage or unnecessary treatment being delivered to
was often having to see around a pile of players trying to
healthy cells.
aid or stop the try occurring. Technology has been both
welcomed and criticised in sport for this use. People The use of technology in medicine is constantly
support its use as it means the outcome of games are developing because of the vast benefits it can bring. One
often more accurate, as decisions made can be carefully development in progress is the use of smart devices that
considered based on recorded footage that can be are designed to be implanted into different parts of the
accessed. Other feel that the introduction of this kind of body, such as the brain or heart. By monitoring the body,
technology stops the flow of games and makes them less these devices can detect health issues a longtime before
enjoyable to watch. Technology is also used in sports they fully develop, for example Parkinson’s disease. This
such as tennis, to allow players to challenge the decisions can enable treatment to start much sooner and this may
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

prove more effective, or avoid the disease developing 12.16 Technology-enhanced

altogether.
learning
Teaching has not only been improved by technology, but
now also involves subjects such as information technology
and computer science. Computers are a feature in most
classrooms now and teaching can also be provided at a
distance using online courses. Students can be provided
with resources and guidance online, and with services
that allow them to upload work to a portal where it will be
marked. Interactive whiteboards can be used to enhance
% the teaching and the demonstrations that are being carried
out. This means that students may benefit from a greater
understanding of the subject because of an increase in the
quality of the demonstrations that can be carried out and
the level at which resources can be shared.
A large part of technology’s growing influence on society
Figure 12.04 - Technology is used in a great variety of areas is the introduction of online learning and online courses.
in medicine. There are many tutorials available on websites such as
YouTube, and more educationally oriented sites like Lynda.
com. There is no shortage of people willing to teach and
12.15 Technology in learn online through small courses on websites such as

a manufacturing
Manufacturing uses robotics to create assembly lines of
products such as cars, where heavy elements like the
Codecademy for learning computer coding, or offering
accredited courses on websites such as Coursera and
Udacity. This means that people can now gain access to
teaching often without a fee, other than the cost of their
chassis are moved to an area where humans can then fit
internet connection. This also means they are able to
items to them to build a car. This has meant that humans
learn at their own pace and in their own time. With sites
can be removed from working on the more dangerous
such as YouTube, they also have a greater level of visual
elements of manufacturing. By using robotics in
aids available when learning. The quality of the resources
manufacturing, it is possible to create a more consistent available through these sites can often differ greatly. There
and accurate product. This is because the robot can be is also no governing body looking at the level of teaching
programmed to produce a product and will do this to the that is taking place, as there often is with schools. This
same standard repeatedly. A human may differ in their means it may be difficult and time-consuming for a person
standard of production depending on the mood they are to pick through all the tutorials they can find to get one
in or how tired they feel that day. Also, if a manufacturing that is of a high quality. It could also mean that a person
system is completely robotic, it can run for much longer could use a tutorial that teaches them incorrectly.
periods of time and will not require the same level of
rest as a human. With the correct level of maintenance, One of the biggest online learning methods is through
robotic manufacturing could be set to run for 24 hours a the use of massive open online courses (MOOC). These
are courses that are not limited in the number of people
day.
that can access them and have open access using the
Some feel that the introduction of robotics into web. MOOCs are mostly free and will be used by a large
manufacturing has resulted in a loss of jobs for people. number of learners of a topic at any one time. They will
This has often created animosity toward the use of often include filmed lectures and other resources, and
robotics in manufacturing, despite their benefits. Also, have forums that can be used to interact with other
if a company cannot afford the robotic equipment, learners and the educators. MOOCs allow people in similar
this can sometimes put them at a competitive industries to learn more about their industry from other
disadvantage against those companies in their people within that industry. They allow this to happen at
industry that can. the convenience of the learner.
 Chapter 12: The role and impact of IT in society

Online courses can vary a lot in terms of quality, cost Information technology has helped with the rise of online
and the subjects offered. Whether it is for self-interest or shopping by providing a more convenient platform on
accreditation, it is often much easierto learn at your own which to sell items to a customer or purchase items as a
pace and in your own time. It can sometimes be difficult customer. Online shopping has also become even more
to find the exact course you want as there are so many popular with the rise of smart devices. This is because
available. Another issue with online learning is finding there are applications available that allow you to order
effective teachers that are able to break down problems anything online, using your phone, regardless of where
and help students in the process. This is partly because of you are.
the difficulty in finding someone who is capable, but also Online banking is growing, with many banking services
it can be because of the way how the customers want to now being available online.
learn. Do they prefer to be lectured or do they want a small
bit of information a nd then be set off on a piece of work Digital currencies are an internet-based form of money.
and learn as they go? The currency with which most people are familiar is
Bitcoin.

Q Remember
One of the greatest benefits of people being able to learn
Data mining involves finding trends and then applying a
theory to new data sets in order to try and validate the
through the use of technology is that it is easier for people changes that are occurring. The overall goal is to be able
to improve themselves or help their own career. to predict changes before they actually occur.
The use of social networking is ever growing. It has
12.17 Summary had both a positive and a negative effect on our social
An e-business is one that performs either all or the patterns, bringing us closer together, yet creating issues in
majority of their business online. They use a variety of our lives at the same time.
technologies to carry out their business transactions Technology can be used to enhance learning in a great
online. E-business is constantly growing as it has many way. Education is now more accessible than ever with a
benefits to both the business and the customer. variety of free and paid-for courses available online.

Review questions
1 Explain what is meant by a digital currency. [3]
2 Discusstheimpactofonlineshoppingforthecustomer. [6]
3 Evaluate the effect that social networking has had on our social patterns. [6]
4 Explain what is meant by data mining. [4]
5 Describe two benefits of software-based training. [4]
 Hi
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-08

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

describe components within a network

understand bandwidth, bit rate, bit streaming and the importance of bandwidth
understand different methods of data transmission
describe protocols
understand security issues and the need for security measures and evaluate their effectiveness
understand the need for data protection
understand how satellite communications work and are used

Si
.

I
 Chapter 13: Networks

13.01 Network components Biometric: unique physical characteristics of a person that

can be used by a computers for identification purposes
RFID: radio-frequency identification
Network: a set of computers and devices connected together NFC: nearfield communication
so they can communicate and share resources Protocol: a set of rules that ensure data is transferred between
Switch: connects devices on a network devices correctly
Packet: a set of bits which represent data to be transmitted
Hub: similar to a switch but does not examine each data
packet that is received; instead simply transmits each data
packet to all connected ports
o TIP
In order for devices in a network to communicate with each
Wireless access point: connects Wi-Fi enabled devices to a
network other and share resources, certain components are required.
Wi-Fi: wireless Ethernet which allows devices on a LAN to
connect wirelessly
Data packet
NIC: network interface card which connects the motherboard
of a device to a network cable An Internet Protocol (IP) data packet will include header
WNIC: wireless network interface card which enables a device information and the data that is being sent. Within the header
to use Wi-Fi information will be the source address, destination address,
Router: a switch which can forward data to the correct IP version being used (e.g. IPv4), the length of the data
location in the most efficient manner packet and an identification number to enable packets to be
LAN: local area network which connects devices in a single sequenced if they have been fragmented during transmission.
building or area The source address and destination address will both be 32
WAN: wide area network which connects devices that are bit IP addresses (if using IP v4), for example, 212.35.0.89. The
geographically remote source is the original device that sent the data packet and the
Repeater: amplifies the signal on a network cable. It is also recipient is the final device that will receive the data packet.
another name for an active hub The IP addresses do not change during transmission.
Gateway: connects two different types of networks
An IP packet resides within an Ethernet packet that also
Bridge: connects two LANs
includes a TCP packet. The Ethernet packet also includes a
Firewall: prevents external devices from gaining unauthorised
receiver MAC (machine address code) address and sender
access to a computer system
MAC address. The sender MAC address will change during
Server: a computer on a network which provides resources
that can be used by client devices transmission to the address of the most recent device
Virus: software that replicates itself in order to corrupt data
each time the data packet passes through a device such
as a router. The receiver MAC address will change to the
Bandwidth: the range of frequencies available for a
communication method which determines the transmission rate address of the next device (known as hop) on its route to
Bit rate: the number of bits that can be transferred per second the final destination.
Streaming: a method of displaying sound orvideo without
waiting for the whole file to be downloaded Switch
Circuit switching: a single communication path which is
opened for the duration of data transmission
Packet switching: data that is broken down into packets
that are sent through different routes and reassembled by the
recipient
Message switching: a method of transmitting data through
intelligent node
Infrared: a communication method used by most remote
— :
Figure 13.01 - Switch.
:::::::
control devices A switch connects devices on a network. It is a necessary
Fibre optic: a fine strand of glass that transmits data as light beams
component in any wired Ethernet network. A switch will
Laser: an intense beam of light used for transmitting data have several ports into which network cables are plugged.
Bluetooth: a short range wireless communication standard Each network cable will connect to another device (e.g.
printer, computer, another switch). A switch examines each
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

data packet that it receives and sends the data packet to the device can transmit data to the wireless access point,
desired port where it will be transferred to the next device. which will then either send the data on to the switch or
directly to another wireless enabled device that is using
Hub the same wireless access point. Similarly, data that is
transmitted from elsewhere in the network can be sent to
a wireless access point to be transmitted wirelessly to a
wireless enabled device.

i Network interface card

I ¥ In order to connect a network cable to a computer or
other device, a network interface card (NIC) is required.
This is a set of electronics on a circuit board that connects
to the motherboard of the computer, although many
!I !!«>It EM motherboards now include the NIC circuitry as standard.
Each NIC has a unique address called a media access
control (MAC) address.

I ft, Wireless network interface card

ff

Figure 13.02 -Hub.

A hub is similar to a switch but it does not examine each

data packet that is received. Instead, it simply transmits
each data packet to all connected ports. A hub can also be
classed as a multi-port repeater

Wireless access point

fT £
‘
VL I
s,7

t *:

Computer]

Switch ] Wireless enabled

I ] Computer | devices
\
Wireless
access point

Figure 13.04 - Wireless network interface card.

A wireless NIC (WNIC) makes a device ‘wireless enabled’

Figure 13.03 - Wireless access point.
meaning that it can connect to a network wirelessly
A wireless access point connects Wi-Fi (wireless) through a wireless access point. It is most often part of the
enabled devices to a network. It uses radio waves at motherboard circuitry of a laptop, printer, tablet or mobile
frequencies of 2.4GHz or 5 GHz to transmit data. A wireless phone. However, it is also possible to add a wireless NIC to a
access point is usually connected to a switch by a cable, non-wireless enabled device by using a wireless dongle to a
although it is possible in the home to have a combined Universal Serial Bus (USB) port or an expansion card to the
wireless access point/switch/router. A wireless enabled motherboard. Each wireless NIC has a unique MAC address.
 !
Chapter 13: Networks

Router A repeater is another name for an active hub. It boosts

the signal along a network cable. A booster requires a

J
power source and receives data packets from an incoming
network cable. It will then retransmit those data packets
along its outgoing network cable. This is necessary when
long cable lengths are required (typically over 100 m)
and the signal would not be strong enough to reach the
destination on its own. A similar degradation of signal
happens with wireless access points and so wireless
iiia:!!:! repeaters carry out the same function with wireless signals.

Gateway
A gateway connects two networks of a different type. It
Figure 13.05 - Domestic router. is typically used as a router to connect a LAN to a WAN.
When data leaves one network to move onto another
A router is often used as the gateway to a network and network, it must passthrough the gateway.
in most cases connects the local area network (LAN) to
the internet via an internet service provider (ISP). An ISP Bridge
is wide area network (WAN) that provides a connection A bridge connects two physically separate LANs of the
to the internet. A router’s role is to determine the most same type together so that devices on one LAN can
efficient route to use to transfer data to its destination, communicate with devices on the other LAN.
and in order to do this it needs to store the addresses of all
devices connected to it. In domestic use, a router is often Firewall
combined with a switch and wireless access point. A firewall prevents external users gaining unauthorised
access to a computer system. It is usually positioned at
the gateway to a network and will examine alt incoming
data to determine if it should be allowed. Data that is
i!
Computer |
not allowed will be prevented from gaining access to the
Switch network. A firewall can also prevent certain types of data

P
| Computer Router |-/l\-1 WAN |
from exiting a network. As well as preventing unauthorised
users from gaining access, a firewall can prevent malicious
data packets from causing disruption to a computer
Figure 13.06 - Router. system such as a denial of service (DOS) attack.
A firewall is often configured as part of a router but it can
Repeater also be software that is installed on a proxy server or
individual computers. A proxy server would sit between
the gateway and the LAN so that data cannot pass
through to the network without being examined by its
firewall software. Firewall software can also be installed on
individual computers in order to prevent any unauthorised
access or malicious attack from within a network.

i
g/
Servers
A server is a computer on a network which provides
resources that can be used by client devices. Individual
servers or groups of servers can perform a variety of
functions depending on how they are configured.
fete
A file server’s role is to make files available for users on
Figure 13.07 - Repeater. the network. These files might be for individuals who
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

have access to their own user area for file storage or they it’s actually the number of bits per second that the line is
may be files that are shared between groups of users. capable of transmitting, rather than the actual speed of
Depending on the permissions given to each user or group transmission. It is therefore the maximum possible speed
of users, files can be created, read, modified and deleted. of data transfer. The transmission speed is often referred
to as the bit rate.

TASK
Explore the files available on your school’s file server.
Find out what documents are available to you and what
permissions you have. Ask your teacher or technician A 1Gbps line in a network is capable of
what other documents are available to other user groups transmitting a maximum of 1billion bps. A
and the permissions that they have. 38 Mbps fibre optic internet connection from an
ISP is capable of transmitting a maximum of 38
million bits per second. If a computer within the
A print server deals with all the print jobs on a network. network is downloading data from the internet,
Each time a client computer sends a request for printing, then the maximum transmission speed is 38 Mbps
it will be added to the queue on the print server. The print and not 1Gbps as the connection to the ISP is a
server will then deliver each print job in turn to the printer. bottleneck.
There may be several printers that are managed by the
print server. Some client computers or users may be given
priority and so may be able to jump the queue. It’s also
possible for the print server to charge users for each print DISCUSSION POINT
job, which is usually done by reducing the number of print Note that bits are different to bytes. There are eight bits in
credits available to the user. a byte. Therefore, a bandwidth of 32 Mbps is actually four
megabytes per second.
A mail server receives and sends all emails for an
organisation. The mail server can be part of a LAN or a
WAN. Incoming emails are checked for viruses, phishing
or spam and then sent to the user’s mailbox. When a TASK
user sends an email the mail server will either direct it to
Find out what bandwidth your school has for its
another user within the organisation or send it on to the connection to the internet and compare that with the
internet for delivery to another mail server. bandwidth you have at home.
An application server delivers software to client
computers. This can be done by the clients accessing the
software direct from the server or by the server managing Bit streaming
the installation of the software onto each client computer. A bit stream is a series of bits which represent a stream of
A proxy server deals with all requests to the internet. It data transmitted at one time. Although it usually refers to
sits between the LAN and the gateway. It will check that communications, it can also apply to data in memory or
each request is allowed and filter out any undesirable storage.
requests such as pornographic websites. It will also store In networking, streaming takes place when video or
web pages in a cache which will speed up the time it takes audio files are sent to a receiving device for viewing or
for a user to receive a web page. A proxy server often also listening to without downloading a file to save in storage.
includes firewall software. With a video, the first few seconds consisting of several
frames will be sent to fill a buffer (a temporary area of
Bandwidth and bit rate storage) which can then be watched at the receiving
Bandwidth measures the range of frequencies available
device. As the frames within the buffer are viewed, they are
on a communications channel. This defines its capacity.
removed so that more frames can be added to the buffer
to keep it full.
Bandwidth is measured as a frequency range in kilohertz
(kHz) or as a transmission rate in bits per second (bps). A buffer is used to keep the video running smoothly.
Although the bandwidth is often thought of as a speed, Without a buffer, any data congestion would be noticed by
 Chapter 13: Networks

the video pausing, missing out frames or pixelating until

the full transmission rate was available again, even if it was
only for a split second. It's still possible that a buffer could Traditional voice telephone calls using the
be fully used during data congestion but it is much less Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) are
likely than if a buffer was not present. transmitted using circuit switching.
Data congestion can be caused by devices on the same
network using up so much bandwidth that there isn’t
enough left for the full video transmission ora similar Physical connection is sett up
when call connection is m;ade
situation at the sending end of the transmission.
The same situation regarding buffering applies to audio
streaming as it does to video streaming. This is not just used
for video and audio streamed on demand but also when
streamed live, for example when watching a sporting event
or live news. This means that live events that are streamed
Switching offices
are actually delayed by the size of the buffer. This is why you
could be watching a rugby match on television and see a try Figure 13.09 - Circuit switched telephone network.
being scored before you see it on a live stream.
Packet switching
| Video Stream This method of data communication splits the data to be
transmitted into packets, which are groups of bits. Packets
will include header data which identifies the source and
Buffer destination, some of the data and error control bits. Each
packet can take its own route from source to destination.
As each packet is received by a network node, such as a
switch or router, it will be routed to the next node.
Receiving Device |

Figure 13.08 - Buffer.

Receiver

O DISCUSSION POINT
A byte stream is a bit stream that consists of bytes. It is also
known as an octet.

Circuit switching, packet switching and

message switching
These three switching methods are all methods of
communication used to transmit data from the sender to T
the receiver.

Circuit switching Sender

This method of data communication sets up a physical
network path from the sender to the receiver before any Figure 13.10 - Packet switching.
communication starts. All the data is then transmitted In this diagram, the data is sent using packet
using this single path. While the circuit is open, no switching. The data is split into packets which are
other devices can transmit data using that path. When sent using different routes and then reassembled at
transmission is complete, the path is released for other the receiving device.
data transmissions.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Message switching be fitted into a small space, meaning that it is possible

Message switching transmits the whole set of to transmit a lot of data at once. The fine strands are
data together from source to destination. It does also flexible, which means that the cables can be used
not have a predefined route. The data is sent to one in buildings and around corners. The light is retained
network node (e.g. switch or router) at a time and is within each strand of glass and so, unlike copper
temporarily stored there before being passed to the cables, fibre optics are not susceptible to electrical
next node. This is known as ‘store and forward’. Each interference. All these factors combined mean that fibre
message includes a header which contains the source optics have very large bandwidths. A single fibre optic
and destination. strand used in an internal network can easily carry
1Gbps of data. Security is another advantage of fibre
This method is quite slow because it depends on
optics because they cannot be ‘tapped’ in the same
processing taking place at each node and it also requires
way that copper cable can be. The main disadvantages
network nodes with adequate storage capacity. This
of fibre optics are that if they are broken they can be
makes it unsuitable for streaming real-time games or real¬
complicated to repair, especially if there are several
time communication.
hundred strands to fix, and they are more costly to
produce than copper cables.
Optical communication methods
Optical communications make use of light to transmit
data. The big advantage of this is that the speed of light
is far faster than any other method. Light travels at 300
million m/s. That means it can travel around the whole
earth 7.5 times every second or that it only takes 0.065
seconds to travel halfway around the world. This means
that there is negligible latency (delay) between sending
and receiving data, which makes it suitable for real-time
applications.

Infrared
Infrared is the communication method used by most
remote control devices. It is cheap to produce and a
well-recognised standard method of transmitting simple
commands. It works by transmitting electromagnetic
radiation that is just past the red end of the visible Figure 13.11 - Fibre optic strands.
light spectrum, so it cannot be seen by the human
eye. It does not have a very high bandwidth and so is Because they suffer hardly any degradation of
only suitable for transmitting small amounts of data. signal, they can be used over large distances,
It can also be affected by sunlight, meaning that the including in LANs where copper cable limits are
transmission of data is not always successful. Infrared typically 100 m. They are also used in aircraft
requires line of sight between the sending and receiving where weight is an important factor, because they
devices so it cannot bend around corners but it can are lighter than copper cables. The lack of
reflect off light surfaces. Infrared wilt only work for short degradation of signal means that they are suitable
distances. for passing data across the globe as well as
throughout towns and cities. ISPs often use a method
Infrared can also be used by mobile phone devices to act
called fibre to the cabinet (FT TC) to provide
as a remote control and is used within active sensors,
internet connectivity to homes. With FTTC, fibre
which were introduced in Chapter 3.
optics are used to connect a communications exchange
to a cabinet in the street and the last portion of the
Fibre optic connection to the house is by copper cable. In the
Fibre optics are fine strands of glass that transmit data UK in 2015, Virgin Media were able to offer bandwidths of
as light. As the strands are very fine, a large number can 200 Mbps using this method.
 Chapter 13: Networks

Laser Bluetooth doesn’t require a radio frequency licence and

Laser is an intense beam of light that can be used to is a common standard that is used on many different
transmit data. Like infrared, line of sight is necessary, devices. Bluetooth requires very little power to
but, unlike infrared, laser beams can cover large operate. It doesn’t require line of sight and it is possible
distances. Laser still travels at the speed of light, but to set up security so that only authorised devices can
it does not require a physical connection like fibre connect. However, it has a limited data transfer rate, its
optics. range is only approximately 10 metres and a master
device is limited to connecting to a maximum of seven
Lasers can be used to connect LANs between buildings.
devices.
They are suitable for this because very few data
packets are lost as there is little interference in normal Wi-Fi
atmospheric conditions, although adverse conditions
Wi-Fi is a wireless communication method. It operates
can cause some interference. Laser communications
in the 2.46Hz and 5 GHz frequencies. There have been
are quick to set up and can be portable, making them
many Wi-Fi standards that have evolved over the years
suitable for live events such as sports and music
and they are all referred to by the number 802.11
concerts.
followed by a letter. These letters have included a, b, g,
The military use lasers to transmit live video from aircraft n and, in 2015, ac was introduced. Devices supporting
because the video feed will arrive in real time because a version are backwardly compatible with devices that
it is travelling at the speed of light. Laser beams tend to support previous versions, but the communication will be
be secure because they are narrow and aimed directly limited to the highest common version the two devices
from sender to receiver, meaning that to intercept the support.
transmission would mean interrupting it, which would
The 802.11ac standard supports speeds of up to 1.3 Gbps,
alert the sender and receiver.
compared to just 450 Mbps (0.45 Gbps) on the previous
802.11n standard. These are theoretical maximums
Wireless communication/transmission and don’t reflect the actual maximum speeds that are
methods experienced in practice, which were around 150 Mbps
Bluetooth and 300 Mbps respectively. Another big advantage of
Bluetooth is a wireless communication method 802.11ac over 802.11n is that it uses the 5GHz wireless
used for the transfer of data between devices. It uses spectrum rather than the 2.4GHz spectrum used by
wireless frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz. 802.11n. The 2.4 GHz spectrum was very crowded because
Bluetooth splits transmission data into packets which in urban areas there can be several wireless access points
can be transmitted on 1 of 79 channels, each with a overlapping, as well as other wireless devices such as baby
bandwidth of 1MHz. It is typically used within mobile monitors, smart home equipment and even microwaves,
phone devices to connect to a range of equipment which cause interference and therefore reduce the
including: connection speed.

• a car’s audio system for hands-free communication

• a headset for hands-free communication
• communicating with a Bluetooth enabled smartwatch DISCUSSION POINT
so that some of the phone’s features can be used on the Wi-Fi does not provide direct access to the internet. Wi-Fi
watch enables a wireless enabled device to connect to a network.
That network may then have a connection to the internet
• sending and receiving data to and from devices that which is shared with the devices connecting to it.
measure biometric data, such as heart rate
• streaming videos to a larger display screen
• streaming music to Bluetooth speakers
• transferring files from one phone to another phone or Wi-Fi is used for a range of applications including:
other Bluetooth connected device.
• connection of portable devices such as laptops, tablets
Bluetooth can also be used to network devices together in and mobile phones to a network, which could be a
a small area as long as a high bandwidth is not required. corporate LAN, a home LAN ora wireless hotspot
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• ‘smart’ televisions which use services from the internet by a RFID reader and the parcel’s location is updated in a
and so require a connection to a LAN that is connected database. The RFID reader will be continuously sending
to the internet interrogation signals through its antenna to identify the
• printers that can be located anywhere in a room, without location of any RFID tags. These types of tags are also
having to run additional cables used by shops as security tags prior to a product being
• ‘casting’ of a devices screen to anotherdevice wirelessly. purchased.
Typically this could be casting a laptop’s display to
a projector or casting a mobile phone’s display to a
r
television
• smart home devices.
Antenna
\
The main advantage of Wi-Fi is that devices can
connect to a LAN without the need for cables which
can be costly to install, unsightly and a potential
>/)
hazard. This means devices can use any location Reader

where Wi-Fi access is available. Line of sight is not

required and the international Wi-Fi standards mean
that any compatible device can connect. Mobile
RFID tag
phones which usually rely on fourth generation (4G)
for data can connect to Wi-Fi networks for internet Figure 13.12 -RFID.
access, which will save the user money and allow for
larger amounts of data to be downloaded. Connection Another use of RFID is for wireless key cards that are used
speeds are not massively smaller than wired to unlock doors. These can be part of an identification
connections, meaning that data can be transferred
badge for employees or could be a card issued to guests
quickly. in a hotel. The card can be used to unlock a door without
However, the range offered by Wi-Fi is restricted it actually touching the lock. This is the same type of
by distance and objects. The connection speed is system used in ski resorts where skiers can keep their
dependent on the bandwidth available and the number lift pass in their pocket and then just move their pocket
of devices that are using the Wi-Fi connection at the towards the RFID reader. These close proximity RFID chips
same time. Security is a potential issue because a are known as near field communication (NFC). NFC is
hacker does not need to make a physical connection to also used by mobile phones to emulate a NFC tag on a
a network in order to gain access and so it is necessary credit or debit card and make contactless payments. The
to ensure that sufficient encryption is in place with a mobile phone can also read NFC tags, which can be used
secure key. to activate an application, change phone settings or open
a web page.
TASK

Vi
V
Investigate screen casting methods including Miracast,
Chromecast, AirPlay and AllShare.

Radio
.1*
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi both use radio waves. Another
transmission method that uses radio waves is radio¬
frequency identification (RFID). RFID uses electromagnetic

\t
fields to identify and track small RFID chips. One use of RFID
is to monitor the location of parcels from a distribution
warehouse to the delivery point. Each parcel can have a
RFID tag that is unique to the parcel. As it moves through
the warehouse and onto a delivery van, the tag is read Figure 13.13 - Contactless payment.
 Chapter 13: Networks

NFC is also a secure method of RFID which means it is

suitable for payment transactions. Its disadvantage is that
the card has to be next to the reader, but this can also be A person who is travelling decides to download
an advantage as it prevents accidental transactions from some television programmes onto their mobile
taking place. RFID does not require a line of sight and does phone, tablet or laptop while at home before
not require somebody to manually scan the tag, which is they make the journey. One of the reasons for
whatwould have to happen with a barcode. this is to save having to ‘eat’ into a limited 4G
data allowance. Another reason is that the 4G
TASK
connection may not always be available and
Wi-Fi connectivity at a hotel may be slow due to
Complete the table below summarising the advantages
congestion, meaning that live streaming is not
and disadvantages of each wireless communication
method: effective.

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Bluetooth
Different types of communication/
Infrared
transmission media govern bandwidth
Wi-Fi
Cables
Radio
Copper cables are the main method used for connecting
RFID devices in a LAN. The most common form of copper cable
is unshielded twisted pair (UTP), which is also known as
an Ethernet cable. The cables consist of fourtwisted pairs
of cables and are protected by plastic tubes, but there is
The importance of bandwidth and bit rate no earth wire, which can result in lost data packets at high
when transmitting data frequencies.
Bandwidth governs the maximum speed that data can be
transferred; the bit rate is the actual transmission speed. They
are therefore important to consider when large amounts of
data need to be transferred in a short amount of time. There
are two main scenarios when bandwidth is important:
• accessing content within a time limit
• accessing content in real time.
If a user wants to download a large file, then the higher the
bandwidth the quicker it will be to download if the bit rate
is higher and the bandwidth is sufficient for the bit rate.
Flowever, bandwidth and bit rate are only important if it is
important to download that file within a specific time limit.
For example, if a user needs to download a 50 Mb high
quality photograph but doesn’t need to view it until several Figure 13.14 - Unshielded twisted pair cable.
minutes later, then bandwidth may not be a major issue.
Flowever, if that user needs to examine the photograph Copper cables are suitable over distances up to 100
within a couple of minutes, then it is important the user has metres but beyond this the signal weakens. The
a higher bit rate and sufficient bandwidth. bandwidth available is governed by the frequencies
When a user needs to access streamed or live content in real that the copper cable can accommodate, and electrical
time (or with a short buffer delay), it is essential that there interference which can result in lost data packets that will
is sufficient bandwidth to stream the content without the affect the transmission rate.
buffer emptying at any point. If the buffer empties due to the When higher bandwidths are required, shielded twisted
content not being streamed quickly enough, then the user pair (STP) cables can be used. They include a metal shield
will experience pauses, pixelation or missing video or sound. around each twisted pair and an earth wire.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Wireless Application
Less frequencies are available to wireless communication Presentation
methods than to copper cable, which means there is
Session
less bandwidth available. Wireless transmission is also
susceptible to interference from other wireless devices, Transport
including conflicting wireless access points, baby Network
monitors and even microwave ovens. This interference
Data Link
causes lost data packets which reduces the transmission
rate. Obstacles such as walls and ceilings can reduce the Physical
strength of a wireless signal, which means there is even Figure 13.15 - ISO OSI 7 layer model.
less bandwidth available the further away a device is from
a wireless access point.
POP
Post office protocol (POP) defines the rules for email
Optical
client software to retrieve emails. The main method that
As fibre optics are not susceptible to electrical is applied is to connect to an email server, download all
interference, it is far less likely that data packets will messages and store them on the client computer and then
be lost, meaningthat the total bandwidth available is delete the messages from the server. POP also supports
considerably higher than with copper cables. encrypted transmission of emails. POP is part of the
application layer of the OSI model.
What a protocol is and different
types of protocols IMAP
A communication protocol is a set of rules that ensure Internet message access protocol (IMAP) is an alternative
data is transferred between devices correctly. These rules method for email client software to retrieve emails.
are required so that a variety of devices and applications Instead of downloading the email and then deleting it
can communicate together successfully. A protocol from the server, its default mode is to leave the email on
defines the method of addressing to use, the type of error the server and download a copy to the client. This means
checking to be used, how sending devices will indicate the emails can still be accessed from a remote location.
the start and end of a message, how a receiving device IMAP also supports multiple folders on a server whereas
will confirm it has received a message and any data POP only supports a single folder on the server. IMAP is
compression methods to be used. part of the application layer of the OSI model.

Abstraction Layers TCP/IP

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
published a layered model in 1983 known as the Open is the basic communication protocol used on the Internet
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. This defined a and in most LANs and WANs. TCP/IP consists of two layers.
framework that put protocols into seven different layers TCP deals with breaking a message down into small data
with each layer being an abstraction of communication. packets that are transmitted and then reassembled at
The physical layer of communication deals with electrical the receiving end. IP deals with the address to ensure that
and mechanical operations. The data link layer deals each packet reaches the correct destination. The address
with data packets. The network layer deals with how data will be checked each time a packet reaches a gateway
is switched, routed and addressed. The transport layer and routed towards the destination. The IP protocol uses
ensures data flows correctly without errors. The session IP addresses which consist of four numbers between 0
layer defines protocols between applications during a and 255 separated by dots. Some of these are addresses
communication session. The presentation layer ensures used for private networks which start with 10, 172 or 192
that data is in a format that can be recognised such as (eg 192.168.0.0) but most are for external networks (eg
types of image, types of video file and the text encoding 212.58.246.90). There are approximately 4 billion of these
method to use. The application layer deals with specific addresses but they started to run out in 2011. Therefore,
types of communication application such as file transfer IPv6 was introduced which has the potential for over
or email. 3.4 xlO38 addresses.
 Chapter 13: Networks

FTP coordinate communication between the peers in

File transfer protocol (FTP) is part of the TCP/IP suite and the swarm. The swarm is the set of peers that are
is used to define how computer files should be transferred downloading parts of the file and uploading parts for
from one location to another. FTP allows for users to be each other to download on a peer-to-peer basis. When a
authenticated by username and password but also has an peer wants to start downloading a file, it announces that
option for anonymous connectivity. This protocol sets the it wants to join the swarm. Peers will periodically report
rule for how a server should respond using ASCII codes, information to the tracker regarding their download status
the data format to use (eg ASCII, binary, EBCDIC) and the and receive in exchange information about other peers
mode of data transfer (stream, block or compressed). FTP to which they can connect. Peers will eventually become
is part of the application layer of the OSI model. seeders, which are clients that have a full download of
the torrent and are still making it available to upload to
HTTP other peers. If there are a large number of seeders, then
Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is also part of the TCP/ there is a good chance of achieving a high transfer rate for
IP suite and is used by web browsers to send requests the download. The total seeders for a file is known as the
to a web server to view a web page. When the request availability, which refers to the number of fully distributed
is received by the web server it sends the web page copies.
information back to the web browser. HTTP is insecure
and so HTTPS is a secure version that encrypts the
transmissions. HTTP is part of the transport layer of the
OSI model.
1 Describe the role of a repeater in a network.
2 Identify two different types of a server in a
TASK network.
Research some of these protocols: 3 Describe the difference between bandwidth and bit

.
• SMTP
PPP
rate.
4 Explain why a buffer is needed when streaming.
• Telnet
5 Identify three types of switching used for the delivery
• UDP
of data through a network.
6 Describe two advantages of fibre optics for the
transmission of data.
7 Identify two different ways in which Bluetooth could
BitTorrent protocol be used.
The BitTorrent protocol specifies how multiple downloads
8 Describe three disadvantages of Wi-Fi.
can take place from the same file source concurrently.
Several clients (peers) download portions of the file. The 9 Explain why bandwidth is important during a video
conference.
peers then connect to each other directly to send and
receive those portions of the file between themselves. 10 Compare and contrast the POP and IMAP protocols.
This reduces the bandwidth required by the original host
of the file and can increase download speeds for clients
downloading large files.
The protocol only works effectively if there are lots of
peers downloading the same file, as without lots of peers 13.02 Network security
there are less opportunities to receive portions of the file. Security issues
To download a file using BitTorrent, clients need client
software such as pTorrent. To provide a file for download,
a server must run a tracker which coordinates all the
peers. Malware: malicious software
Spyware: malicious software that records what a user is doing
A torrent is a metadata file which identifies the locations on a computer system
(Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)) or trackers which
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

o TIP
When computers are connected together through
or usernames and passwords. Once a username and
password is ascertained by the spyware, the perpetrators
can log onto the network as that user. Another problem
for networked computers is that spyware can collect
networks, there are increased security risks due to access
being available from other computers. data and then transmit it to another server so that the
perpetrator can access that information. If a key logger is
used, then every keystroke made by a user is recorded and
Unauthorised access this could include confidential data.
Commonly known as hacking, unauthorised access
takes place when a person or device gains access to a Denial of service attack
computer network without permission. Hackers can guess A denial of service (DoS) attack is designed to send more
usernames and passwords to gain access to a network, requests to a serverthan it can deal with. These are
particularly when users set up weak passwords. Once a easy to launch and difficult to track. They are carried
hacker has access, they can read data on the system. This out to cause disruption to an organisation’s network or
data may be confidential to people or to the organisation. website and often result in users not being able to use
The hacker may also make changes to the data, such as the network and customers not being able to access the
changing payment details, or the hacker might destroy data website. Website attacks are measured in requests per
deliberately to cause harm to the organisation or individual. second (RPS) and it can only take around 50 RPS to cripple
a website. Network attacks are measured in gigabits
Malware per second (Gbps) and it can only take around 20 Gbps
Malware is a word used to describe any software that is of data to make a network unusable. DoS attacks are
designed to cause damage. In relation to networks, the not designed to gain access to data, but purely to cause
main problems are viruses and spyware. Viruses copy disruption. A DoS attack can last for hours, days or weeks.
themselves automatically to other devices and so the
DoS attacks involve the perpetrator using a single internet
connectivity of a network makes the spread of viruses
more likely. Viruses are designed to cause damage to data connection to overload the target, but distributed denial
or cause problems to the operation of a computer system. of service (DDoS) attacks use multiple connections
Parasitic viruses attach themselves to files on a computer distributed across the internet. These are much more
system and are triggered by certain events such as a date
difficult to defend because they are coming from so many
and time. Macro viruses attach themselves to macros that different locations.
are part of macro-enabled documents. Email viruses arrive The motivations of perpetrators of DoS attacks can be
as attachments to emails and are triggered by the user pure vandalism (cyber vandalism) or it could be as part of
opening the attachment. Unique to networks are worms an activist campaign (hacktivism) to express criticism of,
which spread automatically through networks. Worms or displeasure with, an organisation.
don’t require files to attach to as they create their own
executable file. Trojan horses are malicious programs that
disguise themselves as normal software, but if they are run TASK
they will actually cause damage. Trojans are often found on Find out how the hacktivist group Anonymous used
websites when a user tries to download some illegal music DoS attacks against ISIS websites and social media in
or films and they end up downloading a Trojan instead. February 2015.

TASK Security methods

Find out how the Blaster worm infected networked Access rights
computers in 2003. When a user logs onto a network, they are given rights
to access different parts of that network. These access
rights are usually related to data but can also be related
Spyware is software that secretly collects information to services that are available, such as accessing the
without the user being aware. Spyware can log user World Wide Web, accessing email accounts and running
activity including identifying credit card information software.
 iter 13: Networks

The most common access rights that are given are: It’s possible for hackers to try and guess usernames and
passwords and so a password should be strong enough to
• create (C): users can create new items of data
prevent a hacker from guessing it. Hacking software can
• read (R): users can read existing data be used to try different passwords in order to gain access
• update (U): users can make changes to data and so security measures should be put into place to lock
• delete (D): users can delete data. a user account if a password has been entered incorrectly
a certain number of times. It is essential that a user selects
a password that is secure and is less likely to be guessed.
Users also need to be careful that potential hackers
A school or college may give the following access (including co-workers) aren’t looking overtheir shoulder
rights to users: to try and see what is being typed in. One of the biggest
• visitors: access to internet services only problems with passwords is that a user must be able to
remember it. If the user writes the password down then it
• individual users: CRUD access to all data in their
can easily be stolen. If a user uses the same password for
own user area
several accounts then, once it is known for one account,
• students: R access to a shared area for educational it can be used by hackers for another account. This leads
resources and executable access to software that to another problem: when a user has several passwords
has been allocated to them for several accounts it is difficult to remember which ones
• teachers: CRUD access to the shared area for have been used, especially if the user is required to change
educational resources for their department and CRUD their password on a regular basis.
access to a staff shared area for their department
• staff: R access to a whole school staff shared area
TASK
of information about the school
Research what makes a good password. Define a set of
• head teacher’s secretary: CRUD access to the rules for a password that is not too restrictive on users
whole school staff shared area but also ensures that the password is secure.
• network administrators: CRUD access to the whole
network.
Websites may be restricted based upon each It’s also possible to disable accounts at certain times
student’s age. Software can be restricted so that of day so that users who work from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. can
some software is only available to authorised users, only access their accounts during that time and this
such as the school’s management information system prevents somebody from trying to use their account
which is only available to staff. Some email accounts outside those hours. Security measures can also be
may be shared between users such as the main put into place to ensure that certain user accounts
incoming inbox being shared between administrative can only be accessed from specific computers. This
staff. can be limiting if a user genuinely needs to use a
non-authorised device for their user account, but it
also prevents hackers from trying to gain access from
In order to gain these access rights it is necessary for
anywhere within the network or even anywhere on the
a user to identify themselves. This is usually done by
internet. This can be especially useful if users are given
entering a user ID, but other methods can be used such
access from home, where they can be limited to using
as an email address, swipe card, NFC using a phone
approved devices.
or card or biometric methods. A user ID on its own
is weak because this would often be known by other Where security is critical, two-factor authentication (2FA)
people. It is for this reason that a user is also expected to can be used which requires two security components to
authenticate themselves using a password or personal gain access. This can be as simple as using a swipe card
identification number (PIN) to prove they are who they and a PIN but it can also include more complex methods.
claim to be. It’s also possible that a physical login device The user could also be issued with a token which could
such as a swipe card or phone could be stolen and be a small device that generates one-time passcodes or
so these should also be used in partnership with an a USB key that includes a secret token stored on it. One
authentication method. of the downsides of requiring a swipe card or token is
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

that the user must always have it available, which means Fingerprints and retina scans are tried and tested
carrying it around. It can also be lost or stolen. methods and are known to be very secure. Each person
has a unique fingerprint and retina pattern that can
TASK confirm their identity. There are concerns about whether
fingerprints are the right method to use as they can also
Find out about how Vasco’s DIGIPASS tokens work. You
could work as a group so that each person finds out be used for identifying criminals. However, if people aren’t
about each different DIGIPASS token and then reports carrying out criminal acts, then they shouldn’t have any
back to the rest of the group. concerns. The difficulty arises when corrupt governments
use these methods to track individuals who might be
opposed to their regime. If a person had to provide their
Mobile phone 2FA involves the system sending a one-time fingerprint every time they used public transport or
passcode by text message to the user’s mobile phone, entered a building, then it would be very difficult to avoid
which the user has to enter to confirm it is them trying to being monitored.
access the system. This is often used by banks to confirm Facial recognition is a developing field of study and is
the user’s identity before setting up a transfer of money to being used within some applications. Microsoft’s Windows
another account. The main advantages of mobile phone 10 includes a feature that will detect a user and log them
2FA are that each code that is issued is for a single use and on automatically when they sit in front of their computer.
the user is likely to always have the mobile phone available. Voice recognition has never been an ideal security method
However, not all users may have a mobile phone and the as there are so many parameters that can change, such
phone must have enough battery charge and be in range of as a person having a cold that affects their speech,
a mobile network in order to receive the text message. Text background noise or the potential fora voice to be
messages also cost money for an organisation to send and recorded and played back.
there may be a delay in the user receiving the text message.
Biometric security can be used as a 2FA method by
Biometric methods requiring both biometric security and a password.
However, as biometrics used for security should be
Biometrics are biological characteristics that can be
measured. Biometric security uses these biological unique to each human being, it isn’t actually necessary to
characteristics to authenticate a user’s identity. The require a password. Users can both identify themselves
biological characteristic has to be unique to each user in and confirm their identity using biometric security. This
order to be able to authenticate the user. Characteristics method is also user proof in that fingers or eyes can’t be
forgotten as an ID card or password can be.
used for biometric security include retina recognition,
facial recognition, fingerprints and voice recognition.
Firewalls
Networks that have access to a WAN or the internet have
two-way traffic into and out of the network. A firewall
controls what data can flow into and out of the network.
A firewall may be part of a router or it may be software
installed on a server that sits between the network and
the gateway. It is effectively a barrier between the network
and external data traffic.

am§ lit
Firewalls include an access control list (ACL) that uses
a technique called packet filtering. An ACL controls
which data packets are allowed through the firewall.
The ACL will include a set of rules that determine
which protocols, port numbers, source addresses and
destination addresses are allowed or not allowed. If data
packets are not allowed, then they will be dropped. For
example, if the ACL includes a rule to block FTP, then
all data packets for port 21 (the FTP listening port) will
Figure 13.16 - Fingerprint security image. be dropped. The ACL can also include rules that direct
 Chapter 13: Network:

certain traffic to specific destinations. For example, In a network, backup processes should be set to run
requests for website data into the network would be automatically and regularly. The more regularly a backup
directed to the web server on listening port 80. Another process is run, the more storage that will be required
rule in the ACL could be that requests for access on for the backup data. However, if a backup process is run
certain ports are only allowed from predefined IP less regularly, then there will be more new data that has
addresses on the internet. This could be used to control not been secured in case of a problem. In a network
devices that have virtual private network (VPN) access or environment, backups are usually stored on tapes or
devices that could be used to initiate Telnet sessions to remotely at another location. That location might be a
administer the network. server at another organisation or it might be servers in the
'cloud’, which are effectively internet-based storage.
A firewall often includes a proxy server. The proxy
server makes requests to the internet on behalf of client Storing data remotely has advantages which include not
computers within the network. If a client wants to request having to change tapes each day and the data being away
a website, then the request will be sent to the proxy server from the original in case of fire or flood. However, it also means
and the proxy server will then fetch the website and return that the data is ‘connected’ and part of a network which could
it to the client. Any requests for data from the internet also suffer a security breach. Storing data on tapes means that
or from outside the network must be made through the the tapes have to be changed each day and then relocated to
proxy server. a secure location away from the main servers.
Some data packets may be disguised and so proxy
Encryption
firewalls include an application layer which can block
specific content such as malware or block content that Encryption is the process of changing the data so that if it is
is misusing a protocol. The application layer firewall will accessed without authorisation, then it will be unreadable.
perform a deep inspection of data packets to check for This is done by using an algorithm to change the cipher.
any malicious commands, executable programs or other Although encryption can stop a hacker from reading data,
inconsistencies. it does not stop a hacker from destroying data and it does
not stop malware. However, it is important when data is
Firewalls offer a certain level of protection from hackers beingtransmitted, particularly if that data is sensitive and if
and malware, but it all depends on how the firewall has the data is being passed through an open network such as
been configured. If the ACL is configured to block all a Wi-Fi hotspot or the internet.
data packets except those which are deemed safe, then
the network will be very secure, but it can also cause When data has been encrypted, only the intended
inconvenience when users legitimately try to transmit recipients will be able to decipher (decrypt) it using a
or receive data that has not been configured as safe. On decipher algorithm. Random encryption keys are used to
the other hand, if the ACL is configured to allow all data encrypt the data so that the same algorithm is not used
packets except those which are deemed unsafe, then each time. Therefore, anybody trying to intercept the data
there are more opportunities for hackers and malware not only needs to be able to view the data, but must also
to sneak into the network. A healthy balance needs to be have access to the decryption key.
found between security and usability.

Backup
EXAMPLE
J
A backup is a copy of the original data. A backup is 0
required if something goes wrong and the original data
is either damaged or lost. In the event of a problem with
r Public key

the data then the backup copy can be restored. A backup

does not stop a hacker from gaining access to data, nor
does it stop viruses from causing damage to data, but it
m m

*
is essential when recovering from an attack. A backup Joseph * Analiese
can also be used to restore data when non-malicious
destruction of data has occurred, such as a file becoming Private key
corrupt or physical storage media being destroyed by fire
or water. Figure 13.17 - Public key encryption.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Public key encryption is a method used whereby are authorised to gain entry. Physical locks can be used
the recipient doesn’t know the decryption key to on server room doors to prevent unauthorised access to
use. In this example, if Joseph wants to send secure those rooms. These can be key locks, swipe card locks or
data to Analiese, his computer will use Analiese’s numerical code locks. This type of security should also be
public key to encrypt the data. Analiese will then applied to backup tapes, which should be stored in a safe
use her private key to decrypt the data. This means that is kept offsite.
that the decryption key does not need to be sent to Main servers should be protected against electrical
the recipient. Even if somebody knows the public surges. This can be done using extension leads that offer
key, they cannot work out what the private key is. surge protection, but most servers will be protected
by uninterruptible power supply (UPS) units which are
basically battery packs that will provide power in the event
Websites that use encryption for passing data will use of a power cut, but will also ensure that the power supply
the HTTPS protocol rather than the HTTP protocol. Email is uniform.
protocols can also use encrypted protocols, as can many Server rooms should be located in areas that are
other protocols. protected from fires and floods. This should include
providing additional fire protection, such as a server
Malware security (anti-virus and anti-spyware) room with fireproof doors, carbon dioxide fire
Anti-virus software now tends to be referred to as anti¬ extinguishers and putting backup tapes in fireproof
malware software as it deals with other threats, such as safes. Server rooms should not be located on the
adware and spyware, as well as viruses. Together, these ground floor, which can be susceptible to floods, and
threats are known as malware. Anti-malware software they should be away from any water pipes that could
has two main functions. The first is an anti-virus monitor potentially burst.
that is continually monitoring the system for malware. If
the anti-virus monitor detects any unusual behaviour or Data protection act principles
tell-tale signs of malware, then it will prevent that malware
A data protection act can be used to protect people
from being executed so that it cannot cause damage to
about whom data is stored. They are known as
files or programs. The second function is to check for
data subjects. It is not in place to protect general
malware that may already be on a system. This is usually
information.
known as scanning the system. If any malware is found,
then the user will usually be given the option to disinfect In the United Kingdom, the Data Protection Act of
the malware, put it into quarantine or ignore it. Ignoring it 1998 includes the following principles which state that
is very dangerous because it means the malware will be information about data subjects must be:
executed and may have unexpected results. Disinfecting
• used fairly and lawfully
the malware is the safest option as it completely removes
the malware from the system, but it does mean that
• used for limited, specifically stated purposes
any data or program that included the malware will be • used in a way that is adequate, relevant and not
excessive
deleted. The compromise is to put the malware into
quarantine. This is a safe area where the malware cannot • accurate
be executed, but the data or program remains isolated • kept for no longer than is absolutely necessary
until it can be checked more thoroughly. • handled according to people’s data protection rights
• kept safe and secure
Physical security methods • not transferred outside the European Economic Area
Physical security methods are about protecting computer without adequate protection.
equipment. This can include standard methods that are
used to secure other equipment and buildings or specialist
physical devices that are designed to protect computer TASK
equipment. Find out what the principles of data protection law are in
Security guards can be used to verify every person who your country or another country.
enters a building or specific rooms to ensure that they
 }

Chapter 13: Networks

The need for a data protection act Data users should only store data for as long as is
Data protection law is required in order to protect data necessary. This means that they should remove data
subjects and the information that is held about them. when it is not needed any more. Data subjects have a
People have a right to know what information is being right to expect that their data will be kept secure. It is
stored and that it is stored accurately. therefore the responsibility of data users to put security
measures in place, as described earlier in the chapter. If
To process data fairly, data subjects must be informed if data is lost, damaged or accessed unlawfully, then the
information is collected about them and they must give data user could be prosecuted for not providing adequate
their permission for this to be done. It is also expected security.
that data subjects should be made aware of the purpose
for which information stored about them is used.
Organisations that use this data (data users) must ensure
that they only use the data for that purpose and that they
inform the relevant governing body of why that data is
o DISCUSSION POINT
European countries have to follow a European directive
being stored. (Directive 95/46/EC) which imposes data protection
requirements upon member countries. As part of this,
Data subjects expect that enough information will
the European Union requires that any data transferred
be stored about them by data users in order to carry outside the European Economic Area is only transferred
out necessary data processing. For example, if salary to countries which have adequate data protection so that
payments are being made to employees, then the data subjects remain protected. This has caused all sorts
employees would expect their employer to keep records of problems for multinational companies such as Facebook
of any tax that has been deducted and any tax allowances and Google who store data on servers in the cloud, which
can often be servers in the United States of America
that should be applied. Data subjects also expect that only
where data protection laws do not meet European Union
necessary and relevant data will be stored about them, as requirements. Facebook currently store European users’
they have a right to privacy. For example, person applying data in Ireland, which is a member of the European Union.
for a travel pass for public transport would not expect the It can be very complicated for multinational companies
transport authority to be storing information about their to comply with such regulations that vary from country to
mental health. country in a world that is globally connected.

Data subjects have the right to expect that their data

Will be accurate and up to date. It is the data user’s
responsibility to ensure that data is entered accurately
TASK
in the first place, but the data subject must also have a
right to request that any inaccurate data is corrected. The Find out what organisations might be exempt from
certain parts of data protection law, particularly in
data subject must also take responsibility for informing
relation to national security.
data users of any changes to personal information, such
as change of address, of which data users should be
made aware. Data users can make use of validation and
verification techniques to reduce errors during data entry.

11 List three security issues that could arise from

networking computers.
Naomi applies for a credit card. She is declined the
12 Explain how two-factor authentication could be
credit card because her credit history shows that used to protect against unauthorised access to
she has not made payments on a loan for the past online banking.
six months. Naomi had paid off the loan in full six
13 Explain why backup security methods do not protect
months ago, but the bank had not updated their
against unauthorised access.
records to show that payments no longer needed to
14 List four principles of a data protection act.
be made. Naomi has suffered embarrassment due
to the bank’s error and has been unable to access a 15 Explain why employees would want their employers
new credit facility. to store accurate and up-to-date information.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

13.03 Satellite communication from the internet to the client and uses a public switched
telephone network (PSTN) connection for the client to
systems upload data. This means that uploading data can be very
slow because of the limitations of the telephone network.
The other method is to use two-way satellite broadband,
Satellite: an object in space that follows an orbital path which allows the client to upload data directly to the satellite
GPS: global positioning system which uses satellites to as well as to receive data from the satellite. However, this
determine the current location requires more expensive equipment that is able to transmit
microwaves to space as well as to receive them.
The bandwidth available for the end users of satellite
Satellites are objects in space that follow an orbital broadband is not as high as other broadband connections,
path. A satellite is different to a satellite dish. In satellite such as fibre optic, but it is improving. Satellite broadband
communications, a satellite in space will send microwave also tends to be far more expensive than fibre optic and
signals to a satellite receiving dish on earth. There are asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) broadband and
three different levels or orbit used by satellites: users usually have to pay higher premiums if they are using
• low earth orbit (LEO) at 500-1500 km from earth a lot of data.
requiring 40-80 satellites for global coverage
• medium earth orbit (MEO) at 5000-12 500 km from earth TASK
requiring 8-20 satellites for global coverage Investigate the satellite broadband options available in
• geostationary earth orbit (GEO) at fixed points 35 800 km your country and compare the prices, bandwidth and
from earth requiringjust three satellites for global coverage. download limits with cabled alternatives.

In Motion
Television and radio broadcasting
In Motion
Television and radio can be broadcast to end users
by radio waves, cables or satellite. As radio waves are
dependent on the frequencies available, they are limited
to the number of channels that can be offered. Cable
broadcasts are limited to areas where cables are installed.
Satellite broadcast systems are able to offer far more
Figure 13.18 - The three different orbits used by satellites. channels because of being able to broadcast over a larger
range of frequencies using microwaves.

TASK All a user requires to watch satellite television is a set-top

box (STB) and a satellite dish. Television companies send
Search for videos online that show how LEQs, MFOs and
their television signals from earth to satellites in space. The
GEOs orbit the earth.
broadcast channels will be compressed and if necessary
encrypted. The end-user’s satellite dish receives the
Data transfer systems broadcast from the satellite in geostationary orbit and
passes it on by a cable to the STB. The STB will then decrypt
Satellite broadband is an option for people who live in
any encrypted signals and send them onto a television.
areas that are not covered by wireless or wired broadband
connections. These could be rural areas, deserts, at sea or Encrypted signals are used fortelevision channels to
in deprived communities. Satellite broadband uses GEOs. which viewers have to subscribe. This is so that they
As GEOs are such a long way from earth, there is a delay cannot be watched by viewers that have not paid a
(known as latency) between the sending and receiving of subscription fee and enables television companies to
data. This means that satellite broadband is not suitable charge foradditional channels. Free-to-air channels are
for real-time applications such as internet gaming. not encrypted as these are available to all viewers.
There are two methods of using satellites for broadband. Although many people living in urban areas will subscribe
One-way satellite broadband sends data for download to satellite television for the additional channels, one of
the big benefits of satellite television is that broadcasting
is available in remote areas. This can be very useful for TASK
people who like to go camping or caravanning and for Complete the trilateration exercise at http://www.gps.
those using boats. It also means that viewers can watch gov/muItimedia/tutorials/trilateration/
their own country’s television in neighbouring countries
where there is overspill of the broadcast signal.
Although the equipment can be a little expensive to GPS is almost becoming an everyday part of life for many
purchase initially, this cost is often spread over 12 months people. Applications that use GPS include:
by providers of satellite television. As a satellite receiving
dish is required, there does need to be somewhere to
• locating emergency vehicles so they can be dispatched
to emergencies
position it and this can be quite unsightly in urban areas
where several properties all have satellite dishes. There can
• finding a nearby private hire taxi and calculatingthetaxi
fares
be some problems where the microwave signals are lost in
severe weather conditions, but this does tend to be rare. • tracking people, objects and vehicles
• geotagging photographs
Global positioning systems • satellite navigation (sat nav) systems
Global positioning system (GPS) receivers use satellites to • treasure hunt games such as Geocaching
calculate their current location on the earth. They use a • trackingcycling and running routes.
process called trilateration (see Figure 13.19) using at least
When used with sat nav systems, GPS can provide real¬
three satellites to determine the distance between the
time locations on a live map and so drivers can focus on
GPS receiver and each satellite, which enables the exact
their driving with occasional glances at their progress on
location to be calculated. There are 24 LEO satellites that
the sat nav. If the driver misses a turn, then a new route
orbit the earth twice every day and at least four of these
can be quickly calculated based on the current location
are always in the line of site from any flat point of the earth.
of the driver. If using a sat nav application within a mobile
phone, then the maps will be regularly updated, but if
the sat nav is a stand-alone device, then the owner will
need to update the maps manually by connecting it to a
computer. There are concerns about the use of sat navs in
© cars, though, when drivers attempt to input a destination
/ while driving at the same time, which can be potentially
;
/ very dangerous.
GPS isn’t a perfect system. Line of sight is required
and so finding an exact position can be difficult or
m impossible when the line of sight to the satellites
is blocked by a bridge, tunnel, tall buildings or
mountains. As with other satellite systems, the signal is
dependent upon good atmospheric conditions and so
problems can occur in heavy snow or thick cloud, for
Transmitter example.

Time between satellite and receiver

• Receiver

Figure 13.19 - Trilateration. The figure shows three

GPS satellites each sending a transmission in order to 16 Describe two disadvantages of satellite broadband.
determine a target’s location. The calculation of time 17 Explain why satellite television networks might
from each of the satellites to the receiver works out encrypt their broadcasts.
the distance and then than pinpoints the location. The 18 Explain two advantages of GPS.
location is at the intersection of each transmission.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

13.04 Summary Wi-Fi and radio are all methods of transmitting data
wirelessly.
A variety of components are required to connect devices
together in a network, both physically and wirelessly. Communication protocols are required so that a variety
Servers provide resources that can be used by client of devices and applications can communicate together
devices. Switching methods are used to transmit data successfully. The BitTorrent protocol specifies how
packets from the sender to the receiver. multiple downloads can take place from the same file
source concurrently.
Streaming takes place when video or audio files are sent
to a receiving device for viewing or listening without When computers are connected together, there is an
downloading a file to save in storage. Bandwidth measures increased security risk from unauthorised access, malware
the range of frequencies on a communications channel in and denial of service attacks. Security measures need
to be put in place and include access rights, biometric
kHz and defines the transmission rate in bps. Bandwidth
is important when content needs to be accessed in real methods, firewalls, backups, encryption and physical
time or within a time limit. The bandwidth will be affected security methods.
by the type of transmission media used, such as cables, A data protection act is used to protect people
wireless and optical. about whom data is stored. They are known as data
Optical communications, including infrared, fibre subjects.
optic and laser, use light to transmit data. Bluetooth,

Review questions
m Levi wants to set up a home network in his one-bedroom apartment. He will be using a desktop
PC, a laptop, a mobile phone and a printer.
la Identify the physical component that will connect Levi’s network to the internet. [1]
lb Describe three other physical network components that Levi will need within the network.
[3]

Levi will be using his laptop and mobile phone to stream music and videos. He also participates
in live video conferences for some of his university lectures.
2 Explain the importance of bandwidth to Levi. [4]

Levi rents his apartment.

3 Explain why Wi-Fi might be more suitable for his desktop computer than a wired
connection. [4]

Levi will use HTTP when browsing websites.

4a Describe the term protocol. [1]
4b Describe the purpose of HTTP. [2]
4c Identify a protocol that Levi might use for receiving emails. [1]

Levi wants to download an item of freeware from the World Wide Web.
5a Explain how Levi can take precautions against malware when downloading
freeware. [4]
5b Describe two other ways in which matware could infect Levi’s computer. [2]
 Chapter 13: Networks

Levi is able to access his university network from home using a fingerprint recognition device.
6a Suggest with reasons two different access rights that Levi might have to the university
network. [2]
6b Explain why the fingerprint device is all that is required for him to access the network. [2]

Levi has decided to subscribe to satellite television.

7a Explain two advantages of Levi subscribing to satellite television instead of using television
broadcast by radio waves. [4]
7b Explain one limitation to Levi of satellite television. [2]
 1M
Chapter 14
Project management
\ v (
4
f

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

describe the stages of project management

discuss diff erent types of project management soft ware and describe their features
describe, interpret and create critical path analysis and Gantt charts
describe disaster recovery management
understand diff erent methods of prototyping
understand computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing

\\r

i
»•
 Chapter 14: Project management

&jjfc yrwofi identified and prioritised. A Gantt chart will be produced

Conception: start of a project
Gantt chart: a chart used for planning a project
Execution: the development stage of a project
to show which tasks need to be completed in which order.
Resources including personnel will be allocated to tasks in
a coordinated manner so that they are available at the right
times. A very important part of planning is to ensure that
:
Closure: completion of a project appropriate amounts of time are allocated to each task and
resource so that tasks can be completed on time, resources
14.01 Stages in project (especially personnel) are not over used and that personnel
have work to do rather than not being used.
management

Q Remember
Every project needs to be managed properly in order to
Execution
Once all plans are in place and the start date arrives,
the project can commence. It is critical that the plan is
ensure deadlines are met, resources are available and
everybody knows what they are doing. followed so that resources are used at the appropriate
times. Any delays to a task can have a knock-on effect to
successor tasks. The project manager will be expected to
Traditional project phases
communicate roles and responsibilities to team members
Planning Monitoring and set interim targets for each member to achieve within
Initiation and and Closing the timescales of the overall plan.
design controlling

Monitoring and control

Throughout the execution of the project, the project manager

K
Executing must monitor the progress and control what is happening.
They will be responsible for ensuring tasks are completed
Figure 14.01 - Project stages. on time and rescheduling any tasks if there are delays. The
project manager will need to monitor the performance of
Conception and initiation team members to ensure they are carrying out their agreed
roles effectively. The project manager will need to monitor
During the conception and initiation stage, the initial ideas
fora project are identified and goals set. Key stakeholders
expenditure and compare it against the budget to ensure that
are identified and decisions are made as to whether it is
overspends don’t occur and keep a close eye on the scope of
the project to make sure it doesn’t extend beyond its agreed
appropriate to undertake a project or not by conducting a
boundaries. There should be regular project review meetings
feasibility study. The feasibility study wilt determine whether
where key stakeholders can discuss the progress of the project.
or not the project is of benefit to an organisation based on
At times, the project plan will need to be adjusted, so there
resources, time and finance. Requirements for the project
is regular iteration between the execution, monitoring and
will be identified so that all stakeholders are aware of the
control, and planning phases as shown in Figure 14.01.
expectations of the project. Objectives of the project, its
scope, risks, approximate budget and approximate timescales
will be defined and agreed with all stakeholders. Closure
When the project is ready to complete, a handover will take
Planning place from the project team to the client. Contracts will be
There is a common phrase, ‘failing to prepare is preparing terminated, which means some people may need to be
to fail’. This is very true in all parts of life, but particularly deployed elsewhere or may need to look for alternative
with project planning. It is essential that the project employment. Resources that have been assigned to the
is planned well so that all stakeholders know their project will be released. A review of the project will take
responsibilities during all stages. A comprehensive budget place between the client and the project management
will be formulated along with details of timescales for the team, where requirements will be evaluated and successes
progress of the project. Milestones will be set, by which will be celebrated. The client will be expected to sign off the
time certain aspects of the project must be complete. Tasks project as completed, so that it is clear there is no further
that have to be completed between each milestone will be work to carry out and closure will have been achieved.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

incur a cost. Where there is only one project manager

who will be closely monitoring the whole project, this can
Before writing a textbook, authors are given a project be useful as desktop software can be sophisticated and
brief that outlines the scope of what they are required cover a large variety of tasks. Some desktop solutions
to write about, the types of pedagogical items to allow multi-user access, but this will require the software
include, the timescales for the delivery of manuscripts to be installed on several desktops and a central network
and payment information. This is all part of planning. location being used to store the project files.
The software will be responsive as it is installed locally
Prior to this, a publisher will have decided that they
and the interface can be highly graphical. However, where
want to publish that particular textbook, and will
collaboration is required on documents or plans are
seek approval from an exam board, which makes the
regularly changing and need to be communicated, this
publisher and the exam board the key stakeholders.
type of software can have its limitations.
During planning, the publisher will have identified a
project manager, an editor, a reviewer and authors, all
of whom are required resources. Web-based
Web-based software can be accessed through a browser.
The execution stage includes the authors writing The main software could be installed on an intranet that is
chapters for the textbook. This is monitored and also made available as an extranet or it could be installed
controlled by the editor who stays in regular in the cloud. As the software is not installed locally,
communication with the authors to check on their there can be delays in waiting for data to be processed
progress and to collect completed chapters. If or delivered to the end user and the data isn’t available
timescales slip, then the project plan is revised as offline, meaningthat if the network connection is broken,
other execution stages such as reviewing, typesetting then data is not available to the user. The graphical
and proofreading are all dependent upon the capability will also be limited due to bandwidth limitations.
manuscript being delivered.
However, web-based software has many advantages over
The project comes to a close when the textbook is desktop software including:
ready to be sent to the printers, the authors have
• access from any computer withoutthe need to install
signed off their copyright and the publisher and exam software
board have approved the final proof.
• access from a smartphone or tablet
• multiple users can access the data at once
• collaboration on documents is possible as they are
stored centrally
1 Explain why it is necessary to iterate between the • only one version of the software will be installed and
planning, execution, and monitoring and control maintained.
stages of project management.
Single-user
Single-user project management systems are usually
desktop systems and it is often the case that desktop
ITypes of project systems are usually single-user systems, too. For small
agement software projects where there is just one project manager and
maybe only a couple of people assigned to tasks, then
this software is appropriate, but it prevents any type of
Collaboration: working together collaboration and communication from within the software
itself, meaning that alternative tools will need to be used.

Desktop Personal
Desktop project management software requires Personal project management software is typically used
installation to a specified computer or set of computers. by home users for small projects such as managing a
Licences are required for each installation and this will building extension or planning a holiday. It will be
 Chapter 14: Project management

single-user software and include a simpler interface that 14.03 Project management
a non-experienced project manager is able to use. ft will
include basic features such as a timeline/calendar, task software
management and resource planning, but it won’t include
any collaboration features or complex features required by
larger organisations. Critical path: the tasks which must be completed on time for
a project to complete on time

Collaborative
Collaborative project management systems are used by
several users at once. There may be several sub-project Planning
managers who are responsible for updating different Most of the planning involved using project management
parts of the plan both duringthe planning stage and software is concerned with scheduling tasks and
when monitoring and controlling. This type of software is allocating resources to those tasks. However, key
often web-based or delivered on a client-server itiodel, milestones can be identified in advance. These are
with project and task information being stored on a when crucial points in the project should be reached,
central server. Some client-server tools include a desktop so tasks should be scheduled to meet these milestones.
application for detailed project management and a web Documents that are likely to be required can be allocated
interface for other project team members to access when to milestones, such as success criteria and specifications.
required. Templates can be used for setting up an initial project
plan. These templates can be provided by the software or
they could be templates that are created based upon an
TASK organisation’s previously successful projects. Through the
Copy the table below on a separate sheet and complete use of project templates, company standards can be set
it with the advantages and disadvantages of each type of up for the way projects should be planned, so employees
project management software. have a common, collaborative and recognisable structure.
Type of software Advantages Disadvantages
Desktop Scheduling of tasks
Web-based Tasks are jobs that need to be completed as part of the
Single-user project. Project management software will enable a project
Personal manager to create a Gantt chart to show an overview of
the tasks that need completing on a timeline. Tasks will
Collaborative
be assigned an estimated number of hours or days that
they will take to complete, together with a deadline for
completion. The project manager will be able to identify
which tasks are dependent upon other tasks and so cannot
start until those other tasks have been completed. Tasks
DISCUSSION POINT
In groups, research the different types of project
can be delegated to other members of the team and
management software available in each category. One prioritised to identify which should be completed first.
person should choose one piece of software from each Team members will be able to record how many hours
category. Report back to your group on costs, features and have been spent on each task and identify when the task
any overlaps with other categories. is complete. Milestones can be identified for crucial points
of the project and these can be highlighted. The project
manager will be able to see an overall calendar of all tasks
that need to be completed, together with calendars for
each team member that is responsible for those tasks.
2 Contrast two advantages of web-based project
management software with two disadvantages
of single-user desktop project management Allocation of resources
software. Resources can be equipment, property or people that are
required to complete a task. These resources will need to
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

be defined within the project management software and team member knows what modifications have been
their availability can be identified so the project manager made and which is the latest version of the document.
knows when they can be utilised. Costs can be assigned The software can email team members to inform them
to any resource, so the project manager can see how their when changes to documents have been made or display
use will affect the budget. Resources can then be assigned an alert on their project dashboard, their home page for
to tasks and a number of hours or days be assigned to the the project management software. This is a much more
use of that resource. The software will help the project controlled manner of dealing with documents than the
manager to avoid resource conflicts and also identify nightmare of email attachments and mixed revisions.
clearly situations where team memberscould experience • Discussions/forums: these can be set up for tasks,
overload. This is when they have too many tasks to documents or milestones so that discussions between
complete during a period of time. team members can be held. This is particularly useful
when all team members are not available at the same
time. Team members will be able to see comments
Costings and suggestions that have been made by others
All resources will have costs allocated to them, so the and respond to them. Email notifications of new
project manager will be able to calculate the total cost of contributions to discussions can be sent or alerts can be
each task based on how many hours each resource is used displayed on project dashboards.
for each task. The software can be used to keep a record
• Progress: the software can inform team members and
of any expenses incurred by team members and account the project manager of progress that is being made.
for these in the overall costs. Daily, weekly, monthly or Team members can update tasks to show how near
custom analysis of expenditure and its comparison to the to completion they are and this progress can be fed
budget can be provided. The software can report on the into the whole project plan. If changes are made to the
total costs for each individual resource or set of resources. project timeline, automated email notifications can be
The costings information will be able to be exported sent out to all affected team members.
to common formats such as spreadsheets for further
manipulation and analysis.
Decision making
All communications within the project management
Communications software can be logged and tracked so that if decisions
Project management software can offer a large variety have been made, then it is possible to clearly identify who
of communication tools which help team members to made each decision and for what reasons. If problems
collaborate throughout the whole project: or issues have been experienced, then these will be
highlighted by the software and decisions can be made as
• Calendars: each team member will have a calendar to what adjustments need to be made, such as changing
showing what they are doing at any time. These can be the timeline or allocating additional resources. These
synchronised with third-party calendars, such as Google, issues can also be monitored to check on progress of the
iCal or Outlook, so that each member’s availability resolution.
is always up to date. This enables meetings to be
scheduled with each team member. Documents can Graphs, charts and reports can be used to analyse the
be attached to these meetings so that they are readily budget, scheduling and task progress. Comparisons
available to each participant. can be made between the plan and what is actually
• Instant messaging/ video chat/ video conferencing: happening during the execution of the project, and then
these tools will enable team members who are working decisions can be made to make changes if necessary. The
remotely from each other to communicate in real time software can show how much time was spent on each task
so that they can share ideas and discuss progress. compared to how much time was planned for that task, so
that lessons can be learned for future tasks that are similar
• Shared documents: all documents should be stored in a
in nature.
central repository so that they are available to the team
members who require access to them. Documents can The software will identify a critical path, which will show
be assigned to tasks, resources or milestones so that all tasks that must complete on time if the project is to
they are available at the right time to the right people. meet its deadline. This can then be monitored closely
Changes to the documents can be tracked so that each and delays can be anticipated in advance and resources
 jpter 14: Project management

diverted to critical tasks if necessary. The software will seconds to boil the kettle is longer than the 60
show an overview of the availability of resources and seconds it takes to do the three parallel tasks.
the time allocated to each and their respective costs, so
that the project manager is able to reallocate them as Sequential tasks cannot be carried out at the
necessary. same time because they are dependent upon
other tasks completing first. For example, boiling
the kettle is dependent upon the kettle being
filled with water and so cannot start until the
3 Explain how project management software can be kettle is filled with water. In this case, the kettle
used for allocating resources to tasks. being filled with water is a predecessor to boiling
the kettle.
Thetotal length of the critical path is calculated by
14.04 Critical path analysis adding up all the sequential tasks plus the longest
of each of the parallel sets of tasks. In this case
that is 15 + 180 + 10 + 5 + 10 = 220 seconds, which
\Mi TERM
is the shortest time it will take to complete the
Predecessor: a task in a project that must be completed project. If any of the tasks on the critical path takes
before another task can start longerthan planned, then the whole project will be
delayed.
A critical path analysis (CPA) finds a project’s critical path.
The critical path identifies which tasks must complete on Some tasks aren’t critical and have what is known as float
time in order for the whole projectto complete on time, time. The float time is the time an activity can be delayed
and defines the minimum time in which the project can be without affecting the rest of the project.
completed.
In the example CPA for making a cup of tea, getting the
milk out of the fridge has a float time of 120 seconds as
it can be delayed this long before it would catch up with
milestone 4.
Figure 14.02 shows a CPA for making a cup of tea.
Boil kettle TASK
Fill 180
kettle Interpret the CPA in Figure 14.03 for building an extension
Put milk .p. Stir
@3 15
x r-' into cup into cup tea to a house.
Put tea 10 5 10
(D Erect roof Tile roof
in cup Put sugar Get milk 4
TO, 5
in cup out offffridg
10 Digfor Install
25
® foundations foundations ®TSfe-<2< windows
5 2 20 3
Figure 14.02 - CPA for cup of tea. 10 r„,! electrics
Plumbing fix 7

The circles represent milestones in the project and 2nd fix Paint Plaster
are numbered for identification purposes. The tasks d>electrics 8
walls
6
3 2 4
are represented by arrows. The numbers next to
Figure 14.03 - CPA for extension.
each task represent the number of seconds the task
will take. For example, pouring water into the cup 1 Identify the longest task.
will take 10 seconds. 2 Flow many milestones are there?
3 Which tasks are dependent upon the bricks being
Some tasks can be completed in parallel to other laid?
tasks. For example, boiling the kettle can take 4 Which tasks can run parallel to installing the
place at the same time as putting tea in the cup, windows?
putting sugar in the cup and getting milk out of the 5 Flow many days is the critical path?
fridge. Where there are parallel tasks, the longest 6 Which tasks form the critical path?
timeline forms the critical path. In this case, 180
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

To create a CPA it is necessary to know the following D H

© T 3
information: 1
2 _G_
T 4 2
T

• the list of tasks o E J.

3 3
• how long each task will take
• which tasks are dependent upon predecessors. Figure 14.06 - CPA part 3.

This information can be shown in an activity dependence

table

TASK
Complete a CPA for the following scenario:
Task Days Dependencies
Task Days Dependencies A 3

A 3 B 5

B 2 A C 4

C 6 A D 18 A

D 1 B E 16 B

E 3 C F 12 C
G 7 E, F
F 5 D
H 11 D.G
G 4 E,F
2 H
H 3 G
2 G
J 3 G

First, add any tasks to the diagram that have no 14.05 Gantt charts
predecessors. A Gantt chart is used to show the start and finish
dates of each task, the predecessors for each task, the
©— progress of each task and the current position within the
project. Tasks are listed with their start and finish dates.
Figure 14.04 - CPA part 1. A bar will represent each task. Each bar can be shaded
in to show the percentage of the task that has been
Then add on any tasks that are dependent on completed. Arrows are used to show which tasks are
task A. dependent upon other tasks. A line or other indicator
can be used to show the current position (time) within
2
B, the project. It’s also possible to identify the resources
2
required, usually by listing the person responsible for
OS 1
.c each task.
{>
3 Creating a Gantt chart follows a similar process to creating
a CPA. In addition to knowing the list of tasks, how long
Figure 14.05 - CPA part 2.
each task will take and which tasks are dependent upon
predecessors, you will also need to know the start date of
Continue task by task until there is a completed
the first task and the resources that are allocated to each
diagram.
task.
 Chapter 14: Project management
1

EXAMPLE
w
Figure 14.07 shows a Gantt chart for developing a book.
G*nTT
pro/ril
2015 2016
i
Ty*i T r
Marne 1 eeqin dalfej End dale Coordinator Duration
Apr! Ml km WBU l 'MPH :l
i
Odobei January
i
Fetnnry
i
March

Author writing 06M4M5 jaort'drt 5 Author 150;

- Copy Editing
Develop graphics
02/11/15 11/12/15
02/11/16 20/11/15
Copyeditor
Graphics artist
30j
15
Typesetting 14/12/15 22/12/15 T>pesetter 7 |=)
• Proofreading

Indering
14/12/15
14/12/15
22/01/16
22/01/16
Proofreader
Proofreader s
3;
Final compilation 25/01/16 02/02/16 Typesetter
Printing 03/02/16 11/02/16 Pnnter
•• Shipping 12/02/16 24/03/16 Distributor 30

Figure 14.07 - Gantt chart.

On the left-hand side you can see the task list together with beginning dates and times, coordinators and the
duration. The yellow bars represent the time that each task takes. This makes it much easier to see the float time
that is available. Dependencies are shown by the arrows from the end of a predecessor to the start of another task.
The black lines represent how much of each task has currently been completed and the red line represents the
current time. Therefore, assuming that the progress is correct, the project is running slightly behind schedule. The
diagonal lines on the yellow bars represent the critical path.

o
DISCUSSION POINT
Figure 14.08 is the PERT chart that has been generated from the Gantt chart using the GanttProject software.
Author writing Copy Editing Typesetting
- -
Final compilation Printing Shipping
Start: 06/04/15 Start: 02/11/15 Start: 14/12/15 Start: 25/01/16 Start: 03/02/16 Start: 12/02/16
End: 31/10/15 End: 12/12/15 End: 23/12/15 End: 03/02/16 End: 12/02/16 End: 25/03/16
Duration: 150 Duration: 30 Duration: 7 Duration: 7 Duration: 7 Duration: 30

Develop graphics Proofreading

Start: 02/11/15 Start: 14/12/15
End: 21/11/15 End: 23/01/16
Duration: 15 Duration: 30

Indexing
Start: 14/12/15
End: 23/01/16
Duration: 30

Figure 14.08 - PERT chart.

Look at the similarities and differences to a CPA and a Gantt chart.

TASK
CD 14.01 House extension.gan
Interpret the Gantt chart in Figure 14.09 for building a house extension. The Gantt chart is saved as CD 14.01 House extension.
gan and was created using GanttProject, which can be used to open the files.
GÿnTT « 2015
project
i i i 1 I I I l I I
Begin dale j End dale
7eek 36 Week 37 Week 38 Week 39 Week 40 Week 41 Week 42 Week 43 Week 44 Week 45 Wteek46 Week 47
Name Predecessors] Duration] Coordinator
-•1.09/15
- Dig for foundations 02/09/15
Lay foundations 09/09/15
08/09/15
10/09/15 0
5 Ground Works
2 Ground Works
lAja/io 07,00/16 1.109/15 28/00/16 OSMO/lfi 12/10/15 19/10/15 .25/ 0/15 02/11/15 OQ/lt/10 15/11/16

<* Lay bricks 11/09/15 08/10/15 1 20 Brick Layer

u Eredrool 09/10/15 22/10/15 2 lORoorer
u Tile tool 23/10/15 29/10/15 3 5 Roofer
• First fix electrics 30/10/15 09/11/15 4 7 Electrician
° Plumbing 09/10/15 22/10/15 2 10 Plumber
«Plaster walls 10/11/15 13/11/15 5.6 4 Decorator
•Paint walls 16/11/15 17/11/15 7 2 Decorator
Second tu electrics 118/11/15 20/11/15 8 3 Electrician l.

Figure 14.09 - Gantt chart for house extension.

 -I:=HE3

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

1 Which task has float time?

2 Which tasks are currently in progress (started but not finished)?
3 The plumbing appears to be behind schedule. Will this affect the whole project finish date? Why?
4 Which tasks are the predecessors for plastering the walls?

o DISCUSSION POINT
Figure 14.10 is the resources chart for the house extension project. You can see when each resource will be being used, with gaps for
weekends.
GÿnTT 2015
project l I I I I
/eek 36 Week 37 Week 38 Week 39 Week 40 Week 41 Week 42 Week 43 Week 44 Week 45 Week 46 Week 47
Name Default role 1/08/15 O/Ad/IS I4SSU/15 2IA1D/I5 28*»/16 05/10/15 12/10/15 10/10/15 20/10/15 02/11/15 00/11/lfl 10/11/15
®-
•Plumber undefined 1= 1=1
o-
•Roofer undefined i—i i—i erf
®-
•Brick Layer undefined
®- ® Electrician undefined i—i
®- ® Groundworks undefined cm
*>•
• Decorator undefined
Window installers undefined

Figure 14.10 - Resource chart for house extension.

J

EXAMPLE Then add on any tasks that are dependent on task

A, to start the day after task A finishes.
Task A starts on 1January 2016.
JAN
Task Days Dependencies Resources 123456789
A 3 R1 Task Duration Start End Resources
B 2 A R1 A 3 1-1-16 3-1-16 R1
C 6 A R2 B 2 4-1-16 5-1-16 R1
C 6 4-1-16 9-1-16 R2
D 1 B R1 D 1 R1
E 3 c R2 E 3 R2
F 5 R3
F 5 D R3 G 4 R3
H 3 R5
G 4 E.I R3
2 R2
H 3 G R5
I 2 G R2 Figure 14.12 - Gantt chart part 2.
J 3 G R6
First, create a list of tasks, the duration and the Continue task by task until there is a completed
Gantt chart.
resources required and identify the start and finish
dates of the first task.
JAN
JAN 1 20
1 234567
Task Duration Start End Resources
Task Duration Start End Resources A 3 1-1-16 3-1-16 R1
A 3 1-1-16 3-1-16 R1 B 2 4-1-16 5-1-16 R1
B 2 R1 C 6 4-1-16 9-1-16 R2
C 6 R2 D 1 6-1-16 6-1-16 R1 :
D 1 R1 E 3 10-1-16 12-1-16 R2 tq
E 3 R2 F 5 7-1-16 11-1-16 R3
F 5 R3 G 4 13-1-16 16-1-16 R3
G 4 R3 H 3 17-1-16 19-1-16 R5 fc=i
H 3 R5 I 2 17-1-16 18-1-16 R2 fa
I 2 R2 J 3 17-1-16 19-1-16 R6
J 3 R6
Figure 14.13 - Gantt chart part 3.
Figure 14.11 - Gantt chart part 1.
 Chapter 14: Project management

• theft of data
TASK • corruption of data
Complete a Gantt chart for the following scenario • loss of key personnel.
commencing on 1April 2017.
Some of these risks involve people who could deliberately
Task Days Dependencies cause problems. These people are known as perpetrators.
A 3 Each risk will then be quantified in terms of its likelihood
B 5 on a scale from 0.0 to 1.0, where 0.0 represents it never
C 4 happening to 1.0 which represents it as being almost
D 18 A inevitable.
E 16 B
F 12 C Within an organisation, there will be a number of business
G 7 E, F activities that are carried out. Each business activity will
H 11 D, G need to be identified. The impact of that business activity
2 H not being able to take place then needs to be analysed. The
impact for each activity not being able to take place will
be measured on a scale from 0.0 to 1.0 where 0.0 means
that there is no impact to 1.0 meaning that the impact is
absolutely critical to the aims of the organisation.
Impacts could include:
14.06 Disaster recovery • loss of revenue
management • damage to organisation’s image
Sometimes disasters occur, such as a power cut, flood, • penalty fees
fire, theft of data, malware, corruption of data, loss of • cost of recovery
network admin password or loss of the network manager. • effect on other business activities.
When this happens it is necessary to recover from the
From this analysis, activities can be categorised, for
disaster. A disaster recovery plan (DRP) is needed for
example:
such events so that recovery can be completed as quickly
and effectively as possible, minimising disruption to the • activities which must continue
organisation. • activities which could be scaled down
• activities which could be suspended.
Risk assessment Analysis of the impacts should also cover how the impact
Risk assessment involves identifying the potential risks changes over different time periods, for example in the
to an organisation, analysing the potential impact to the first hour, 24 hours, 48 hours, week etc.
organisation and the likelihood of each risk occurring. This The overall risk to an organisation of each potential
is often carried out alongside a systematic process known
as business impact analysis (BIA), which quantifies the
disaster/risk can now be quantified by multiplying the
likelihood by the impact:
impact of a disaster in terms of financial and non-financial
costs. Risk = Likelihood x Impact
A risk assessment will identify a number of potential This will now show which risks are the most important to
hazards including: guard against and ensure that recovery plans are robust.
This can be done for each risk, for each business activity
• power cut or for a combination of each.
• fire
• flood
• denial of access to premises TASK
• malware Search the web for risk analysis templates and investigate
• unauthorised access to data the sorts of risks to which organisations are susceptible.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

that are required to recover from the disaster must be

DISCUSSION POINT identified and planned for. The recovery point objective
Different methodologies exist for analysing risks. Another (RPO) must also be identified. The RPO is the point in time
way of quantifying the risk is to use a matrix like the one in
prior to the disruption to which data must be recovered.
Figure 14.14 which shows how important each risk should
be considered based on the combination of impact and It is important to plan how long each recovery process
likelihood. will take. There will be some parts of recovery where the
Very high time is fixed, but other parts where if more resources are
5 allocated then the recovery can be quicker. When planning
HIM
4
for the recovery time, two key measurements should be
Medium considered:
3
Low • maximum tolerable downtime (MTD): this is the
2
maximum time that each business activity could
Very low
1 tolerate not having access to their essential system
Impact 1 2 3 4 5 functionality
Likelihood Rare Unlikely Possible Likely Almost
certain • recovery time objective (RTO): this is the estimated
maximum amount oftime that the organisation or
Figure 14.14 - Risk mitigation overview.
business activity has in which to recover its systems and
resume operations.
Securing the risk Priorities will be identified based on the MTD for each
Once the risks have been identified and prioritised, measures business activity, therefore ensuring that activities with
need to be put into place to protect against those risks. the lowest MTD are functioning again the soonest.
Most of these measures have been discussed in Chapter 13
(Networks), including access rights and passwords, biometric
Recovery testing
methods, firewalls, backups, encryption, malware security
Plans are important, and a plan is better than no plan,
and physical security methods.
but plans don’t always work. It is therefore important to
One of the risks that hasn’t been discussed previously test disaster recovery plans. This is particularly applicable
is the potential to lose key personnel. If a person leaves, to restoring data and systems. Backed up data should
is suddenly ill, dies or has to be dismissed, then the be tested daily to ensure that the backup process has
organisation loses all of that person’s knowledge which succeeded and that the backup data is accessible. Full
has not been documented. It is therefore importantto system restorations should be tested periodically by
guard against personnel loss by requiring key personnel attempting to restore whole server backups onto a clean
to document procedures that they follow. It’s also wise server and testing their success.
to have at least two people who know the main system
administration password or to have a copy of it written
down in a sealed envelope in a safe that has limited access. TASK
Back up your personal data from your school network.
Recovery management Now recover it to your home computer and test whether
Procedures need to be put into place to plan for recovery you are able to open the files.
after a disaster has occurred. This can include planning for:
• restoration of backups
• replacement of hardware
• reinstallation of software 4 Identify three risks that should be considered during
• emergency replacement of key personnel disaster recovery planning.
• emergency office accommodation. 5 Explain why it is important to test recovery
When planning for these situations, any resources in terms procedures.
of personnel, technology, data, supplies and premises
 "

Chapter 14: Project management

7 Prototyping Each prototype will be build upon the previous one

and include more functionality until a final product
is built. At each stage, only clearly understood
requirements are developed. Each prototype can be
Prototype: a 'mock-up' of a software or manufactured functional and if required can be used by the client
solution until the next evolution of the prototype is ready.
RAD: rapid application development This means that the end users may request enhanced
or new features that they discover they require as
the prototypes are being developed, features they
A prototype is a ‘mock-up’ of a software solution in wouldn’t have envisaged at the initial requirements
a primitive form. It is used during the design stage to specification stage.
demonstrate how a system will look and work. It is usually
focused on the user interface, rather than any data Throwaway/rapid prototyping
structures. It is used so that the client can get a feel for
With throwaway prototyping, also known as rapid
the new system before it is developed and can provide
prototyping, the prototype will never become part of the
feedback that can then be acted upon. The client is also
final delivered software, but will be discarded. A loosely
able to compare the prototype against the requirements
working model is created following a short investigation,
specification. The client also has an opportunity to explain
with the aim being to get something tangible to the
their requirements more clearly having seen the designer’s
client as soon as possible for feedback as to how well the
interpretation.
requirements are being met.

Types of prototyping
Evolutionary/incremental prototyping Initial requirements
This type of prototyping takes an iterative approach
in that requirements are specified, an initial prototype
Rapid prototype
is developed, the prototype is reviewed and then
requirements are clarified and the prototype is improved
based on feedback.
Client feedback

Initial requirements
Specify final requirements

Initial prototype Figure 14.16 - Throwaway prototyping.

This enables the requirements to be fine-tuned early in

Feedback the process, which is more cost-effective than trying to
make changes later when considerable work has been
carried out. The main aspect to the prototype will be the
Refine requirements user interface which the client will be able to test and
experience. The interface will appear to work by being
simulated.
Refine prototype

The advantages and disadvantages of

Final product prototyping
The advantages and disadvantages of prototyping are
Figure 14.15 - Iterative prototyping. shown in Table 14.01.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Advantages Disadvantages Methods of software development

Problems can be identified Requirements analysis can Rapid application development
early during the process be rushed, meaning that Rapid application development (RAD) uses prototyping
and modifications made prototypes don’t reflect to develop a system in a very short time frame, usually
before it becomes very much ofwhattheend less than six months. Instead of following a traditional
costly to make changes. users were expecting. requirements gathering approach, requirements are
Requirements can be With rapid prototyping, gathered through focus groups. Users are key players
clarified and refined the prototype can become in the prototyping stage and provide feedback for
following feedback on the rushed and, when trying to refinements. This type of user involvement is known as
prototypes. develop it into a working joint application development (JAD) because the user
system, it may have is jointly involved with the developer in the
significant design flaws or development of the system. Less time is spent on
structural errors that carry planning and design and more emphasis is put on the
through to the end solution. development phase.
The end users will be When users see the Strict deadlines are allocated throughout the
involved more in the prototype, they can often development of the system to ensure that the product
process, giving them more get lots of new ideas about is developed and finished on time by allocating time
ownership of the solution features they would like boxes to the development of each requirement.
and providing valuable to be included, which can This requires understanding from the user that, if
feedback. lead to disappointment requirements are too complex, then they must be
if these features can’t be simplified or removed from the project. The RAD
funded. This is known as approach will also try to reuse any modules of software
‘feature creep’. _ that already exist and are available, rather than
If the prototype is When users see what looks always developing from scratch. Software application
evolutionary, then users like a working interface with frameworks can be used to develop the solution
can get used to using a throwaway prototype, whereby a complex graphical user interface can be
parts of the system before they don’t realise how created using drag and drop functionality. This enables
having to use the whole much more effort is users to be involved in the actual design of the interface
system, which will reduce required to make it into a as part of the JAD approach and they can see the
the need for bulk training. working solution and may interface taking shape in realtime.
It’s much cheaper to make
have false expectations as
to the timescale. Waterfall method
changes earlier in the
process than after real The iterative process of

n
development has taken feedback can sometimes Requirements
place. last too long if the user is
regularly wanting changes
to be made to the latest Design

By listening to feedback
prototype. _
The initial costs of
Q
from end users, developing a prototype Implementation
the developers will
have a much better
are high compared with
traditional designs.
1
understanding of what the
users are expecting and so
a better quality solution
Verification

n
Maintenance
will be provided.

Table 14.01 - Advantages and disadvantages of prototyping. Figure 14.17 - Waterfall method.
 Chapter 14: Project management

The waterfall method involves gathering all the user

Advantages Disadvantages
requirements at the beginning of the project. There will be
considerable communication with the user at this stage in As users are involved The structure of
order to elicit the requirements of the potential solution. throughout the whole the system may be
When the requirements are defined, the process runs project, it is quickly compromised, leading to
‘downhill’ like a waterfall. recognised when a instability, as the focus
requirement is over- is on the user interface
During the design stage, the interface and the structure
ambitious and therefore and getting a system
of the system will be designed. During implementation, the requirement can be developed rapidly.
often referred to as development, the system will be
simplified or removed at an
developed, which often involves programming. The early stage.
purpose of the verification phase is to ensure that the
project meets the customer’s requirements. The system The strict deadlines ensure The strict deadlines
will then be used and during its use there may be that the project will be mean that some parts
problems that are discovered that need to be corrected completed on time and of the project could
or other changes that need to be made. This is known as prevents ‘feature creep’. be rushed and not
maintenance. completed to a high
enough quality.
The waterfall method relies upon the requirements
being clearly defined, which is an unrealistic expectation, Prototyping of the Existing software modules
so it is fundamentally flawed. It was originally used in interface with user will not have been designed
manufacturing and then adopted into computing, but involvement means less for the exact requirements
with adaptions that included the need to revisit the time is spent on design of the system and so may
requirements. and more on development, not provide sufficient
leading to a shorter overall functionality.
The system life cycle, discussed in Chapter 15, is based project.
on the waterfall model and there are many variations in !
Software application Software application
existence.
frameworks mean that frameworks don’t produce
a user interface can particularly efficient code
The advantages and disadvantages of RAD be developed quickly and so the end solution will
The advantages and disadvantages of RAD are shown in and users can even be not run as quickly as if it
Table 14.02. involved in configuring had been developed from
the layouts of screens and scratch.
Advantages Disadvantages reports.

The high level of user Requirements are not Users who are not involved
involvement means that clearly specified from the in the JAD approach may
the end solution is more outset and so the final be disappointed that they
likely to be suitable for the solution may not meet didn’t have a say in the
end users, who will also the entire needs of the process and the system
have ownership of the organisation. may not meet their specific
solution. needs.
Users are often not sure Users are required Table 14.02 - Advantages and disadvantages of RAD.
of what the requirements throughout the whole
of a system should be process and they also have
from the outset and their normal day jobs to
so the evolutionary do. This can lead to work 6 Compare and contrast evolutionary and throwaway
approach of RAD enables overload or the need for prototyping.
the requirements to temporary staff.
7 Describe joint application development.
evolve.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

14.08 Computer-aided design and • textiles production

computer-aided manufacturing • carpentry
• manufacturing of components
C • printed circuit boards.
CAD: computer-aided design
CAM: computer-aided manufacture

IKEA provides CAD tools to its customers for

designing living spaces such as kitchens, bedrooms
Computer-aided design (CAD) involves the use of
and bathrooms. This enables a customer to position
computers to design physical products. Computer-aided
furniture in a virtual room and to try out different
manufacturing (CAM) involves the use of computers to
layouts. The customer can view the layout from
manufacture physical products. CAD/CAM applications
different angles in a 3D view. Different options for
involve the use of computers to design the physical
colours of walls, style of cupboards and worktops can
products and then the application uses the design to
be selected and modified until a preferred solution is
manufacture the physical product to match the exact
found. The customer is also given a full breakdown of
design.
the parts needed and the cost for each part.

M The benefits and drawbacks of CAD and CAM

The benefits and drawbacks of CAD and CAM are shown in
Table 14.03.

Benefits Drawbacks
Expensive prototypes are Both CAD and CAM have
¥ r/J
not always necessary as
users can experience 3D
led to the loss of jobs and
the need for reskilling of
models, and stress testing employees.
can be carried out on these
H 3D models.
CAD drawings can be Testing using a model will
Figure 14.18 - Motor vehicle design. modified and enhanced never provide the same
without manufacturing results as testing using the
CAD uses vector graphics to create objects in two cost until a final version is manufactured product
dimensions (2D) or three dimensions (3D). Due to the completed. and so at least one
manufacturing nature of CAD, it is common to use 3D manufactured prototype
tools. A plan view is often used in 2D and the CAD software is required before mass
will render a 3D view, which can be viewed from any angle production.
and zoomed in or out. Objects can be stretched, resized
A list of required materials Although a user can
and moved and properties such as material and colour
can be produced from experience a 3D model, it
can be changed.
the CAD drawings is not the same as walking
Object libraries will be available within CAD software so automatically. through a real building or
that the user can select standard objects. For example, if holding a real product.
designing a house, an object library could include steel CAD models can be CAD software i$ very
beams, walls, paving slabs, windows and doors. Other viewed from many angles complex and so highly
applications for CAD/CAM include: by rotating the model and trained staff are required
• landscaping elements can be magnified to use it.
• vehicle manufacturing by zooming in.
 Benefits Drawbacks
Components that have Initial costs of purchasing 8 Describe how CAD could be used to design an
been designed once can CAD software can be high. extension to a house.
be reused. 9 Give one disadvantage of GAM.
CAD requires fewer Designs developed with
designers than traditional CAD will include errors
drafters and so is cheaper made by the designer 9 Summai
for business. as the software is not
intelligent enough to The five stages of project management include conception
know when the wrong and initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and
materials have been control, and closure.
used. Different types of project management software include
CAM enables products Designers are limited desktop, web-based, single-user and collaborative.
to be mass-produced to using vector objects Project management software can be used for planning
consistently. based on geometrical the project, scheduling tasks, allocating resources,
modelling. budgeting, communicating and making decisions.

CAM is more precise than Critical path analysis identifies which tasks must complete
manufacturing on time in order for the whole project to complete on time.
by hand and can deal Gantt charts show start and finish dates of tasks, allocated
with tiny measurements. resources, predecessors, progress and the current
Manufacturer’s drawings position within the project.
can be created seamlessly.
CAM removes the need
Disaster recovery management involves writing a
disaster recovery plan in case there is a disaster. Disaster
m
recovery plans should include an assessment of risks,
for manual labour and
so reduces costs for
methods of securing the risks, methods of recovery and
business. plans fortesting the recovery methods work.
Prototyping is a 'mock-up’ of a software solution in a
Table 14.03 - Benefits and drawbacks of CAD and CAM. primitive form and can be evolutionary/incremental or
throwaway/rapid. Rapid application development uses
prototyping to develop a system in a very short time
frame. The waterfall method of development identifies
TASK
user requirements at the start of the project, similar to
Find out how CAD/CAM is used in dentistry and the system life cycle. Computer-aided design is the use of
prosthetics. computers to design physical products and computer-aided
manufacturingturns those designs into physical products.

Review questions
A landscape gardening company has commissioned a software development company to
develop a new piece of software that can be used by customers to view a model of what their
new garden might look like. A project manager has been appointed to oversee the project.
1 Identify four stages of project management that will be coordinated by the project
manager. [4]
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

The project will involve a large team.

2a Give reasons for the use of web-based collaborative project management software. [4]
2b Identify one other type of project management software that would not be suitable. [1]
3 Describe how the project management software can help the project manager to allocate
resources to the project. [2]

The project manager has the option of using critical path analysis (CPA) and a Gantt chart for
planningthe timescales of the project.
4a Compare CPA with a Gantt chart. [2]
4b Identify two features available in a Gantt chart that are not shown on CPA. [2]

An evolutionary prototype approach will be used during the design and development of the
software.
5a Define the term ‘prototype’. [1]
5b Evaluate the reasons for the project manager choosing an evolutionary approach. [4]

The software will include CAD tools.

6 Suggestthree objects that could he included in the object library for the CAD software. [3]
Chapter 15
System life cycle

:ti
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

evaluate different methods of analysis

describe the contents of specifications
design a solution
evaluate suitable hardware and software
explain and analyse different types of testing
create a test plan
describe and analyse different implementation methods
design, develop and explain the need for documentation
evaluate a new system
explain different types of maintenance
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

O—,Maintenance: changes made to a system after its

be quicker to conduct interviews than spend time
preparing questionnaires. An exception to this would be
if it is impossible to arrange an appointment time with
implementation
a user or users, in which case questionnaires could be
Requirements specification: what a user needs a new
used as an alternative to interviews. The disadvantage
system to do
of this is that it doesn’t allow the analyst the opportunity
System specification: the hardware and software needed to
run the system to ask the user to elaborate on answers without
Design specification: illustration of how the system will look,
contacting the user again.
what the data structures will be and how the system will work Questions need to be asked in a way in which the
required information can be elicited from users, but also
so that the responses can be analysed collectively. This
Some terms are used differently by different models. often means providing multiple choice responses so that
Of particular note is the term ‘implementation’. In the each response can be counted. It’s also important to
traditional system life cycle, implementation is the ensure that the questionnaire does not take too long for
stage where the design is implemented, which means users to complete as otherwise not many responses may
the system is programmed or developed. Throughout be returned.
this chapter, this stage will be called development,
which is the term used by Cambridge International
Examinations. Other versions use implementation
to refer to the point at which the new system is
implemented, which means the system is installed.
During the analysis for a new school reports system,
Cambridge uses the term ‘implementation’ to mean
the analyst wantsto find out from pupils, teachers
the ‘installation’ phase. Some models include a
and parents what information should be included
D documentation stage. However, the traditional model
assumes that documentation is happening throughout
the whole life cycle.
on the report. One question that could be asked
would be:
Please rate from 1to 5 the importance of the
Feasibility and maintenance are not usually carried
following information on the school report (1 is not
out by the main development team of a new system.
important, 5 is very important):
Therefore, the analysis, design, development, testing and
installation phases are a subsection of the system life • Attendance total halfdays
cycle known as the system development cycle. • Attendance percentage
• Number of negative behavioural events
15.01 Analysis • Number of positive praise events
Analysis involves finding out how the current system • Academic grade for each subject
works and what the requirements of the client are forthe • Position/rank in class for each subject
new system. • Percentage score for each end of year exam
A variety of methods can be used to research current • Average score for all exams
systems and the requirements of a new system. • Comment from subject teacher
• Targets from subject teacher
Questionnaires • Comment from house tutor
Questionnaires are used when information is required • Target grade.
from a large number of users when it would be
impractical to interview them all. A large number This will allow the analyst to consider the
of users also means there is a large sample size for importance attributed to each piece of information
the results of the questionnaire to be quantified and by the three different groups of people, which will
compared. They are not suitable when there are only a contribute to deciding what is included on the
small number of users involved as there is not a large reports and how prominent a position each piece of
enough sample size to gauge opinion and it would information will take.
 Chapter 15: System life cycle

An alternative way of asking this question would be: requirements of the organisation as a whole and the
information that is required for decision making. If end
Please list any information you would like to be users are being interviewed, then the questions need
included on the school report. to be aimed at finding out what the users need to make
This would make it very difficult to quantify the their jobs more efficient. Interviews don’t have to be
responses and analyse the findings as each with individual users. They can take place with groups
respondent would give very different answers. By of users or focus groups that represent user groups or
providing the list, the analyst is able to give the customers.
respondents a starting point. The logistics of each interview also needs to be planned.
It can sometimes be difficult to find a time when both
the analyst and the client are available, especially if the
A mixture of multiple choice questions, opinion ratings
client has a busy schedule. Honesty is important during
and open questions should be used. This will provide
interviews so that the analyst can get an accurate picture
a balance of quantitative analysis of closed questions
of how tasks are completed. This can sometimes be
and a qualitative analysis of open questions where users
difficult to achieve as end users may not want to admit to
are able to suggest alternative ideas to those presented
taking shortcuts in their tasks or not carrying out tasks to
by the questionnaire. Questions should also be written
the best of their ability. In these situations, anonymous
in a way which does not threaten users and the way
questionnaires can get more honest responses. With
they currently do their work. Users should be given the
interviews, the analyst has to be involved with every
opportunity to return their questionnaires anonymously
interview and this can result in a lot of time being used
because that means more honest answers are likely to
up early in the project.
be given.

Observation
DISCUSSION POINT
Observation involves the analyst watching the
Questionnaires should ideally be completed online. This processes that take place within an organisation to
means that the results are immediately stored and readily find out how everyday tasks are completed. This can
available for detailed analysis in the form of graphs and involve sitting with users to understand the tasks they
tables. Filters can be applied to the results and responses have to complete, with an opportunity to ask questions
can be compared based on the answers given to another of the users to elicit further information that could be
question. For example, a filter could be applied to compare
needed for a requirements specification. This can
the responses of all males who work part-time compared
with males who work full-time. give a very good understanding of the current input
data, processing methods and output information.
Other options can include wandering around an office
throughout the day to see how information is shared
Interviews amongst users.
Interviews involve a direct conversation between the
One disadvantage of this method is that when users
analyst and the client. Where there is a single end user or are being observed, they may do things differently from
small group of end users then interviews are the perfect normal or they may be more efficient and so this does
solution, because questions can be asked of the users and not give the analyst a true picture of what is happening.
a conversation can take place which can expand upon
The analyst needs to be able to identify how long tasks
answers that are given with follow-up questions searching
genuinely take and any inefficiencies that could be
for further detail. Even in large organisations, interviews
improved upon. By observing users directly, the analyst
can still be used with key stakeholders or representatives
can get first-hand experience of the inefficiencies and
of user groups. can plan to overcome these. Of course, some users may
Questions to be asked during interviews should be not like being watched and this may cause them some
planned and designed to elicit the required information stress, which means they don’t perform as they would do
from the client. The questions will vary depending on normally. Although this method can take up a lot of time,
who is being interviewed. If management are being it is the most insightful method of finding out how an
interviewed, then the questions will focus on the organisation works.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Document analysis Requirements Design System

Existing documents within an organisation can tell an specification specification specification
analyst a lot about the information that is currently being Created by the Created by the Created by the
used. analyst. designer. designer.
Contract Shows what the Identifies the
TASK
between system will look software and
developer and like. hardware
Examine the receipt in Figure 15.01.

m
client. needed to run

k Identifies what Describes how

the system.
Identifies the

km v.,v the system must

do.
the system
should work.
minimum
hardware

J\ Specifies the
data structure to
needed to run
the system.

be used.
Table 15.01- The different types of specification.
Figure 15.01 - Receipt.
Requirements specification
1 Identify the output information that is included on the A requirements specification is a contract between the
receipt. developer and the client. It will specify exactly what the
2 Identify any calculations that are likely to have taken client needs the system to do so that the developer can
place on the receipt. produce a system that meets the client’s needs. The
3 Identify which information is likely to be the same analyst will usually write the requirements specification in
for all receipts and which information is likely to be consultation with the client who will approve it.
different for each receipt.
A requirements specification should include:

The analyst will need to see examples of any documents • the purpose of the system
that show output information or give an indication of what • the main objectives of the system
data is being collected for input to a system. The analyst • data that must be output from the system (e.g. invoices,
can sometimes also identify processes that take place by sales reports)
looking at documents. It’s also possible to estimate the • data that needs to be input to the system to generate the
amount of data that is likely to be required if the volume of outputs, including any screens or data collection forms
documents is known. • validation and verification that is needed for input data
This method is not to be used on its own but must be • processes that need to take place to convert inputs into
used in conjunction with other analysis methods, as it outputs or to store data
is difficult to identify the processes just by looking at • data that need to be stored
documents. Examination of the documents also only • functional requirements such as performance measures
shows data that is currently output and doesn’t give the • deadlines for each milestone within the project.
analyst an opportunity to find out what additional data
an organisation might need or what data the organisation
does not need. This information can be found out by
following up document analysis with interviews. Here is an extract from a requirements specification
for a new town council website. The extract shows
The content of specifications specific data that is required on the home page in
There are three types of specification used within the life addition to that which will have been specified for all
cycle. These can be summarised as shown in Table 15.01. pages:
 Chapter 15: System life cycle

• Quick links data structures will be and how the system will work. It is
• Show list of links editable by content manager intended to give the user an idea of what the system will
• Initially to be: look like before it is developed so that the user’s feedback
• How can I get involved? (go to Consultations) can be incorporated into the final designs. The developer
• How can I stand for council? (go to Elections will then follow the designs.
arrangements)
• When is the next steering group meeting? (go to Later in this chapteryou will learn how to design:
Meetings)
• flowcharts
• When will I be able to vote for councillors? (go to
Key dates) • data flow diagrams
• What powers does the Town Council have? • data collection forms
• How do I report a problem? (go to City Council • screen layouts
sub-page) • validation routines
• When can I vote for councillors? (go to Elections • data dictionary.
2016 arrangements)
In addition to this, a design specification will include:
• News list
• Picture, news title, date (taken from list of news) • house style (logos, colours, fonts, styles, sizes)
• Button:view all news • screen sizes
* To show latest four news articles • connectivity diagram to show links between screens
• What’s on list
• Picture, event title with hyperlink, date and
• purpose of calculations.
time (taken from List of events, Key dates and
Meetings)
• Button: view all events
1 Identify five stages in the system life cycle.
• Button: view all key dates
• To show next four events. 2 Explain why interviews are better than
questionnaires for smaller groups of users.
3 State the purpose of the system specification.
System specification
A system specification lists all the software and
hardware that is needed for the new system. The software
needs to be identified first as the hardware will depend 15.02 Design
upon what software is needed. Only software that is
needed to run the system shoutd be specified. There may
be different software identified for different types of users DFD: data flow diagram which shows how data moves around
and for servers. a system
System flowchart: an overview of how a system works in a
Once the software is known, the minimum hardware
diagrammatic format
required to run thatsoftware can be identified. In addition
to this, the analyst needs to consider how much storage
space is going to be required forthe data being used by
the system. The analyst will probably also recommend Diagrams can be used to describe how a current
system works (during analysis) orthey can also be used
higher than minimum specifications so that the system
to demonstrate how a new system will work (during
functions at a reasonable speed. These specifications will
include the processing power and the amount of memory design).
required. External hardware components that are needed
should also be specified and these should be based upon Data flow diagram
the requirements of the user. A data flow diagram (DFD) shows how data flows
throughout a system. It is not about the order of
Design specification processes, it is purely about the data flows. The
The design specification is produced by the designer elements shown in Table 15.02 are used within
and is an illustration of how the system will look, what the a DFD.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Element Purpose Symbol

Data flow This is the data that is flowing throughout the
system. Figure 15.02 - Data flow symbol.
Process This is an action that uses or manipulates data.

Figure 15.03 - Process symbol.

Data store This is a place where data is stored. This could be a
hard disk, cloud storage or a paper file, for example.
Figure 15.04 - Data store symbol.
External entity This is where the data originates or is destined.

Figure 15.05 - External entity symbol.

Table 15.02 - DFD elements.

DFDs can exist at many levels. At level 0, or context level, To create a level 0 DFD, you should identify the external
the diagram will show the whole system and the data entities and the data flows between the external
flows between the whole system and any external entities, entities and the system. It is important to remember
such as customers, suppliers, members, guests etc. that it is the data flow that is being represented and not
physical objects. Each data flow will be in one direction
only.

A hotel accepts online bookings for its hotel rooms.

Guests make a booking online and the booking is
received by the hotel. When the customer arrives, they
o DISCUSSION POINT
DFDs can also be considered to be one of the final
are given an electronic key which includes encrypted stages of analysis as they can be used to record
data that will unlock the door and allow purchases at the data flows that are currently taking place
the bar. At the end of the stay, the guest is presented within an existing system.
with a bill which must be paid before leaving.

Guest
TASK
A
& A% Create a level 0 DFD for the scenario below.
®-S A car hire company accepts bookings of cars by
8
ri
(
Bill telephone. A credit card payment for the deposit is taken
from the customer at the time of booking. When the
customer arrives to collect the car, they have to provide
details of their driving licence, which are stored by the
Hotel car hire company. The car hire company will provide the
booking
system customer with details of the insurance and breakdown
services for the car. The customer must pay the remainder
of the hire cost before taking the car. The customer will be
Figure 15.06 - Level 0 DFD.
presented with an invoice showing the payments made.
This DFD shows the system as the hotel booking
system. It shows the guest as an external entity. It
then shows the four items of data that flow between
The next level is a level 1DFD. This shows the flow of
the guest and the booking system.
data within part of a system, or if the system is small
 Chapter 15: System life cycle

within the whole system. Ifthe DFD is showing just

part of a system, then other parts of the system are TASK
considered to be external entities. Each flow of data Create a level 1DFD forthe car hire company introduced
must be linked to a process, as something has to happen in the previous task. Assume the DFD will be for the
to the data before it can be stored or passed onto an whole system.
external entity.

System flowchart
A system flowchart shows the processes that take place
Figure 15.07 is a level 1DFD for the hotel booking within the system and the decisions that are made. It
system. Any other aspects of the hotel system are focuses on the logic of the system, rather than the data
considered to be external entities. within the system. A flow chart can represent a whole
system or just part of a system. The elements shown in
- Guest Table 15.03 are used within a flowchart.

s IE
1 Element Purpose Symbol
Hotel booking system £i
Bill
I Terminator The start and
Online booking end of the
1
Check room Activate Produce I VII
flowchart.
availability key card
Bar
bill expenditure

Figure 15.08 - Start/end

II ii
I I Bookings I I I
Room
access
details
Rooms I Pt
data flow symbol.
payme3nt Arrow Shows the
Booking direction of flow.
details Figure 15.09 -Arrow :
Payment details data flow symbol.

Figure 15.07 - Level 1DFD. Process An activity within

the system.
When the guest sends their online booking, the
room availability is checked and the booking details
are stored. When the guest arrives, their key card Figure 15.10 - Process
is activated by retrieving the room access details. data flow symbol.
When the guest is ready to leave, a bill is produced
Decision A decision that
by retrieving the booking details and any bar
has to be made
expenditure from the bar system. When payment is
with different
made, the booking details are updated to confirm
output routes
that payment has been made.
based on the Figure 15.11 - Decision
result of the data flow symbol.
decision.
To create a level 1DFD, first identify any external entities
and any other parts of the system that will be classed as Input/ Input data or
external entities. Identify the data flows to and from those output output data for
external entities. Each data flow must have a process the system.
attached to it. A data flow cannot move directly from
one external entity to another or from one data store to Figure 15.12 - Input/
another or between an external entity and a data store output data flow
because a process is required to deal with the data. Ignore symbol.
how the data will actually be processed and just focus on
the data movements. Table 15.03 - Flow chart elements.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

To create a flowchart, start by adding the terminator

for the start. Always include both a start and finish
Figure 15.13 is a flowchart for taking a hotel booking terminator and never start with just a process. Then
online. identify the first process that takes place. If user input
is required or information is to be output, then add
( Start ) these symbols at the appropriate place. Be specific
when identifying processes and outputs. For example,
Guest enters
Room state ‘Tell user payment declined’ or ‘Payment error’
'requirements requirements
rather than ‘Declined’ or ‘Error’. Continue to add
Is processes until a decision is required. When a decision
No Tell guest Room
room unavailable is required, ensure that there are both yes and no routes
.available’ unavailable message ,
and consider where each route should go, and also be
,Yes
specific with decisions. For example, use a question like
Guest enters
Name and
address
name and ‘Is speed above 70 km/h’, rather than ‘Too fast’.
address

Is
postcode
No Ask guest Postcode
>-»• to check message TASK
v valid?/ postcode

.Yes Create a flow chart for the scenario below.

/ Payment /_*“ Guest enters A pizza delivery company accepts orders for pizzas
payment
/ details / tails by phone. The customer is asked for their address. If
the address is not within the delivery area, then the
Is
Tell guest order is stopped. If the address is within the delivery
payment No Payment
.accepted’ > — payment
declined
area, then the customer is asked fottheir Order. The
customer is offered the option to have garlic bread as
.Yes
| Store booking | a starter. If the customer accepts, then garlic bread is
added to the order. If the customer does not accept,
| Send confirmation email |- 'Confirmation then the order continues to payment. If the customer
email ;
chooses to pay by cash, then the order is complete. If
END the customer chooses to pay by credit or debit card,
then the customer is asked for their card details.
Figure 15.13 - Online hotel booking flowchart.
If the card details are accepted, then the order is
complete. If the card details are not accepted, then
This part of the system starts by the guest entering
the customer is asked to repeat the card details.
their room requirements (type of room, number of
guests and dates) into the online booking system.
The system checks to see if a room is available.
If it is not available, then the guest is informed Data collection forms
the type of room is unavailable for the dates Data collection forms are documents that are used to
requested and the guest can try again by entering collect data without the use of a computer. These could
a different type of room or different dates. If the include membership application forms, questionnaires,
room is available, then the guest is asked for their job applications or reply slips. It is important to design
name and address. The postcode is checked to the form in such a way that the required data can be
ensure it is valid for the address entered. If it is collected.
not valid, then the guest is asked to check and
When designing a data collection form, it is good practice
re-enter the postcode or the address. If it is valid,
to follow the principles below:
then the user is asked for payment details. If the
payment is accepted, then the booking is stored • avoid colour as the document may not be printed in
and a confirmation email is sent to the customer. colour
If payment is not accepted, the guest is informed • include instructions about how to complete the form
that payment has been declined and asked to re¬ • give clear instructions about where the form should be
enter payment details. returned
 5

Chapter 15: System life cycle

*
EXAMPLE
W

(PLEASE PRINT OR TYPE)

Mem6etgHip Application
Company Name: _
METHOD OF PAYMENT
Primary Representative: Title:
Dues Amount
Address:
Application Fee $ 40.00 _
City: State: Zip Code:
Website Advertising $ _
Phone: ( Fax: ( Additional Reps.
or Categories $ _
tyaS! Add me to your E-mail List: _ ($25 per each additional)

Website Address ( Free Link under catagory listing): http://www.. TOTAL#.

( ) Cash
Website Advertising (Subject to Annual Renewal) $25
( ) Check Please make checks payable to
(Please include camera ready company logo or email HI RES Hie to: [email protected])
Cheektouaga Chamber of Commerce
Number of Employees: Full Time Part Time
( ) MasterCard ( ) Visa
Business Category (choose from list above):

Signature: Date: Name as it appears on credit card

Referring Member & Company: _ Credit card account number

ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP INVESTMENT Additional Category Listings
Exp. Date
$25 (per additional listing)
Membership Classifications AGREEMENT: I hereby authorize payment to
If Your Business Employs... be charged against the credit card listed above.
(Part-Time employees count as 1/2 an employee) 2)
1-2 Employees -$155 Please list any additional reps in this section if your Authorized Cardholder Signature
(includes 1 representative) company employs more than 20 employees or your
3-20 Employees - $195 Membership is at the $295-495 dues level OR
(includes 1 representative). —
y#f I would like to list additional representatives
at $25 per rep/year
Date

21-49 Employees - $295 Clieektowngn Chamber of Commerce

(includes up to 2 representatives) 2875 Union Road. Suite 50
Name: Title:.
50-99 Employees $395 - C'heektownga. NY 14227
(includes up to 3 representatives) Email Phone: 684-5838 Fax: 684-5571
100 or more Employees - $495 Name: Title:.
tvtvw.cheekrotvaga.org
(includes up to 4 representatives),
NOTICE
Individuals - $115 (will be listed by name only, Email: Membership dues in the Chamber of Commerce may be lax
deductible as an ordinary and necessary business
business name will not be listed), expense Dues paid to Ihe Chamber are not a charitable lax
Name: Title:. deduction for federal income tax purposes The
Community/Government Organization $115 - Email Chamber is not a chanty, but serves as an advocate
Banking Institutions - $300 organization for are3 business
Membership rates subject to change.

Figure 15.14 - Data collection form.

• identify which questions must be answered and which TASK

are optional
Explain how the application form in Figure 15.15
• provide enough space for each answer could be improved:
• use tick boxes for multiple choice lists
• make it clear how many options are allowed to be /ViariD-trs, UHV Form,
chosen from a multiple choice list
• ensure all fonts are consistently used Name

• avoid cluttering the form with too much information or Address.

too many questions Gender.

• ensure the font style and size are legible Age

Do you have any disabilities? Y/N

• if the respondent needs to complete a scale (e.g. 1-10), Which of the following types of movie do you watch? Horror Action
then explain what the scale represents (e.g. 1= very Drama Comedy Other

dissatisfied, 5 = neither satisfied or dissatisfied, 10 = very Figure 15.15 - Poorly designed form.
satisfied).
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Screen layouts to use. The layout of any information should also be

A screen can he used to ask the user for data to be input indicated. The developer will then follow the design.
or to display information to the user or a mixture of both.

Figure 15.17 is a design for a screen.

Figure 15.16 shows information about a property that is Arial, bold, 18,
for sale. It also allows the user to change details about black
the property or add details about a new property.
Title: Lesson Charge Calculator
Moving On Up - Property Screen
Please select the type of lesson you require:
Property© drop-down box for type
Address 1
Address 2
91Flockington Rise
Welsell
Central touting
fyl-*'' of lesson:Beginner
West Midlands Photograph Test Retake
Address 4 Disqualified retake
WS9 0JH
Advanced
E200.000.00
20/05/2013
Semi-Detached
* Please select the number of hours you require:
radio buttons
Bedrooms
S'
„ • Q - Viewings Arranged: 1

05/09/2013
O 1 Hour
O 2 Hours
O 3 Hours

Figure 15.16 - Screen example.

* The total charge for your lesson will be:
$ total charge for lessons in $ dollars

When designing a screen it is good practice to follow the Main Menu Clear
L
Arial, bold, 20,
principles below:
t
Button to Button to
black, yellow
background
• use colour sparingly and appropriately; different return to clear screen
colours could be used for questions and responses or main menu
for different types of data; colours that the user expects
should be used, for example green is usually seen as a * Instructions in Arial, 14, black 800 x 600 screen
positive colour and red as a negative colour Figure 15.17 - Screen design.
• ensure all fonts are used with consistency
• avoid clutteringthe screen with too much information, Validation routines
but at the same time try to fit all information that
needs to be viewed at the same time on a single screen
TASK
• ensure the font style and size are legible
Revise validation routines from Chapter 1. Complete the
• if the screen requires user input: following table.
• include instructions about howto complete the form
identify which questions must be answered and Validation type Description Example
which are optional Presence
provide enough space for each answer Range
use tick boxes for multiple choice lists that can have Type
more than one response Length
use drop-down boxes (combo boxes) or option Format
buttons (radio buttons) for multiple choice lists that
can only have one response.
When designing a screen or collection form, it is only Validation rules should be used wherever possible and
necessary to indicate where questions and responses be appropriate in order to reduce the number of possible
will go, the types of response options and the styles input errors. They only need to be used for input data so
 Chapter 15: System life cycle

any calculations or output data do not require validating. Data dictionaries

Drop-down boxes should always be used instead of
lookup validation checks. For example, if a category needs TASK
to be selected, then a drop-down box should be used to
Revise data dictionaries from Chapter 9. Complete the
select that category rather than requiring the user to type
following data dictionary.
in the category.
When designing a validation rule, identify the input data Attribute Data Field Format
type size
that is to be validated, the type ofvalidation rule to be
used, the rule that will be used and the error message that Vehicle registration
should appear if the data input is invalid. Error messages Make
should be positive and guide the user as to what to do to
Model
correct the error.
Engine size (ee)
Transmission
Number of doors
Date of registration
Input data Validation Validation Error message Imported?
type rule
Surname Presence Surname Please enter a
must be surname
entered Hardware and software for a new system
Earlier in this chapter you learned about the system
Date of Range Date of Applicant must specification. The designer will need to decide what
birth birth must be at least 18 hardware and software is required. If the application
be at least years old being designed is a small one, then it may be able
18 years
to run on existing hardware and software within the
earlier organisation. The designer will need to determine the
than today minimum hardware and software requirements and then
Application Type Must be The application find out if the hardware and software already exists and
number a whole number must can be used.
number contain only In some circumstances, the application will need
numbers additional software in order to run. This is particularly
Telephone Length Must be Telephone the case if a database solution is being developed. The
between number must designer will therefore need to identify the new software
3 and 15 be between that is required.
digits 3 and 15 If the existing hardware within an organisation is not
digits capable of running the software required or does not
Product Format XX999XX9 The product have enough storage space for the data, then upgrades
code code must be to the existing hardware or new hardware will need to be
in the format specified.
XX999XX9
where X is a
letter from A TASK
to Zand 9 is a An application that is to be designed will require
number from Microsoft Access 2016 for Windows. List the minimum
0to9 hardware specification that is needed to run this
software.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

QUESTIONS Type of test data Description

4 Identify the purpose of a data flow diagram Valid (also called Data that will be accepted by the
(DFD). normal data) validation rule.
5 Identify one rule for data flows within a level 1 Invalid (also called Data that will not be accepted by
DFD. abnormal or the validation rule.
6 Describe the difference between a tick box and erroneous data)
an option button. Extreme valid (also Data that will only just be accepted
called extreme by the validation rule because it is
data) at the limit of acceptability.
Extreme invalid Data that will only just not be
15.03 Development and testing accepted by the validation rule
KEY TERMS
because it is just beyond the limit
of acceptability.
Test data: data that will be used fortesting a system
Table 15.04 -Types of test data.
Alpha testing: initial testing of the software by a limited group
of people
Beta testing:a sample of users test a pre-release version of
the software
Black box testing: testing of inputs and outputs to a system To test the validation rule that gender must be ‘M’ or
or part of a system with no consideration forthe workings of
‘F’, the following test data could be used.
the system
White box testing: testing the whole system in terms
of structure and logic covering all paths through the
Type of test data Data
system Valid (normal) M,F
Invalid (abnormal or erroneous) B

To test the validation rule that a date must be

The development stage is often referred to as the between 1/1/2017 and 31/12/2017, the following test
implementation stage where the design is implemented. data could be used.
Due to the confusion between implementation of the
design and implementation of the system, development
Type of test data Test data
is now a more commonly recognised and understood
term. Valid (normal) 12/5/2017
Invalid (abnormal or 15/7/2012,4/6/2019
erroneous)
Test data Extreme valid (extreme) 1/1/2017, 31/12/2017
When a system has been developed, it needs to be Extreme invalid 31/12/2016, 1/1/2018
tested. In orderto test the system, data has to be created
that will be used for the purpose of testing. This is known
as test data. There will need to be enough test data
generated to ensure that the system is able to cope
TASK
under the pressures of large amounts of data in everyday
Select test data to test the input of numbers in the range
use. There will also need to be specific types of data to
2500 to 5000
test different scenarios within the software, including
validation rules and queries.
When testing the input of data that is to be validated, Test data is also needed to test queries. Records will need
Table 15.04 shows the types of data that should be to be created where there is data that meets the criteria of
included as test data: the query, does not meet the criteria of the query, only just
 Chapter 15: System life cycle

meets the criteria of the query and only just fails to meet there may be knock-on effects to other parts of the
the criteria of the query. Where there is more than a single system.
criterion, data should also be selected that only meets Beta testing is used when software is being made
part of the criteria in case both parts have not been set up
available to a large number of customers. Beta testers
correctly.
will be real customers who have been selected to test
an early release of the application. Beta testing only
takes place after alpha testing has been completed.
Alpha testing is planned and structured using test data
The following data for records could be used to to follow all pathways through the software but beta
test the query for males over the age of 50 testing involves customers using the software in a real
(including 50). world environment using real data. As bugs are found

.
within a beta version, new beta versions will be released
Record for further testing before a final version is released for
number Gender Age Reason sale.
1 M 65 Both criteria met
2 F 25 Both criteria not met Black box testing and white box testing
3 M 25 Gender part met, age Black box testing involves selecting input data and
part not met checking that the expected output data matches the
4 F 65 Gender part not met, actual output data, with no knowledge or understanding
age part met of what happens inside the black box. The black box
could be the whole system or part of a system. White box
5 M 50 Age part only just met testing involves the same process of input and output
6 M 49 Age part only just not data but the internal structure and logic of the program
met are known to the tester.
White box testing usually takes place with small program
modules and is carried out by the software developers
The more criteria that are used and the more possibilities who coded the programs. They will do this to ensure
for extremes, then the more records that will be required that each module works in the way it was intended, and
to test the query fully.
because they know the inner workings of the module they
can test pathways that a black box tester would not know
about. The testing will be focused on whether detailed
TASK
designs, such as validation rules, have been developed
Data is stored about cars, including their make,
correctly.
model, registration number, transmission (automatic
or manual), colour, distance travelled and year of Black box testing usually involves testing the whole
registration. Select test data that could be used to test system or user testing. It can be carried out by
the query to find all automatic transmission cars that specialist testers or, in the case of user testing, by the
were registered before 2016. intended users. No knowledge of programming or the
way the system works is required. The testing will be
focused on ensuring the requirements specification has
Alpha testing and beta testing been met.
Alpha testing is carried out by the developers or a
specialised team of testers before a system is delivered
to the user. This usually takes place close to the end of The importance of testing and having a test
the development stage when the application is nearly plan
ready for the user. Alpha testing can take a long time Testing is necessary because no programmer or
because each time an error is found, testing has to be developer is perfect and errors are to be expected. These
repeated when the error has been corrected and errors need to be found and rectified. It is important to
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

The extract below from a test plan, tests the input of data where the date must be between 1/1/17 and 31/12/17.

Number Description Type of test Input data Expected result Pass/Fail

la Test the input of Valid 12/5/17 Accepted Pass
lb join date. Extreme valid 1/1/17 Accepted Pass
lc Extreme valid 31/12/17 Accepted Fail -error message
Id Invalid 15/7/12 Error message: the Pass
Invalid join date must be Pass
le 4/6/19
in 2017.
If Extreme invalid 31/12/16 Fail - accepted
lg Extreme invalid 1/1/18 Pass

The reason the test for 31/12/17 failed to be accepted may be because <31/12/17 was used in the validation rule
rather than <=31/12/17. Similarly, the reason 31/12/16 failed to generate an error message may be because >=
31/12/16 was used in the validation rule rather than >31/12/16.

ensure that the system is error free so that the users can Test plans
use the system knowingthat it will work reliably and A test plan will identify what is being tested, the type of
behave as expected. Although it’s almost impossible to test, the input data that should be used to test it, the
ensure a system is completely free of errors, a test plan expected result of the test and space to record the actual
can help to minimise the number of errors by ensuring result. Each test will be numbered.
that all pathways through a system and types of data
have been tested.
A test plan will identify all the tests that are needed for TASK
every input, every button, every link, every report, every Create a test plan to test the input of data for a character
screen and all other elements of a system. The test code between the letters D and P.
plan will include different types of test data, including
valid, invalid and extreme, so that inputs are tested to
their limits. Without this planning, important parts of As well as inputs, it is important to test that all
testing would be missed out and errors could be left calculations work as expected. Each input for a
undiscovered. The plan will also cover all the user’s calculation will need to be identified and an expected
requirements and ensure that they are tested. result determined.

Number Description Type of Input data Expected result Pass/fail

test
2 Discount formula works Calculation Charge per hour = $13 on Test retake = $25 in Pass
for 2 hours quote worksheet 2 hours column
3 Function for lesson Calculation Lesson type = advanced Total charge = $19 Fail = $1.90
charge
Number of hours = 2 on
quote worksheet
Any links or buttons also need testing.

Number Description Type of test Input data Expected result Pass/fail

4 Main menu button Button Click on main menu The main menu Pass
button on quote worksheet opens
worksheet
5 Clear button works Button Lesson type = advanced, Lesson type = (blank) Fail - number
number of hours = 2 Number of hours = of hours
remained as 2
Click on the clear button (blank)
on quote worksheet

Direct changeover
Direct changeover is when a date is chosen forthe old
7 Describe the purpose of using extreme test data. system to stop running and the new system to start
8 Describe two differences between alpha and beta running. The systems do not run at the same time and
testing. there is a clear break from the old system to the new
9 Explain black box testing. system. Data will need to be transferred from the old
10 Explain the importance of having a test plan. system to the new system before the new system can be
used.

Phased implementation
L5.04 Installation With phased implementation, parts of the new system will
This section hasthe title 'installation', however, the term be introduced one at a time. This often takes place when
'implementation' can also be used. Implementation can there is a large system with lots of functionality that can
have two meanings within the system life cycle and is be easily separated into sections. The old system will run
often understood to be the development stage where the until a date that has been agreed, at which point part of
design is implemented. the old system will be retired and part of the new system
There are four different methods of installing (implementing)
will start running. After a while, another part of the old
system will be retired and another part of the new system
a new system which can be remembered as the 4 Ps:
will start running. This will continue until the complete
• parallel new system is fully running.
• plunge (direct)
• phased Pilot implementation
• pilot.
Pilot implementation takes place when part of an
organisation starts to use the new system while the rest of
Parallel running
the organisation continues to use the old system. The new
Parallel running is when a new system and an old system system is effectively being beta tested by the pilot group
are run at the same time. On an agreed date, the new
who may also be able to deliver training to the rest of the
system will become live but the old system will continue to
organisation when the system goes fully live.
run. Data will need to be duplicated from the old system to
the new system. New data will need to be input into both
systems and output will be produced from both systems. Implementation method
This will continue until the organisation is confident that The most suitable changeover method will always
the new system is running satisfactorily. be dependent upon the individual circumstances
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

surrounding a new system. Factors that will need to be • number of users in the organisation
taken into account will include: • the size of the new system.
• how critical the system is to the running of the organisation The advantages and disadvantages of each method is
• cost shown in Table 15.05.

Installation Advantages Disadvantages

method
Parallel Less risky because if the new system fails Duplication of data input means additional staffing
the organisation can continue to run using costs.
the old system. There may need to be additional hardware installed
The accuracy of the new system can be at the same time as the old hardware is still being
tested against the old system and any used, which will require physical space.
errors can be fixed.
Data may be input differently into the two systems,
meaning that the data is not accurate in both.
Direct This is cheap to implement because there is This is a risky method because any errors could lead
no duplication of work. to the system failing with no fallback.
The data being used will be consistent All the training will need to be done in advance of
because it is only being used in one system changeover and so iftherearea lot of users this could
at a time. result in some forgetting what they’ve learned by the
time they start to use the new system.
There is no need for the new system to be
compatible with the old system. ::
Phased If there are any errors, they will only affect Delays can occur waiting for each phase to be running
the part of the system that has changed successfully before the next phase can start. .
over rather than the whole system.
Users will be using two different systems and they
End users can be trained how to use each may get confused as to which system they should be
phase of the new system and spend time usingfor which part of their work. This could lead to
using that phase before being trained in the data being updated in the wrong system.
next phase.
Both the old and new system need to be compatible
with each other in order for data to be used across
both systems.
Pilot if there are any errors, they will only affect This is a slower method of changeover because the
the pilot group that are using the system. rest of the organisation has to wait until the pilot has
Any errors found by the pilot group can be
been completed satisfactorily.
fixed before the system is installed for all Users in the pilot group might not be happy about
users. using the new system while it may still have some
The pilot group can train other users on errors in it and users not in the pilot group may be
how to use the system because they will disgruntled that they have not been offered the
have experienced using it for real. opportunity to try the new software first.
Both the old and new system need to be compatible
with each other in order for data to be shared
between the pilot group and the users still using the
old system.

Table 15.05 - Advantages and disadvantages of implementation methods.

 Chapter 15: System life cycle

how the routines were configured and how to restore from

a backup. All security settings will be documented to show
11 Identify four methods of changeover. which groups have access to each part of the system and
12 Describe one situation when direct changeover the permissions they have been granted. The software and
would be more appropriate than parallel changeover. hardware requirements will also be listed.
13 Describe one situation when pilot changeover would
be more appropriate than phased changeover. User documentation
User documentation is a user guide giving instructions to
the user. It can be in electronic or printed format. A printed
15.05 Documentation user guide should have a front cover that clearly identifies
the name of the system and the whole guide should have a
Technical documentation
header or footer with page numbers. A contents page should
Technical documentation is an overview of the structure of the
be included with page numbers and an electronic version
system, how it was put together and how it works. It will include
would include hyperlinks to those pages. An introduction to
a data dictionary to show how data has been structured
the purpose of the user guide should be included, but it only
within the system. Any programming code or macros will be
needs to be a few sentences. All the software and hardware
annotated to explain their purpose and anything unusual. All
requirements will be listed within the guide.
validation rules will be listed with the criteria used for successful
input and the error messages that they generate. The purpose The main part of the user guide will be the instructions on how
of calculations within the system will be identified and an to use the system. This should include written instructions
explanation given of how each calculation works. All buttons together with screenshots of the system or photographs of
and links will be listed, including where they are located and hardware. Arrows can be used to point to parts of screenshots
what their function is. All files used by the system will be listed or photographs. Bullets or numbering should be used to break
and their purpose identified. The technical documentation instructions down into manageable tasks.
will also include flow charts to show how different parts of the A glossary will show an alphabetical list of any technical terms
system work and other diagrams that may have been used that have been used within the user guide and a definition
duringdesign and development such as entity relationship of each of those terms. There should be a troubleshooting
diagrams and screen connectivity diagrams. section that includes a table of common problems (e.g. error
There will be an installation guide for the installation team messages) together with a description of what might have
and also in case the system has to be installed again in the caused the problem and possible solutions for overcoming
future. All the results of testing will be recorded. Backup the problem. An index will be included at the end of the user
routines will be detailed to show where files are stored, guide with page numbers for each popular term.

This is an example of a troubleshooting guide for a printer.

Problem Cause Solution
Orange light displayed on printer. No paper in feeder tray. Add paper to the feeder tray,
Red light displayed on printer. Paper is jammed in the Open the paper feeder tray and check there is no paper
printer. stuck there. Open the back door and check there is no
paper stuck there. Open the toner door, remove the
toner and check there is no paper stuck there. If any
paper is found, gently pull any paper that is stuck.
Error message on computer says Printer is turned off. Turn on printer.
'Printer Offline'.
Printer is not connected Ensure the USB cable is connected between the
to the computer._ computer and the printer. _

Below is an example of a troubleshooting guide for an order processing system.

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Problem Cause Solution

On the New order form you have Enter a smaller quantity.
Microsoft Access specified a quantity larger than the

e
amount currently in stock.
Not enough items in stock

OK

Figure 15.18 - Error message 1.

Microsoft Access On the Order details form you have Check the invoice has been
ticked the Paid box before the dispatched. If it has, then tick
Invoice cannot be paid if not dispatched Invoice has been dispatched. the Invoice dispatched box.

Figure 15.19 - Error message 2.

TASK
Find a user manual for an electronic device or appliance 14 Give three sections you would expect to find in user
at home. Identify the different sections that are used and documentation.
compare them with those listed above.
15 Describe the purpose of a glossary in user
documentation.
16 Give a situation when technical documentation
Why technical and user documentation is would be needed.
needed
Technical documentation is required so that anybody
carrying out future maintenance on the system will be 15.06 Evaluation and
able to understand how the system was developed
and how it is configured. It is unlikely that the person
maintenance
carrying out future maintenance is part of the original Evaluation
development team and so will not be familiar with the When a system has been developed and installed, the
system without the technical documentation. Even if it is whole process will be evaluated. This is sometimes
the same person or team carrying out the maintenance, referred to as a review. The evaluation will consider how
they will need the documentation to remember the the project team and end users worked together so that
structure of the system. lessons can be learned for future projects.
User documentation is needed so that the user Users will be given questionnaires to find out what they
can learn how to use the new system or look up think of the new system and how they feet it is improving
how certain features are supposed to work. The their workflow (or not). Selected users will also be given
troubleshooting section will be important for the user specific tasks to complete that will be observed to see
to understand what has caused an error to occur and whether the new system is living up to its expectations.
what they need to do in order to stop the error from Some users will also be interviewed about their
occurring. interaction with the new system.
 Chapter 15: System life cycle

The most important question to be asked will be customer contact. The system only allows for the
whether the system meets the user requirements. Each contact details of one person to be stored. Many
requirement will be considered in turn to determine if it users of the accounts application have requested
has been fulfilled. If it hasn’t been fulfilled, then actions that the system be adapted to store details of
will be set to rectify the situation in the long run. The multiple contacts for each customer and that
efficiency of the new system will also be discussed. Users contacts who should receive invoice payment
will have been given an opportunity to feed back on how reminders are identified within the software so that
well the new system is working forthem and if there are they go to the right person.
any problems. It is expected that the new system will work
more efficiently than the old system. However, if there are
problems that need addressing, then actions will be taken. Adaptive
The requirements specification should have specified how Systems need to adapt to changes. There could be changes
easy the new system should be to use. This can be rather to internal procedures within an organisation or changes
subjective and so it is difficult to measure. Again, feedback over which the organisation has no control. For example,
will have been gained from users as to how well they have new government legislation could be introduced to which
adapted to the new system and how easy or not they find the system has to adapt. It’s necessary to adapt to changes
it to use now they are using it regularly. If there are issues so that the system continues to work effectively and
regarding ease of use, then plans can be made to simplify doesn’t produce incorrect outputs. It’s important that the
any processes by adding additional features to the software system enables an organisation to comply with new laws.
if necessary. There is also a need to adapt to new technology such as a
new operating system or a new web browser.
There will also be an opportunity for users to make
suggestions for future improvements or additions to the
system.

Maintenance The government introduced new requirements for

Maintenance takes place after a system has been delivered to organisations to provide pensions to all employees.
a customer and it is being used. There are four reasons why The online accounts application needed to be
maintenance might be required, which are outlined below. updated to include a facility for checking that all
employee payslips include pension payments
Perfective unless they have opted out of the scheme. The
The idea of perfective maintenance is to be always accounting software was supposed to show a paper
looking to improve a system. There may not be anything clip symbol to indicate that a receipt had been
wrong with the system, but there may be ideas to uploaded against a recorded expenditure. When a
make the system perform better or to do additional web browser was upgraded, this paper clip stopped
tasks. Sometimes improvements might be possible being displayed. The software had to be adapted to
because of new technology that has become available. work with the new web browser.
If a system remains in place for several years without
any improvements, then it may become outdated and
Preventative
inefficient compared with other systems that are available.
Users will also have new ideas and if they are likely to Preventative maintenance is required to prevent problems
improve efficiency then they should be embraced. arising within a system. This can apply to both hardware
and software. Hardware should be regularly cleaned
to stop dust from blocking any fans and regular scans
of storage media should be carried out to ensure they
are working properly. Heat should be monitored within
An online accounts application sends out automatic
systems for any abnormalities to prevent hardware
reminders to customers when payments haven’t
failures. Data should be regularly checked for consistency
been made. These reminders are sent to a single
and integrity. Performance of the system should be
Cambridge International AS and A level IT
,
monitored to ensure that the processor, memory and
storage are all working efficiently. By carrying out regular
preventative maintenance, system downtime can be 17 State three elements that might be evaluated after a
avoided. system has been installed.
18 Give a situation when corrective maintenance would
Corrective be required.
When errors or bugs are found within a system they
need to be corrected. This will be the responsibility of
the original developers, although it may be different
people that carry out the maintenance. These errors need 15.07 Summary
to be corrected so that the system can run efficiently
and accurately and produce the results required by A new system evolves through the system life cycle.
the organisation. Bugs that cause problems by making Requirements are specified by the client and recorded by
a system slow or by crashing a system can be very the analyst. The designer will then follow the requirements
frustrating to users and reduce overall productivity. specification in order to produce a design specification
which will show the client what the new system is likely
to look like. When the user is happy with the design
specification, the system will be developed and then
tested before being installed for the client. The client will
A graphics application would intermittently
be provided with user documentation. An evaluation will
stop responding for several seconds. This was
take place to review the system life cycle for the project.
not supposed to happen and so corrective
Any ongoing maintenance will be carried out by the
maintenance was required.
maintenance team.

Review questions
Thornhill Estates runs several hotels. It would like a new software solution to manage room
bookings, dinner reservations and purchases across all its hotels. It has asked a software
developer to produce the software for them. The software developer will follow the system life
cycle.
la State one purpose of analysis in the system life cycle. [1]
lb Give two reasons why questionnaires would be appropriate for researching how bookings
are currently managed at the hotel. [4]
lc State three other methods that could be used to research the current booking system. [3]

The analyst will interview a group of users to create a requirements specification.

2 State the purpose of a requirements specification. [1]

The designer will create a design specification based on the requirements specification.
3a Identify three factors that should be considered when designing a screen layout. [3]
3b Using an example, show how a validation rule could be designed forthe hotel booking
system. [3]
3c Apart from keyboards, mice and monitors, discuss three external hardware components that
will be needed by the hotel system. [3]
 Chapter 15: System life cycle

Once the system has been developed, it will need to be tested.

4a Describe two differences between white box and black box testing. [4]
4b Explain one reason why beta testing might not be appropriate for the hotel system. [2]
4c Explain why invalid test data is used. [2]

The system will be installed in a pilot approach and user documentation will be provided to the
hotel staff.
5a Give reasons forthe pilot approach of installation forthe hotel system. [4]
5b Explain why the user documentation should include troubleshooting and glossary
sections. [4]
5c Give four reasons why the hotel system may require maintenance in the future. [4]
 ••
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Chapter 16
Graphics creation

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

m describe the difference between bitmap and vector graphics

describe how typical features in bitmap and vector graphics are used in practice
evaluate the impact of image editing on society
create vector and bitmap images
change the size and position of items in vector and bitmap images
use tools to edit vector and bitmap images
add text to vector and bitmap images
save vector and bitmap images
compress vector and bitmap images
 Chapter 16: Graphics creation

.
! ;1KT
TIP
Vector: an image that uses geometric points and shapes. A bitmap image is made up of small squares called pixels.
Calculations are used to draw the image Each pixel can have one colour. If you change the size of the
Bitmap: an image made up of small squares, called pixels. image, the pixels are enlarged or made smaller. By enlarging
Each individual pixel can only be one colour the pixels you pixelate an image, and it goes blurry.
Pixel: a small square of one colour These are combined to
create a bitmap image

16.01 Vector versus bitmap

graphics

Q Remember
A vector image is created using shapes and coordinates.
Mathematical formulae and calculations are used to draw the
image and fill areas with colour. If you change the size of the
image, the computer recalculates and redraws it. This means
.
it does not go blurry (pixelate). The image itself is not saved.
Only instructions on how to create the image are saved. For
example, coordinates fora line and a calculation fordrawing
the line are stored, includingthe colour, width etc. Figure 16.03 - A bitmap image.

kAA. - X* .£.4 A

Figure 16.04 - A pixelated bitmap image.

Figure 16.01 - A vector image.
The use of vector and bitmap images
The most common form of a bitmap image is a
photograph. When you take a photo, the camera records
the colours as pixels and the quality of an image depends
on the resolution. Other common bitmap images
including ones that have been scanned, or produced using
painting software. Resolution is the number of pixels per
measurement, for example dots per inch (DPI). The larger
the DPI, the more pixels and therefore the more precise
your image is.
•*
Vector graphics are created using a computer, often with
wm specialist drawing software, but word processors usually
Figure 16.02 - An enlarged vector image. provide some vector tools, such as drawing shapes and
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

speech bubbles. They could be used, for example, to images to both improve the image and make the image
create a logo or an animation where characters can be look worse. For example, in magazines, photos may be
drawn using a graphics tablet. edited (airbrushed) to make people appear thinner or to
remove blemishes, such as wrinkles and spots.

my •

\ 1
A
\

* Figure 16.06 - Example of airbrushing.

I

Another way image manipulation software may be used

is to put people in scenarios (e.g. merries) that have
never actually happened. For example, using a selection
Figure 16.05 - Graphics tablet. tool to copy a person from one image and place them
in another. The image of the person can be edited, and
Deciding between vector or the colours manipulated, so they appear to belong in the
bitmap graphics new scene.
If you scan a document (e.g. a photo), then you will
create a bitmap image. As increasingthe size of this

B image may result in pixelation, you must be careful to

ensure the resolution is high enough. These pictures
cannot be created as vector images, so if you want to
l
use a photo of you and yourfriends, it will be a bitmap i
graphic.

'll l
TASK
Open some of the images you have stored on your
computer or on your account. Are they a bitmap or a
vector image? Try enlarging them. Do they pixelate?

If you are creating a graphic using a computer, then you

can choose between a bitmap and a vector image. If
you produce a bitmap image, such as a photo, it may
pixelate when enlarged. If you produce a vector graphic,
it will not pixelate, but will require a lot of work to look
realistic. Figure 16.07 - Example of a meme.

Software exists that can turn bitmaps into vectors, Vector images can be used on their own or added to
and vectors into bitmaps. For example, if you scan a a bitmap image. For example in the meme shown in
document, you can vectorise it. Most image manipulation Figure 16.07, vector text has been added to the bitmap
software has this option. photo.
These are just two examples of how image manipulation
Use and impact of image editing on society can be used. Each have their positive and negative sides.
This section will explain some of the tools available to In the first example in Figure 16.06, the company may
manipulate images. These tools can be used to edit increase sales by showing a perfect model. However, the
image is not real and people may strive to achieve this independently without affecting other elements of the
impossible vision. This can contribute to mental health image. You can also add effects, such as transparency, to
problems. Memes can be used to draw attention to an one part of your image.
advert or create humorous effects, but they can also be
used negatively, to make fun of people and situations and TASK
may be used without the consent of the person in the
image. O CD 16.01 Background
Open CD 16.01 Background in your image manipulation
software. You may need to convert this to a different file
type depending on the software you are Using. Add a
DISCUSSION POINT new layer to this image and use the drawing tools to add
Look at a magazine, newspaper or book and the images shapes, lines etc. to the image. Use the drawing tools to
inside it. How do you think the images might have been draw a new tree or flower or other feature. Change the
manipulated? Does this add to the publication? Why have shapes, move them, delete them, and the background
they edited them? layer should not change. Add further layers with
additional shapes or objects.

Image editing can be used in politics both to promote a

political agenda, for example enhancing images so they Grouping or merging
look more favourable, and to put people into situations When creating an image, you may have multiple items
where they have not actually been. A search for the use of (objects or shapes). These can all be moved individually,
image editing in North Korea will reveal multiple articles which can cause problems when you need them to stay
where Kim Jong-un is accused of using image editing together. You can group or merge items, which combines
software to present a false version of what is actually them into one item that can be moved and resized together.
taking place. You can ungroup or unmerge items to separate them
Image editing can also be used in a negative way, to put again.
opposing party members in unfortunate situations or to
use memes to mock them, which can cause offence and TASK
influence people by creating images that are not real. Using the image you manipulated in the previous task,
As well as being used for political purposes, it can also be select all the items you added in one layer (e.g. your drawing
used in the entertainment industry. Image editing is used of a tree) and group or merge them. The item should now
to create posters, signs, CD and DVD covers, all of which move as one, rather than as separate components.
are enhanced to increase their attractiveness and appeal.
This can increase sales as the images are attractive, but it
does not portray an image of real life. Rotation and placing an item
To rotate an item, you will need to choose a rotate tool.
This may be under a 'Transform’ option. You can then
place the cursor on the corner of an item and pull to rotate
1 What is a bitmap image?
it. By using the cursor to select an item and then move it,
2 What is a vector image? you can drag it to a new location.
3 Why might image manipulation be viewed as being a
negative influence?
TASK
Rotate one of the items you have added in a layer, for
example a tree. Move it to a new location.
16.02 Vector images
Layers
Layers contain parts of an image, or an effect, that can be Transform tools
built up on top of each other to create the final image. By Transform tools are used to change the size, rotation,
using layers you can move or edit elements of an image distortion and skew of an item. There is often a Transform
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

tools’ tick box or option in the menu system to let you (it may be in a toolbox or in a menu). It may look similar to
access these controls. You can then use the handles in the the symbol in Figure 16.08.
corner or edge of the item to change its size and orientation.

TASK
U
CD 16.02 Bench Figure 16.08 - Crop symbol.

O CD 16.01 Background Highlight the area of the image that you want to keep.
Insert the bench from CD 16.02 Bench into the Press enter to complete the crop.
background on CD 16.01 Background. Resize the bench
and move it into a suitable position.
TASK
CD 16.01 Background
Selection tools Using CD 16.01 Background, crop the bottom layer of
A selection tool lets you access, edit and manipulate soil from the image and the top of the sky above the
just one part of an image. You can choose which parts to clouds. Make sure you havethe correct layer selected
before you begin, otherwise you will crop the wrong
change. There may be a range of different tools that you
image.
can access depending on your software. For example:

• A lasso tool lets you draw freehand around the area of

an image you want to select.
Fill tools and colour gradients
• A marquee tool provides you with a shape, such as a A fill tool lets you select a colour, then fill a selected area
rectangle, that you can draw over your image to select a
with that colour. For example, if you select red, then
rectangular area.
the fill tool, then click inside a rectangle, it will change
• A magnetic lasso tool will stick to an edge within the rectangle to red. Some software may require you to
an image, for example a line or a specific colour, select the fill tool, then the colour.
which means you don’t need to follow the line
precisely. You may have further fill options, such as:

To select multiple areas, you usually need to hold down • Fill with gradient: choose two colours and the colour will
the Shift, or Ctrl key at the same time as making the gradually grade from the first to second.
selections. • Fill with pattern: select from a range of patterns to fill a
When making your selection, make sure you are on the shape. You can usually choose a colour as well.
correct layer. If not, then you will be selecting that area There may be a range of other fill tools, depending on your
of a different layer, which will not give you the image software, that you can experiment with to see what they
required. do.

TASK
TASK
CD 16.01 Background
O CD 16.01 Background
Use a selection tool on CD 16.01 Background. Select one
Use a fill tool to change the colour of the sky, trees and
of the trees. Create a new instance of this object (copy mountains in CD 16.01 Background. Make sure you have
and paste it into a new layer), then use the transform the correct layer selected first. Change the fill colour of
tools to adjust its position and size. Repeat this with the the bench by use a fill pattern or gradient.
bench.
Node editing
Node editing lets you adjust a shape by manipulating the
Crop tools angles used to create it. Some software refers to nodes as
Cropping lets you select only part of an image to keep and paths. Figure 16.09 shows the node manipulation symbols
removes everything else. To do this, select the crop tool that appear.
 Chapter 16: Graphics creation

Save and compress an image

There are a number of different file types for a vector image.
The file types available to you wilt depend on the software
\ you are using, for example Adobe Illustrator may provide a

*‘
,ai extension and CorelDraw may provide a .cdr. These file
types are not always compatible with other software.
To change the file format, you can either:

• Save As, and choose a different file type, or

Figure 16.09 - Edit node.
• Export as a different file type.
The centre square allows you to move that point of File types may change the file size of your image, depending
a shape and the handles at the edge allow you to on the resolution and number of colours used. For example,
manipulate the shape. If you move the right-hand square you can save an image as a 256 colour bmp file, or as an
up, that part of the image will follow, curving towards it. eight-byte per pixel bmp file. The latter will have a much
better colour depth (a larger range of colours used).
In the software there will be a node select tool (or path
Flowever, the file size will be significantly larger. Some
selection). By clicking on an image it will provide you with
file types compress an image, either by lossy methods
points to manipulate.
(removing aspects of the image so it will not be the same
when decompressed) or lossless methods (the exact image
TASK will be reproduced). Reducing the number of colours is
an example of lossy compression, because some of the
CD 16.01 Background
colours will be lost and cannot be retrieved in that image.
Select the nodes on one of the mountains on CD 16.01 Some file types do not support layered graphics, so if you
Background. Manipulate the shape of the mountain.
have created an image with layers, depending on the file
Make it higher and change the angles of each side.
type, the image may be flattened and the layers cannot be
Repeat this with the copy of a tree you have made and
change the shape of the trunk. retrieved.

TASK

Fix text to a path Look at the different file types available in your software.
Research for what these are used. Save your image using
As well as adding text to an image, you can design a path different file types. Make sure you change the filename
for text to follow, so it can curve, spiral or do whatever you on each one so you do not accidentally overwrite your
want it to do. image. Compare the file sizes and the quality of the
The path, or shape, for the text to follow needs to be images you have saved.
drawn first. Make sure this path is selected and when you
click on the text tool you should be able to click on the
path. When you type, the text will follow the path.
TASK
A computer programmer has set up a company called
TASK Stars. They would like a logo created to put on their
website, business cards and promotional material for the
CD 16.01 Background
company. Design and create a vector logo for Stars.
Draw a curved line, similar to that in Figure 16.10, above
the trees in CD 16.01 Background. Give the image a
title. Adjust the text size, colour etc. so it fits in with the
scene.
4 What is a layer?
5 What are the three different selection tools?
Figure 16.10 - Curved line. 6 What does grouping objects do?
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

16.03 Bitmap images Selection tools

The selection tools let you select only one part of an
G KEY TERM

Opacity: the lack of transparency in an image, or part of an image

image. You need to use a marquee selection, a lasso
or a magic wand to select the pixels that you want to
manipulate.

Layers work in bitmap images in the same way as in

TASK
vectors. You can add a layer to a bitmap image which
contains another bitmap or add a vector drawing. You can O CD 16.03 New York
edit each layer independently from the other aspects of the Use a selection tool (e.g. a magnetic lasso) to highlight
image. With a bitmap image, you can add further effects to one of the buildings in CD 16.03 New York. Copy this
a layer, because it can then be applied to a whole area of image and paste it into a new layer. Move the building
the image as opposed to individual objects within it. so it looks as if it belongs in the city. Repeat this
with other buildings to create your own version of
New York.
TASK

O CD 16.03 New York

O CD 16.04 Helicopter Crop tools
Open CD 16.03 New York. Add a new layer and add the The crop tool will let you select part of an image and
image from CD 16.04 Helicopter. delete the parts that are not selected.

Rotating and placing an item TASK

The cursor is used to select and move an item placed into a CD 16.05 Frog
layer and the transform tool ‘Rotate’ is used to turn an item. Open CD 16.05 Frog. Crop the image so only the face and
To select part of a bitmap image within a layer, you will need eyes of the frog are visible.
to use a selection tool (such as a marquee selection tool), to
select the pixels that you want to manipulate.
Masking tools
TASK A mask lets you apply a technique (e.g. colour or
OCD 16.03 New York transparency) to a small part of an image. This is a very
Move the helicopter to an appropriate position in the sky powerful tool and can let you combine two images,
and rotate it so it fits into the skyline. by placing one image on top of a second, and then
removing elements of it that you do not want to appear.
To do this, you will need to add a mask to your top layer,
Grouping or merging by painting over the elements of the top layer (usually
in black) you do not want to appear. They will become
If you have multiple bitmap images in several layers you
transparent.
can merge them to move them together in one layer.

TASK TASK
16.03 New York 16.06 Doorway
16.04 Helicopter 16.07 Landscape
Open CD 16.03 New York and CD 16.04 Helicopter. Add Create a new bitmap image file and insert CD 16.06
further copies of the helicopter onto the New York image in Doorway and CD 16.07 Landscape. Place the CD 16.06
the same layer. Select all of these layers (you may need to Doorway layer on top of CD 16.07 Landscape. Put a mask
use the Shift or Ctrl button to select more than one), then over the doorway opening, so the landscape is visible
group or merge the layers into one layer. You should now be through the doorway (you can choose to leave or mask
able to move them together. the wall).
 Chapter 16: Graphics creation

Tools to improve parts of an image • Blur: this tool reduces the focus on areas of the image.
There are a number of tools that you can use to edit parts You can adjust the strength of the blur, then drag the
of a bitmap image: tool over the area of the image you want to blur.
• Distort: this tool allows you to change the perspective
• Blend: using this you can blend different layers of an image, or part of an image. For example, if a
together by changing the opacity (transparency). If the
photo has distorted perspective, using a lens correction
foreground and background are different colours, the
distortion can realign the image.
blend tool can create a gradient blend of these colours.
There are a range of different blend techniques from • Sharpen: this tool improves, or increases, the contrast
between colours. For example, an edge between a
which you can choose, for example a 'hard light’ option
light and dark area can be sharpened to make it more
will bring dark elements to prominence.
defined.
• Replicate: This may also be known as a clone tool. With
this you can make an identical copy of part of an image.
For example, if you have a tree that you would like to TASK
duplicate, by using this tool you can 'paint’ a copy of 16.08 Fruit bowl
the tree in a different place without having to trace the Open CD 16.08 Fruit bowl. Use the sharpen, distort and
outline and copy it. blur tools to alter the image, f or example, you could
• Retouch: the clone tool can be included as a retouch make the fruit the focus by increasing the contrast and
tool, but there are often others such as a healing brush blurring other elements. You could also use other tools
and patch tools. These apply the pixels from one area mentioned above, for example the done tool, to add
of an image to another area. For example, a smooth more fruit to the image.
area of skin on a photo of a person can be used to cover
blemishes by applying the pixels from the smooth area.
Adjusting colours
An entire image, or just part of one, can be converted
TASK
from colour into black and white, or duotone. The
Find and save a photo of a person (it could be an image colour is usually applied by adding a new layer on top
of yourself). Use the clone stamp tool to add more hair. of the image and this is then adjusted, for example
Use the retouch to remove any flaws or remove items by choosing a black and white, or more commonly,
such as jewellery by using the skin to cover the area.
greyscale option.
Duotone involves selecting a colour, which is then applied
to your image, again by adding it to a layer. To do this,
Remove red eye
choose a duotone option (this may be in the menu
The red eye tool will automatically remove a red eye effect
options). You can select two colours, for example black
caused by a photo flash. Once you have selected the red
and red. You may then have an option to adjust the extent
eye tool, simply draw a box across (or click on) the red
of each colour. The result will be the original image made
pupil. You may need to do it more than once to get the
up of just these two colours and their shades.
whole area. The tools uses the other colours from the eye
to fill in the pupil. It is also possible to change an image to black and white,
then add a duotone, which changes the impact because
it is being applied to grey as opposed to a range of many
TASK
colours.
Take a photo of a person, using a flash, which results in
a red eye effect or find a photo which is affected by red Opacity means a lack of transparency, that is how solid
eye. Use the remove red eye tool to correct the image. and un-see-through the image is. Opacity is a percentage,
which represents how transparent an image is. For
example, 20% opacity means that the image is 80%
Filters transparent. This can be added as a mask to the entire
A filter can be used to add effects to an image or to change image, ora small area of an image can be selected (using
a small element of it. There are numerous filter tools you an appropriate selection tool) and then the opacity can be
can use: altered just in this area.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Transparency can also be increased by adjusting

the alpha value. Alpha transparency, however, is not TASK
always maintained depending on the file type. See the Add a suitable title to the images you have created. Use a
section ‘Save and compress an image’ below for further range of styles and colours to edit your text.
information.

TASK Save and compress an image

CD 16.09 Village There are a range of file types you can use to save your
bitmap image. These can be selected by choosing an
Open CD 16.09 Village. Change the colour to black and
white, duotone and a range of other colours. Compare option when saving or exporting the image. Some of these
turning an image to black and white then to duotone, include:
rather than straight to duotone. • BMP: There are a range of BMP formats, for example
black and white, 256 colours, four-bit (16 colours),
eight-bit (256 colours). The smaller the number of
colours, the smaller the file size, but the quality also
TASK decreases.
16.03 New York • GIF: this is a compressed format that will reduce the
Open CD 16.03 New York. Add a layer and change the file size and is commonly used for online images. This
opacity of the helicopter. format allows for transparency, as long as it was not
created using an alpha option, and is also restricted to
256 colours.
Resizing • JPEG: a common formatthat has a range of colour
H An image can be resized or scaled. Bitmap images may
pixelate if they are increased too much in size. If part of an
options to reduce file size. The image is compressed
when saved, and decompressed when opened. The level
of compression can often be altered to gain a balance
image needs to be resized, then you can use a selection
tool to select the pixels you want to change and then a of compression versus quality. A JPEG image does not
transform tool can be used to adjust the size. If the canvas allow for transparency. Any areas that are transparent
needs to be enlarged, this can be done through the menu will be stored as white or black.
system by selecting canvas size and entering a new size. • PNG: this format uses lossless compression to reduce
The canvas can also sometimes be increased in size the file size. It has a range of colour options, and it keeps
by using the crop tool. Instead of removing parts of the transparency in all images, which is not so for all other
image, move the edges out to increase their size. options.
The new background, outside the image, may appear • TIFF: in this format the number of colours can be
adjusted to reduce file size. This file type can save
as a checkerboard in grey and white. This means it is
effects, such as the use of layers, if saving and
transparent. To change this, you will need to either fill the
reopening an image in the same software.
background with a colour, or colour gradient, or increase
the size of the image to fill the new space. When choosing a file type, do not overwrite the original
file as, if the compression reduces the quality, you may
Text tools be unable to retrieve the original. Save it under a new
name.
Text can be added to a bitmap image using the text
tool. You will be able to change the font style, size and
colour and make the text follow a path if needed. Select TASK
the text tool and click where you want to type your text. 16.03 New York
Adjust your settings from the menu. Using transform Using CD 16.03 New York, save the file under a range of
tools you will be able to move and adjust your text. Once file types and colour depths. Compare the differences
you are happy with the position of your text, this will between the image quality after saving, and the effects
then be turned into a bitmap, and the text is no longer of the transparency of the helicopter.
editable.
 Chapter 16: Graphics creation

is created). A bitmap image pixelates when enlarged too

TASK much, but a vector does not
Take a photo of yourself (or a friend). Create a set of images
of you (or your friend), placed in a variety of famous places Image editing software can be used to enhance images,
around the world.Make sure the image of the person fits for example changing photos for books, newspapers
into the scene and looks as though they belong there (if the and magazines. Image editing has positive and negative
colours are very different, try changing to a duotone). effects: positive effects include removing flaws and
improving the appearance of publications, while
negative effects include creating unrealistic images to
which people my aspire my try to emmulate.

7 What does a masking tool let you do?

There are a range of tools and methods that can be used
on both vector and bitmap images (selection, grouping,
8 What will happen if you duotone an image using red
and blue? layers, colour gradients, adding text). However, some
tools can be used with bitmap images and not a
9 What tool do you need to use to select part of a
bitmap image? vector (distortion, blend, replicate, remove red eye).
Layers allow the components of an image to be kept
separate and manipulated individually. Once images
have been edited, bitmap and vector images can be
16.04 Summary saved as different file types and some images can be
A bitmap image is made of pixels while a vector image is compressed, with different file types having different
made of shapes and coordinates (it stores how the image levels of compression.

279
Review questions
1 Describe the difference between a bitmap and a vector graphic. [4]
2 Explain why a bitmap image pixelates when increased in size. [2]
3 Explain why a vector image does not pixelate when increased in size. [1]
4 A fashion magazine is published, aimed at teenagers between the ages of 13 and 16. They
are considering the use of image manipulation software to alter the appearance of the
models and clothes in the magazine. Evaluate the use of image manipulation software in
this magazine. [9]
 I II
I

Chapter 17
Animation
Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

create an animation
place objects and images
use frames and key frames
use timings and layers
manipulate objects (show, hide, move and resize)
understand and use tweening (motion and shape)
understand and use morphing
add text
change the opacity of objects and text

r,
B
VA
 Chapter 17: Animation

objects. This is often an option in the layer where the

object occurs, allowing you to make the entire layer
Object: an image, or combination of images, that is
hidden.
manipulated as one item
Layer: an object or image given its own timeline for The size of an object can be changed. If this is done in a
independent manipulation key frame, then the new size will exist from that point
Animation: a series of images that are played one after onwards. Resizing may come under a transform option,
another to simulate movement which also lets you rotate objects.
Key frame: a frame that has a change in the animation,
for example a drawing has changed, or the start or end of a
tween The stage
Opacity: the lack of transparency The area in animation software where you draw and create
Tween: an animation where the start and end points are your animation is called the ‘stage’. The size of this stage is
set. The computer generates the actual images to make the measured in pixels. You can change the size of the stage to
animation change meet your needs by increasing or decreasing the number
Frame: one screen, or page, where an image is drawn. A series of pixels in the width and height.
of these frames are played one after the other to create the
animation The stage has a set of x- and y-coordinates that you
Morphing: another term for shape tweening. One image can use to position objects with more accuracy. The
changes into another image top-left corner has the coordinates (0, 0) and these
then increase as you move down and across the
image. Figure 17.01 shows an example stage with two
coordinates,

17.01 Animation This point is

coordinate (0,0)
Fundamentals This point is
coordinate (100,
Stage
Objects and images 25)

An object is a name for an item that is on the screen.

Each object should, ideally, be in its own layer to allow
for it to be manipulated independently. A single image, Figure 17.01 - An example stage.
for example a tree, could be made up of many objects.
Similarly, one object could be made up of many different Opacity
components, that are then grouped togetherto act as The lack of transparency of an object or a piece of text
one. can be changed. In the software this may be referred
Objects can be drawn using the vector drawing tools in to as the opacity or the alpha style. This is measured
the software. Basic shapes such as rectangles, spheres as a percentage. For example, 0% will have a fully
etc. can be drawn and then manipulated (or transformed) transparent, invisible image. At 100%, the image is fully
into different shapes. There will also be the opportunity to visible.
use drawing tools such as a paintbrush, pencil etc. to draw The visibility of an object can be set when it is created, and
freehand. it can also be manipulated during an animation to make
Images from other software can be either imported objects appear and disappear.
or copied and pasted into an animation file. These,
again, should each have their own layer. An image that is Text
imported will usually have to be treated as one object. Text can be added to the stage using the text tool.
It cannot be broken down into its subcomponents. This
You will be able to edit the style, size and colour. Text
makes it difficult to manipulate. is treated in the same way as objects, so you can use
Objects can be shown and hidden while working on the layers, tweens, change the opacity and manipulate text
document, to allow you to view and manipulate other in the same way.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Frames, timeline, layers and timings Key frame

Frame A key frame identifies a change in an image. In Figure 17.04,
Take a blank notepad and draw a shape in the bottom these changes are represented by a •in the frame.
right-hand corner, then draw the same shape but in a For example, Flower 1first appears in Frame 1, it changes
slightly different position on the next page. Repeat this on in Frame 2 and Frame 3. It does not change in Frame 4,
a number of pages. You can then create a basic animation but it still displayed. It changes in Frame 5, then stays the
by flicking through the page of the book, as shown in same in Frames 6 and 7.
Figure 17.02.
An arrow in the timeline represents a tween, which you
can find out more about later in this chapter.
To add frames and keyframes, you will first need to select
the frame number where you want the frame or keyframe
to appear, and then select the Insert or Add Frame or Key
frame. This is usually by either right clicking or choosing it
/ from the menu.

m Layer
An animation is made up of layers which each has its own
animation schedule. For example, in Figure 17.04, the
Figure 17.02 - A book with the pages being flicked.
Tree 1and Flower 1appear in frames 1to 7, but frames
8 to 14 no longer have the Tree. By using layers, you can
Each of these pages, or individual images, is called a
independently manipulate different parts of an image.
frame. A computer animation is made up of a series of

B frames, which are played very quickly to give the illusion

of movement. In reality, it is a sequence of individual
images. Figure 17.03 shows a series of frames for a rabbit
Each layer is shown on the left of the timeline. These
should have an appropriate and descriptive name, for
example in Figure 17.04 the Tree 1layer contains the
jumping. drawing of a tree.
It is important when designing an animation that all
elements that need to move independently are in their
own layer. You can create layer folders, which contain
multiple layers. For example, if you are animating a
person, then you may have a folder called Person 1, which
contains layers:
Figure 17.03 - Frames of a mouse jumping animation. • head
Timeline
• body
• left arm
A timeline is made up of frames, in chronological order
from left to right. An example of how a timeline may • right arm
appear is shown in Figure 17.04. • left leg
• right leg.

Flower 1

TASK
Figure 17.04 - Example timeline. 1 Using animation software, draw a stick person, as
described above. Make sure each part of the person is
The numbers on the top row in Figure 17.04 represent the in its own, appropriately named, layer.
frame numbers. A frame that is grey, for example frame 2 Draw an underwater scene, with rocks, seaweed,
1for Tree, has an image in it for that layer. A frame that fish etc. Make sure each component has its own
is white, for example frame 8 for Tree, does not have an layer.
image in it for that layer.
 I

Chapter 17: Animation

Timings Motion tween

A common misconception is that a frame represents A motion tween only deals with the movement of an
a second, that is if there are ten frames, this takes ten object, for example moving from one place to another,
seconds. This is not the case. The timing is measured and rotation. If you use keyframes, you have to position
in frames per second (fps), which can be changed, for the object in each frame. Using a motion tween, the
example 10/ffps, means that ten frames will be run computer fills in the gaps in movement.
each second; if you have 200 frames, the animation will
The item you tween needs to be set as an object or
last 20 seconds. The higher the fps rate, the quicker symbol before you start moving it.
the frames change and the smoother the animation
appears. The way in which a motion tween is created differs
according to your software. Create the first key
When designing an animation, you need to consider the
frame and position the symbol where you want the
fps, as this will affect the number of frames you need, and movement to begin. Select the next frame and either
the extent to which you change the images in each frame.
right click and choose create motion tween or select
If you need an item to stay static for a set time, then it can
from the menu system to add the tween. Then add a
be given frames (not key frames) where it exists, but does
key frame at the end and move the object to its new
not change. When it needs to change or move, a key frame
position.
is then added.
To make an object move on a curved path, you can draw a
motion path.
TASK
1 Create an animation, using frames and key frames,
to make a word appear letter by letter. For example, TASK
if the word was Animation, the ‘A’ would appear, then 1 Using the underwater scene you created earlier, add
the ‘n’ etc. motion tweens to make the fish move. Add bubbles
2 Create an animation to make a flower grow. For floating to the surface. Each one will need its own
example, start With a seed, the roots and stem layer and motion tween.
grow from this and it eventually becomes a 2 Draw a ball and make it move around the screen. Add
flower. stick people and get them to kick or throw the ball to
3 Create an animation for the stick person you drew each other.
previously. Make them walk across the screen. You 3 Create a motion tween that incorporates a change in
could extend this and have two people who meet and opacity, for example a fade in or fade out.
perform other actions.
4 Change the fps foryour animations by increasing and
decreasing them. Discuss the effect this has on the Shape tween (morphing)
animations. A shape tween allows a shape to be changed into a new
shape, for example a red square could be turned into
a blue circle. The computer generates each step of the
Tweening transformation.
An animation created solely with frames and key frames
The way in which a shape tween, or morphing, is created
can be quite robotic. By inserting a tween, the computer differs according to your software. Add the first key frame
will generate the animation for you. For example, if you and the object as you want it to appear at the start. Select
want to move a drawing of a fish across the screen, you
the next frame and either right click and choose create
can set the start location (A), the end location (B) and shape tween, or morph, or select it from the menu system.
then the computer will work out how to get the fish from
Then add a key frame in the frame where you want the
A to B.
transformation to finish. Either manipulate your existing
When applying a tween to a layer, it will affect every object or delete it and add a new one. The computer will
item in that layer. It is important to make sure that each then change the object in the frames where the tween is
individual item has its own layer. placed.
There are two types of tween you can use, motion and A shape tween can also include movement, so the second
shape. object can be in a different location to the first.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

TASK
17.02 Summary
1 Create a shape tween that changes a red square into The numbers on the top row in Figure 17.04 represent the
a blue circle. frame numbers. A frame that is grey, for example frame
2 Create a shape tween that changes a rain cloud into a 1for Tree, has an image in it for that layer. A frame that
sun. is white, for example frame 8 for Tree, does not have an
3 Draw a scene that shows the changes during a year,
image in it for that layer.
for example a river and forest showing a) lush green
sunny days, b) leaves changing to red and orange A tween creates a smoother animation as the computer
and falling, c) a frozen river with barren trees, d) new calculates the changes. A motion tween is used to move
growth emerging. objects. A shape tween, or morphing, allows an object
to change into a different object. A shape tween can also
allow colour change.

TASK Opacity is the transparency of an image, this can be

• Create an animated introduction to a TV show orfilm. animated and may be called the alpha.
Make sure you include images of the main characters and
text introducing the title.Make use of opacity and tweens.
• Extend your underwater scene to include a range of
sea life. Animate the background and plants to create
a continuous, repeating scene.
• Create an animated cartoon that shows a day in the
life of the central character. Use a range of techniques,
including some keyframe animation and tweens.

Review questions
1 Describe how layers are used in an animation. [2]
2 Explain the difference between a key frame animation and an animation using tweens. [4]
3 Define the term morphing. [1]
 i
285

Chapter 18
Mail merge

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

create a master document

create a source file
link a master document to a source file
set up mail merge fields
create prompts for the user
use fiIters to select records
use a spell checker
verify a mail merge master document
perform a mail merge
use mail merge rules to control record selection
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

EXAMPLE
Mail merge: the automatic addition of data, such as names
and addresses, from a source file into a master document, 18.01 Learner letter
such as a letter
CD 18.01 Learner letter is a master document. It is a
Source file: the file containing the data that will be merged
letter written to learner drivers in a driving school.
into the master document
The words in italics are the data that needs to
Master document: the main document that will be used for
all records
be inserted about each learner driver and will be
obtained from the data source.
Field: a category of information
Prompt: a question asked to the user which requires a Pass 1'* Driving School
response
Date will go here
Filter: selecting records from the source file based on
Full name of recipient will go here
conditions Full address of recipient will go here

Dear forename

We are conducting an annual check of our records. Could you please confirm that your
18.01 Mail merge telephone number is telephone and your mobile number is mobile.

We would be grateful if you could email us at [email protected] with your email address.

Q Remember
A mail merge is the automatic process of merging data,
Yours sincerely

such as names and addresses, from a source file into a

Ben Dean
master document, such as a letter. The purpose is to Senior Instructor
save time having to write the same letter to lots of different
Figure 18.02 - Master document.
people when their data already exists in a data source.
Notice how a standard letter includes the
286
letterhead of the organisation sending the letter,
Data source Master document
the date of the letter and the full name and
Louis
Carlos
xxxxxxxxxxxxx 0156595
0156594
address of the recipient of the letter. When
X 0156593 Auguest 2012
produced on a computer, a letter should always
Dear :

We wouId like to inform you because

have all text (except the letterhead) aligned to
your account - xxxxxxxx has qualilied
you fora special gift. the left.
Please come in our store in xxxxxxx lo
claim your price. Louis thank you lor
being a loyal customer.

Sincerly

TASK
Create a master document that will be used to write to
Carlos customers of IT Distribution Inc. The letter should be in a
xxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx standard letter format including space for the recipient’s
August 2005 August 2005 August 2005

Dear James : Dear Carlos : Dear Louis :

name and address. The letter should invite the customer
We v/ould like to inform you because
your account - 0156594 has qualified
We wou to participate in a survey with the opportunity to win one
you for a special gift. you for a special gift. you for a special gift.

Please come in our slore in xxxxxx lo Please come in our slore in xxxxxx to Please come in our slore in xxxxxxx lo
often prizes each worth $250. The survey is available
claim your price. James lhank you for claim your price. Carlos lhank you for claim your price. Louis lhank you for
being a loyal customer. being a loyal customer. being a loyal customer. online and is available for two months from the date of
Sincerly Sincerly Sincerly the letter.

Merged documents
Figure 18.01 - Mail merge documents.
Create a source file
Create a master document structure A source file contains the data that will be included in
A master document is the main letter, email, memo, fax or each mail merged document. It usually consists of names
other document that will be sent to all recipients from the and addresses and other information about the people to
data source. whom a letter will be written.
 EXAMPLE
Link a master document to a source file
The master document needs to know from where it will
18.02 Drivingschool.mdb get its data. Therefore, the master document needs to be
linked to the data source.
CD 18.02 Driving school.mdb contains a table called
Learner which includes the names, addresses,
telephone numbers and mobile numbers of learner EXAMPLE
drivers in a driving school.
18.01 Learner letter
Forename • Surname • Address I Address 2 • Postcode • Gend • Telephone • Mobile •
Patricia Thomas 896 Windsor Street Birmingham B21 4BR F 0555 555 555 0777 777 726 18.02 Drivingschool
Wendy Carolan 22 Gate2 Way York HH6Y72 F 0555 555 556 0777 777 725
Roger Harrison L
12 DeelTrod Lane Holyhead HH7 6YT M 0555 555 557 0777 777 724
Sally
Claire
jStnyttie
Charkley
23 Hapstead Grove
14 Green Lane
Stevenage
Stowbridge
HR5 3RD
HT6 8TN
F
F
0555 555 558 0777 777 723
0555 555 559 0777 777 722
CD 18.01 Learner letter has been linked to the
Learnertable in CD 18.02 Drivingschool.
Figure 18.03 - Source file.
Select Table

Name Description Modified Created Type

IlCar 8/3/2015 11:41:39 AM 9/13/2013 1:15:38 PM TABLE
Source files can be in a variety of formats including: iffli Instructor 8/3/201 5 11:42:29 AM 9/1 3/2013 12:44:S0 PM TABLE
ii[£33(231 8/18/2015 12:04:35 PM 9/13/2013 1:29:23 PM TABLE
H Lesson 8/3/2015 11:43:55 AM 9/13/2013 1:48:39 PM TABLE
• database table
• database query
• spreadsheet I on I Cancel
/,

• word processed table

• variable length text file (e.g. comma separated values) Figure 18.04 - Database link.
• fixed length text file The records from the data source are identified in
• email contacts. the master document in the recipient list.
Mail Merge Recipients
This is the list of recipients that will be used in your mergie. Use the options below to add to or change your list.
Use the checkboxes to add or remove redpienits from thee merge. When your list is ready, click OK.
TASK I Address 1
Data Source
|0|;Surname T v Address 2 T I Forename
IU
VÿCD 18.03 Student.csv 18 Driving School.... ED Carolan 22 Gate Way York Wendy
18 Driving School.... 0 Harrison 12 Deefrod Lane Holyhead Roger
18.04 Student.rtf 18 Driving School™ 0 Smythe 23 Hapstead Grove Stevenage Sally
18 Driving School.... 0 Charkley 14 Green Lane Stowbridge Claire
18.05 Student.txt 18 Driving Schools. 0 Blackstock 187 Yorktown Way Ipswich
18 Driving School.... 0 Kristal 886 Yatch Road Watchet Paul
18 Driving School.... 0 Smithers 143 Lafton Road Blyth Steven
18.06 Student.xls
< >
Data Source Refine recipient list
18.07 Student.mdb CD 18.02 Driving School, rndb /v rv}/ Sort...

Examine the structure of the following data sources and Fillet,,

Find duplicates...
identify which of the above formats they are in: 17> Eind recipient.
C3 Validate addresses -
• CD 18.03 Student

• CD 18.04 Student I OK I

• CD 18.05 Student Figure 18.05 - Recipients.

• CD 18.06 Student

• CD 18.07 Student.mdb (Student table)

• CD 18.07 Student.mdb (query).
TASK
Create a data source using a table in a word processor
18.08 New class
that will include the following fields:
18.03 Student
• forename
18.04 Student
• surname
• email address. 18.05 Student

Create three records in the data source. 18.06 Student

Cambridge International AS and A level IT

18.07 Student.mdb TASK

18.09 Sales processing.mdb OCD 18.08 New class

Open the master document CD 18.08 New class and link 18.07 Student.mdb
it to each of the following data sources one at a time. CD 18.09 Sales processing.mdb
Finish by linking it to the query from the database. Use the master document CD 18.08 New class that you
• CD 18.03 Student linked to the query in the database CD 18.07 Student.
• CD 18.04 Student mdb. Insert merge fields for forename, surname and
• CD 18.05 Student class.
• CD 18.06 Student Open the letter that you wrote for IT Distribution Inc. and
linked to CD 18.09 Sales processing.mdb. Insert merge
• CD 18.07 Student.mdb (Student table)
fields in the appropriate places.
CD 18.07 Student.mdb (query).
Open the letter that you wrote for IT Distribution Inc. Use
it as a master document and link it to the table Customer
in CD 18.09 Sales processing.mdb. Perform mail merge using the master
document and data sources
Now that the fields have been entered, the mail merge
Set up fields can be completed. This involves telling the software to
Having a link from the master document to the source carry out the merge process. It is usually possible to
file only tells the master document which file to use. The preview the results of the mail merge prior to printing or
master document also needs to know which fields to put creating a new document with the merged letters. It is
into the document and where to place them. also possible to merge the letters to an email address for
each recipient.

OCD 18.10 Learner letter with fields

18.02 Drivingschool.mdb OCD 18.10 Learner letter with fields
CD 18.10 Learner letter with fields includes the fields OCD 18,02 Driving school.mdb
from the Learner table in CD 18.02 Drivingschool.mdb. CD 18.10 Learner letter with fields can be previewed.
The fields are highlighted in yellow in Figure 18.06. The data from the first record of the data source CD
Pass 1*‘ Driving School 18.02 Driving school.mdb is highlighted in yellow in
18 August 2015
Figure 18.07.
«Forename» «Surname»
«Address_l»
Pass 1“ Driving School
«Address_2»
18 August 2015
«Post_Code»
Patricia Thomas
Dear «Forename»
896 Windsor Street
Birmingham
We are conducting an annual check of our records. Could you please confirm that your
B214BR
telephone number is «Telephone» and your mobile number Is «Mobile».
Dear Patricia
We would be grateful if you could email us at [email protected] with your email address.
We are conducting an annual check of our records. Could you please confirm that your
Yours sincerely
telephone number is 0555 555 555 and your mobile number Is 0777 777 726.

We would be grateful If you could email us at [email protected] with your email address.

Ben Dean
Yours sincerely
Senior Instructor

Figure 18.06 - Merge Fields.

Ben Dean
When the merge is eventually run, the fields will be Senior Instructor

replaced with data from the Learner table. Figure 18.07 - Merge preview.
 Chapter 18: Mail merge

The Fill-In prompt rule can be viewed as a merge

TASK
field code.
CD 18.10 Learner letter with fields
We would be grateful if you could email us at [email protected] with your email address.

18.08 New class Yours sincerely

Open CD 18.10 Learner letter with fields and merge
to a new document. Notice how all the records have
{ FILLIN "Which senior instructor will sign the letter?" \o }
been included so that there is one letter for every Senior Instructor
learner.
Use the master document CD 18.08 New class to which Figure 18.09 - Fill-In code.
you have added merge fields and merge to a new
document. When the mail merge is processed, the user is
Open the letter that you wrote for IT Distribution Inc. prompted forthe name of the senior instructor.
Merge the letters to send as emails to the email address
field in the Customer table. Microsoft Word
Which senior instructor will sign the letter?
Ben Dean

Create prompts
Master documents are often used several times and on OK Cancel
many different occasions. There may be some data that
needs to be included within the master document that is
not part of the data source but will change each time the Figure 18.10 - Prompt.
mail merge is run. A prompt can be given to the user that
asks the user what that data should be.
o DISCUSSION POINT
Microsoft Word uses rules to control the way the mail
merge works. Fill-In is one of these rules. It is most
EXAMPLE
commonly used to ask for one item of data that will be the
same for every letter. However, by deselecting ‘Ask once’, it
18.11 Learner letter with fill-in prompt is possible to have a different response for every recipient.
CD 18.11 Learner letter with fill-in prompt asks the
user to enter the name of the senior instructor who
will sign the letter.
TASK
SÿCD 18.08 New class
Insert Word Field: Ask
Open the master document CD 18.08 New class to which
Prompt: you have added merge fields. Add a Fill-In prompt for the
Which senior instructor will sign the letter? name of the Head of Year.
Open the letter that you wrote for IT Distribution Inc.
before you completed the mail merge process. Add a
Fill-In prompt for the date until which the survey will be
Default fill-in text: available.

There are occasions when the same data needs to be

included more than once within a document. In these
situations, an Ask prompt can be used instead of a
0|Ask once! OK Cancel
Fill-In prompt. The Ask prompt stores the response in a
bookmark which can be placed in more than one location
Figure 18.08- Fill-In. in a document.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Figure 18.14 shows the two reference points

EXAMPLE
highlighted in yellow that have been inserted.
18.12 Learner letter with ask prompt Dear «Forename»

Action Required by Return Date Here

CD 18.12 Learner letter with ask prompt asks the user
We are conducting an annual check of our records. Could you please confirm that your
to enter the date by which the information should telephone number is «Telephone» and your mobile number ls.«Moblle».
be returned. You will notice that the difference from We would be grateful If you could email us at [email protected] with your email address by
the Fill-In prompt is that the Ask prompt needs a Return Date Here.

bookmark to be defined. This has been defined as

Figure 18.14 - Reference point text.
‘ActionBy’. You will also notice that the default text has
been completed. This is necessary in order to be able These can also be viewed as merge field codes.
to reference the bookmark. Dear { MERGEFIEID Forename }

Action Required by { RSF ActionBy \* MERGEFORMAT }

Insert Word Field: Ask mea We are conducting an annual check of our records. Could you please confirm that your
Bookmark: Prompt: telephone number Is { MERGEFIEID Telephone } and your mobile number IsJ MERGEFIEID
ActionBy Mobile }.
What date should the information be returned
by?
Wo would be grateful If you could email us at [email protected] with your email address by
( REF
ActlonBv \‘ MERGEFORMAT ).
default bookmark text:
Return Date Here Figure 18.15 - Reference code.
When the mail merge is processed, the user is
BfAsk flnce] I 0* 1 Cancel prompted for the date by which the information
should be returned.
Figure 18.11 -Ask.
Microsoft Word
290 The Ask prompt rule can be viewed as a merge field
What date should the information be returned by?
code, but its location is not important due to the 20 January 2017
fact that the bookmark will be referenced in the
required locations.
Yours sincerely OK Cancel

{ FILLIN "Which senior instructor will sign the letter?" \o }

Senior Instructor
Figure 18.16 -Prompt.
{ ASK ActionBy "What date should the information be returned by?" \d "Return Date Here"
\o)

Figure 18.12 - Ask code.

The bookmark now needs to be referenced in the
oDISCUSSION POINT
If you look carefully at the field code for the Ask prompt
document. In order to do this, a reference point is you will notice that it includes the name of the bookmark.
inserted. This can be useful in other ways because the data can be
referenced by other rules in the same way that data in
iffl J * O T
fields can be referenced.
jo.**.,..
jruanji — n , J nil
a
rÿi.uoA
abot*
*M,.
—1
A I J ***»"»•• A- IK HUMIOT •
4vw«uf 31 IT •
£
TASK
18.08 New class
E MB*lyaun cf p«r*o'tch

* dpar*7«/in!*fMl vrttf)
(will <K»t
Open the master document CD 18.08 New class to which
you have added merge fields. Instead of a Fill-In prompt,
add an Ask prompt for the name of the Head of Year and
• £
•
li.ln<MLv UXIMI
assign a bookmark. Insert references to the bookmark at
I "«<ÿ•» I the end of the document where the Head of Year will sign
htt I i’iI , WIIIUI J j i i uu.i > •i«s J>2. and a new sentence that will inform the parents who the
Head of Year will be.
Figure 18.13 - Reference point.
 18: Mail merge

Automatically select the required records

Data sources can often have thousands of records. The Change the filter so that the letter is sent to pupils in
document that is being produced may not need to be classes 9F or 9B.
merged with every record. It is therefore possible to select Open the letter that you wrote for IT Distribution Inc.
which records will be included in the mail merge by using Set the filter so that the merged email is only sent to
customers who have agreed to receive marketing and
a filter
live in the state of California (CA).

HÿCD 18.13 Learner letter with filter Conditional operators

CD 18.13 Learner letter with filter has filtered the
records so that the letter will only be sent to male © DISCUSSION POINT
learners whose records haven’t been updated since The conditional operator referred to by Cambridge
1January 2015. International Examinations is different from that used in
programming. In this situation, conditional operators are
filttr and Sort ITT® referring to a conditional function.
PtWr Ritordj 5flrt Records

“
And

0
v]
ffwtdar
Data Updat'd a
Companion:
equal to

tail than EI - Data sources are often fixed and cannot be changed.
Therefore, any data manipulation may need to take place
in the merge master document. The IF...THEN...ELSE rule
£i«ar AII m 11 CWWI |
can be used to insert text conditionally based upon data
Figure 18.17 - Filter.
within the data source.
291

The recipient list now only includes the filtered

records, meaning the letter will only be sent to
those recipients.
Mill Marga Recipient!
OCD 18.14 Learner letter with condition
Thli li the list of recipient! thit will be used in your merge. Uie the option! below to edd to or chmge your list.
Uie the checkboxes to odd or remove recipients from the merge. When your list Is reedy, dick OK. CD 18.14 Learner letter with condition is to have
I Post Code IGender Mob* licence Numbv JDeie Updetsl
* a new sentence that asks users to confirm their
IW4RB
KES7B8
115M
s
M
«»;»!!;
0555 555515
=:
0777777715
KRIS9999999PA9XX
SARR9999999DA9XX
DRAK9999999RA9XX
5/24/,WM_
S/24/2014
5/24/2014 gender has been stored correctly. Figure 18.19
SAdIHG 0555 555 520 0777 777 774 LANT9999999PE9XX 5/0/2014
shows how the IF statement was set up.

Insert Word Field: IF ? X

Dele Source Refine recipient list IF
CO 10 02 Orlvtng School mdb :1 fed. field name: fiomparison: Compare lo:
u! CIBILu Gender v | Equal to v| M
% find dupluetes... nsert this text:
[j!> Findrt<loitnl...
Male

OK Otherwise Insert this text:

Female

Figure 18.18 - Filter records.

lr~or'"« Cancel

Figure 18.19 - IF...THEN...ELSE.

TASK
This can be seen in field code view as shown in
CD 18.08 New class
Figure 18.20.
Open the master document CD 18.08 New class that you
Our records show that your gender Is ( IF ( MERGEFIEID Gender ) = "M" “Male" "Female" ).
have added merge fields. Set the filter so that the letter is
only sent to pupils in class 9F. Figure 18.20 - IF...THEN...ELSE code.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT
I

This will work fine for situations where there are only two Error-free accuracy
alternatives. However, when more than two alternatives are There are a number of checks that should be carried out
required, a different method needs to be used. One option is to before completing a mail merge:
use a series of IF...THEN...ELSE rules to cover each eventuality.
• run a spell checker and grammar checker on the master
document
• visually check for any errors on the master
Some records may not have the gender recorded. document
In this situation, the letter should state ‘your gender • visually check for any errors on the preview or merged
is not recorded in our records - please confirm your documents
gender’. There are now three options: F, M or [blank] • check that the correct records have been included in the
in CD 18.15 Learner letter with three conditions. filter.
ELSE cannot be used because it would apply the Even if a spell checker has been run, there are errors
second outcome to both of options two and three. that will not be spotted. These can include words that
In Figure 18.21, three separate IF...THEN...ELSE rules sound the same but are spelt differently, for example
have been used without defining the ELSE part. stationery and stationary. The spell checker will not be
:
Our records show that your gender is { IF { MERGEFIELD Gender } = "M" "Male"H IF {
MERGEFIELD Gender } = "F" "Female"H IF { MlERGEFIELD Gender ) = "not recorded in our records -
able to identify problems with layout, such as spaces
please confirm your gender"). that are missing or have been added by mistake. Errors in
names are not spotted by a spelt checker and field codes
Figure 18.21 - Separate IFs.
will not be checked by the spell checker. A visual check
will also be required to see if all merge fields have been
The other option is to use a nested IF...THEN. . .ELSE rule. included.
This involves using another IF...THEN...ELSE rule as the
292 ELSE part of the original IF...THEN...ELSE rule. This can only
be manipulated in field code view.

18.17 Learner letter with errors

CD 18.17 Learner letter with errors includes several
18.16 Learner letter with nested conditions errors.

CD 18.16 Learner letter with nested conditions has Pass 1“ Driving School
used a NESTED IF by enteringthe IF...THEN...ELSE 19 August 2015
rules within the ELSE parts of previous rules.
t<For«name»«Surname»
«Address_l»
Our records show that your gender ]$_{ IF { MERGEFIELD Gender ) "M" "Male" "{ IF { «Address_2»
MERGEFIELD Gender ) = "F" "Female" "not recorded in our records •please confirm your gender" )").
«Post_Code»

Figure 18.22 - Nested IF. Dear «Forename»

We are conducting a anual check of our record. Could you please conflrrrUhat you're
It achieves the same outcome as the previous telephone number is «Telephone» and you're mobile number is lnMobltt» \
example, but is a bit more complex. The speech We wood be greatful if you could email us at [email protected] with your email address.
marks need to be in exactly the right places, as do
Yours sincerely
the curly brackets.

Ben Deane
Senior Instructor

© DISCUSSION POINT
Figure 18.23 - Errors.
It’s possible to use AND or OR operators within the IF- Some errors have been spotted by the grammar
THEN...ELSE rule. It’s also possible to include text from files and spell checkers: 'a anual’ should be 'an annual’,
as the outcome or pictures as the outcome. You may want
to research how these can be achieved.
‘wood’ should be ‘would’ and ‘greatful’ should be
‘grateful’.
 Chapter 18: Mail merge

The errors highlighted in yellow require visual

checking as they have not been identified by the TASK
grammar or spell checkers: ‘record’ should be CD 18.18 New class errors
'records’, ’you’re’ should be ‘your’ and ‘Deane’ Open the master document CD 18.18 New class errors.
should be ‘Dean’. Check the master document and merged letters for
accuracy. The merged letters should be sent to pupils in
The errors highlighted in blue also require visual
classes 9F or9B.
checking but these may not be spotted until data is
actually merged. Figure 18.24 shows what the data Change the filter so that the letter is sent to pupils in
classes 9F or9B.
would look like when merged.

PaulKrlstal
886 Yatch Road
Watchet Variable fields
JS8 4RB
One method of deciding which records will be included from
Dear Paul
the data source is to use a filter. Another method is to use a
We are conducting a anuffij check of our record. Could you please confirm that you're rule, which is a merge field code that will control which records
telephone number is 0555 555 511 and you're mobile number is 0777 777 720 .
will be omitted. The rule is called Skip If and this will omit the
Figure 18.24 - Merge errors.
record from the mail merge if the conditions are met.

There is no space between the forename and

surname and there is an additional space after the
mobile number. EXAMPLE

The criteria for the filter are that letters should be \T'CD 18.19 Learner letter with selection codes
sent to male learners whose records haven’t been
CD 18.19 Learner letter with selection codes includes 293
updated since 1August 2015. This should mean
a Skip If rule that states that if the gender field is I
letters going to 11 learners. However, only four
equal to "M” then the record should be skipped.
letters will be produced.

v | Telephone I Mobile [ Date updated_VJ

Insert Word Field: Skip Record If L_n
[Gender Licence number

M 0555 555 511 0777 777 720 KR!S9999999PA9XX 5/24/2014 Eield name:
M 0555 555513 0777 777 718 SARR9999999DA9XX 5/24/2014
M 0555 555 516 0777 777 715 DRAK9999999RA9XX 5/24/2014
Gender V/

M 0555 555526 0777 777 774 LANT9999999PE9XX 5/6/2014

Comparison:
Figure 18.25 - Filter errors. Equal to
Compare to:
This has been spotted using a visual check. The M
error was due to the filter requiring an American
OK Cancel
layout of date which should be 8/1/15, rather than
1/8/15 that had been used. When corrected, the 11
learners are included. Figure 18.27 - Skip If set up.

Gender v Telephone I Mobile Licence number | Date updated v [ A rule is inserted into the document.
M 0555 555 557 0777 777 724 HARI9999999RA9XX 6/8/2015
{ SKIPIF { MERGEFIELD GENDER } = "m" [Pass 1st Driving School
M 0555 555 511 0777 777 720 KRIS9999999PA9XX 5/24/2014
M 0555 555 512 0777 777 719 SMIT9999999SA9XX 6/8/2014
M 0555 555 513 0777 777 71 8 SARR9999999DA9XX 5/24/2014 Figure 18.28 - Skip If code.
M 0555 555 516 0777 777 715 DRAK9999999RA9XX 5/24/2014
M 0555 555 517 0777 777 714 BLAC9999999SA9XX 6/8/2014
M 0555 555 518 0777 777 713 DREW9999999JA9XX 6/8/2014 The rule should always be inserted at the beginning
M
M
0555 555 519
0555 555 523
0777 777 712
0777 777777
BROW9999999DA9XX
PETE9999999PA9XX
6/8/2014
6/8/2014
of the document. When using Microsoft Word,
M 0555 555 525 0777 777 775 HARR9999999PA9XX 6/8/2014 you will need to complete the merge to see which
M 0555 555 526 0777 777 774 LANT9999999PE9XX 5/6/2014
records have been skipped as they will still show
Figure 18.26 - Filter correction. when previewing the merge.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• Each letter will be personalised to the recipient rather

TASK
than being generic.
OCD 18.08 New class • It is quicker to proof read one master document than to
Open the master document CD 18.08 New class. proof read thousands of letters.
1 Add a rule to skip records for class 9B. • The same master document can be reused in the future.
2 Add a second rule to also skip records for • Filters can be applied so that letters are only sent to
class 9F. recipients that meet specified criteria.
Open the letter that you wrote for IT Distribution Inc. and
remove any filters that you have applied. 18.02 Summary
• Add a rule to skip records for customers who have
A master document is usually a letter that is sent to
chosen not to receive marketing (this is a Boolean field
that can be TRUE or FALSE).
multiple recipients. A source file is a text document,
spreadsheet, database or other data source that
• Add additional rules to skip records for customers who
contains data about the recipients to whom the letter
are based in New York (NY), California (CA) or Texas (TX).
will be sent. The source file needs to be connected to
the master document in order to send the letter to the
recipients.
Why mail merge documents are created
Mail merge documents are created to save time and Merge fields are used to identify where in the document
improve accuracy. The main reasons include: information about the recipient should be included.
Prompts can be set up that ask the user to enter
• Source data may already exist. Therefore it is not additional information when the mail merge is performed.
necessary to re-enter the source data for each letter, Conditional functions (IF...TFIEN...ELSE) can be set up to

m which is very time consuming, but instead use the data

that is already within a file
• Accuracy is improved. As the source data will have
probably been validated and verified, it is likely to be
include different information in the merged document
based upon information stored in the data source. Filters
can be applied within the master document to the data
source to select which records will be included in the mail
very accurate, whereas if the data on a letter has to merge. Mail merge rules such as Skip If can also be used
be changed for each recipient, then errors are likely to determine which records should be excluded from
to sneak in. Errors will also occur where some data in the mail merge. A spell checker should always be used
a non-mail merge letter may not be changed when it to check the spelling within a master document and the
should be. accuracy should also be checked visually.

Review questions
Service to You is a company that carries out car servicing at the customer’s home address. They
store details in a database of the services they have carried out and when the next service is
due. When a customer’s car is due a service, Service to You use mail merge to write a letter to the
customer to let them know.
la Describe the term mail merge. [2]
lb Describe the steps involved in creating a set of mail merged letters. [6]

Service to You sends out letters once a month.

2 Explain how Service to You can use mail merge facilities to only send letters to customers
whose Cars are due a service in the next month. [4]
3 Explain why Service to You uses mail merge instead of writing individual letters. [6]
 #
1

I
•iir*
i

"
11

£]•

By f/ie end of this chapter, you will be able to:

m explain the use of JavaScript to add interactivity to web pages

use JavaScript to add interactivity to web pages

%
tr
I*
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

You may need to write code in a set place or in an object

that you have created. To do this, you need to give the
Variable: a space in memory that is given an identifier where
area you want the output displayed an ID. For example,
data can be stored and changed
Identifier: a name given to a variable or function <p ID = "paragraphl"></p>
Data type: the type of data being-stored, for example a In your script tag, you instruct JavaScript to add the text to
number, string (text)
the document, in the element with the ID ‘paragraph].’. For
Array: a data structure that can store multiple items under
example,
one identifier
Condition: a statement that can be evaluated as true or false, <script>
lor example 5 > 6
document .
Construct: a control structure, such as a loop or a conditional
getElementById("paragraphl") .
statement
innerHTML = "Hello World";
Function: a separate piece of code that has an identifier and
performs a task, it can be called from elsewhere in the code </script>
and returns a value
Iteration: a loop, to repeat
TASK

O CD 19.01Task!
19.01 JavaScript O CD 19.02 Task 2
• Open CD 19.01 Task 1using a basic text editor such as
Q Remember
JavaScript is a programming language that can be used to
notepad. Inside the script tags add code to output “Flello
World” onto the web page using document .write.
add interactivity to web pages. Its code can be integrated • Open CD 19.02 Task 2 using a basic text editor. A
into a HTML file to: create buttons, create text boxes, change paragraph has been given the ID ‘paragraph!. Inside
296
content etc. It can be integrated with a range of other web- the script tags add code to output “Hello World” into
based programming languages such as PHP. JavaScript is paragraphl.
often use with HTML forms, where it can validate data or • Add further paragraphs, change the text format for
perform actions such as when a button is pressed. these in HTML and use JavaScript to write sentences
in each paragraph.

TASK
Find a website that has functionality (such as a form Working with variables
with a button). What tasks does this button perform? A variable is:

• a space in memory
JavaScript can be added to a HTML document. It is • given a name
recognised by starting and ending the JavaScript code • where you can store data
with a script tag. For example, • where you can change that data.
<script> For example, you could create a space in memory called
Your JavaScript code would go here ‘name’ and you could store the name ‘Luca’ in there. You
could later change it and store ‘Katerina’. You can check
</script> what is stored there by asking what is stored in ‘name’. The
computer would tell you ‘Katerina’.
Outputting data
To write an output to a text page, you can use the code
document .write ( theOutput) . For example,
Declaration
A variable declaration tells the program that you need
<script> a space in memory and what its identifier will be. An
document .write ("Hello world") example variable declaration in JavaScript is:
</script> var name,-
 Chapter 19: Programming for the web

Var’ tells JavaScript that you are creating a variable. Data types are not declared when declaring a variable,
‘name’ is the name of this variable. it is assumed when a value is given to the variable. For
example,
Assignment
var name;
Assignment means adding a value to that variable. For
example, name could be of any data type. But if instead we put,

name = "Luca"; var name = ;

The name of the variable comes first and '=’ can be read as the name is now a string.
word 'becomes’. This is the assignment operator. "Luca" is For example in
what is being stored. Luca is in speech marks (" ") because it
is a string (seethe section ‘Data types’). For example, var age,-

age = 18; age could be of any data type. But if instead we put,

This time the variable is called age, and the number 18 has var age = 0;

been put into it. age is now a number.

You can change the value in the variable. For example,

name = "Katerina";
TASK
age = 21;
Declare variables to store a person’s first name, surname
These values have overwritten their previous data. and age. Add data to these variables. Output the data
onto a web page.
Data types
The data stored in a variable will be of a set data type.
Table 19.01 shows the main data types used in JavaScript.
Operators
Data An operator is a symbol, or set of symbols, that perform
Description Example
type an action. There are a number of these used in JavaScript.
Number A numeric value age = 16 These are categorised as arithmetic, comparison and
score - 12.4 logical.
String Letters, characters name = "Katerina" Table 19.02 shows the arithmetic operators.
and numbers. Any address = '24
text string must start Main Street1 Operator Function Example
and end with either x = 1 + 2;
message = "Hello + Addition
single or double
quotation marks, for World" x is now 3
example L..1 or "ÿÿÿ". Subtraction x = 5 1;
Boolean True or False correct = true x is now 4
correct = false Multiplication x = 2 * 3;
Array A series of values of numbers = [1,2,3]
x is now 6
the same data type
(see section 'Arrays’). / Division x = 10 / 3;

Object A series of named film = x is now 3.33

values of the {title:"The ++ Increment (increase by 1) x++;
variable. House", Decrement (decrease by 1) X--;
genre: "Drama",
% Modulus (return the whole x = 11 % 5;
length:96,
part of a division x is now 1
releaseYear:2013}

Table 19.01 - Data types. Table 19.02 - Arithmetic operators.

 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

In an arithmetic calculation, you do not need to deal with Operator Function Explanation Example
numbers, you can use variables instead. For example, (5 < 6)
OR Is true if one
var firstNumber = 10; or both of the (7 < 10)
var secondNumber = 20; conditions Both are true, so
are true. If the result is true.
var result = firstNumber + both are false,
secondNumber; it is false. (5 > 6) ||
(7 < 10)
Table 19.03 - shows the comparison operators.
The second
Operator Function Example is true, so the
> Greater than 5 > 6; result is true.
! NOT Replaces 1(5 < 6)
This is false.
a true with This is false
< Less than 5 < 6;
false, or a because 5<6 is
This is true. false with true, but the I
Greater than or 5 >= 6; true. will change this
equal to This is false. to false.
<= Less than or 5 <= 5;
Table 19.04 - Logical operators.
equal to This is true.
Equal to 5 == 6; Logical and comparison operators are used in conjunction
with a conditional statement or a loop.
This is false.
Equal to and of 5 === "5"; To output the result of a logical or comparison operator,
298
insert the operation into an output statement. For example,
the same data This is false because
type the first is a number, the document. write (10 < 6);
second a string. You will learn more about these in later sections.
!= Not equal to 5 != 6;

This is true. TASK

!=== Not equal to or 5 !=== "5"; 1 Create two variables and add a number to each, for
not of the same This is true, because they example numl = 10andnum2 = 5. Output the
data type result of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
are not the same data type.
and modulus division using these number.
Table 19.03 - Comparison operators. 2 Create a program to output the result of each of the
following logical operations:
Table 19.04 shows the logical operators. • 5>6

Operator Function Explanation Example

• 20=20.0
(5 < 6) &&
• 10 <=10.1
&& AND Is true if the
condition (7 < 10) • Kristoff = Fredrick
before and Both are true, so
after are both the result is true.
true. If one is String manipulation
false, then it (5 > 6) &&
A string manipulator allows you to perform actions on
is false. (7 < 10) a string and extract information from it. When counting
The first letters in a string, the first letter is letter 0, the second
statement is letter 1etc. Spaces and all symbols all count as letters.
false, so the Table 19.05 shows the most common string manipulation
result is false. methods you may need.
 Operator Description Example
substring Return the letters from the position of word = "Hello World";
( startLetter, startLetterto endLetter. subword = word. substringÿ,11);
endLetter) ;
subword will now hold "World"
The variable, word, is used together with the
operator, that is word. substring_
substr {start, Starting at the start letter, return the word = "Hello World";
noOf) ; noOf (number of) letters. subword = word.substr(2,4) ;
subword will now hold "llo"
replace ( "string", Finds the first string and replaces it word = "Hello World";
"string"); with the second string. newW = word .
replace ("World", "Friends" ) ;
newW will now hold "Hello Friends"
concat ( "stringl", Concatenate will join stringl and wordl = "Hello"';
"string2") string2 together. space = "
You can have more than two strings. word2 = "World" ;
final = wordl.concat (wordl, space,
word2) ';
final will now store "Hello World"
Stringl + + works in the same way as concat on wordl = "Hello";
String2 a string and joins two strings together. space = " ";
word2 = "World";
final = wordl + space + word2;
final will now store "Hello World"
toUpperCaseO Converts the string to uppercase. word = "Hello";
final = word.toUpperCaseO ;
final will now store "HELLO"
toLowerCase() Converts the string to lowercase. word = "Hello";
final = word.toLowerCaseO ;
final will now store "hello"
charAt (number) Returns the character in the string at word = "Hello";
location number. letter = word.charAt (4) ;
letter will now store "o"

Table 19.05 - String manipulation.

*
what you have done. To add a comment, write //, then
anything after will be a comment. Forexample,
DISCUSSION POINT
When might you need to alter words in a program? Have you var count = 0; //number to act as
ever needed to capitalise text? Have you ever had to extract //counter in loop
some letters or parts of a word? Why was this needed?
while (count <= 12) { //loop 0 to 12
//displaying square numbers
Comments document .write (count * count);
A comment is text that you add to your code, which the //output square numbers
interpreter (the software that runs your program) does not
run. Comments can be used to make notes about how
count++; //increment counter

your code works so other developers can understand

Cambridge International AS and A level IT i

Conditional statements
TASK
A conditional statement lets you specify which, if any,
1 Create a program that stores the first name, second
statements are to be run.
name and age of a person. Output these in a
sentence, for example Roberto Mantovani you are 20
years old. If
2 Create a program that stores the first name and if checks a condition. If it is true, the first block of code
second name of a person in variables. Combine and is run:
output the first two letters of their first name with the
first two letters of their second name. if (5 < 6) {
message = "Yes it is!";

Arrays
An array is a data structure that allows you to store The code allocating text to message is only carried out if
multiple values under one name. It is often represented 5 is less than 6.
as a table, with each value given a number with which to
access it (known as the array index). For example,
Else
var colours = ["orange", "purple", An else gives you an option to run code if the condition
"green", "yellow", "grey"]; is false:
This code declares an array, called colours, with five if (5 < 6) {
elements. These are shown as a table in Table 19.06.
message = "Yes it is!";
Index 0 1 2 3 4 }else{
Value orange purple green yellow grey message = "No it isn't!";
Table 19.06 - An array. }

Elements can be extracted from this array. For example, If 5 is not less than 6, then the second block of code will be
the code below would store purple in myPavColour: run and the message will be "No it isn't!".
var myFavcolour = colours [1];
Elements can be replaced in this array. For example, the Else if
code below will replace ‘yellow’ with ‘pink’: Else if allows you to have multiple conditions that you
set different outcomes. You can have as many else if
to
colours [3] = "pink"; conditions as you need, and can also combine them with
Elements can be added to this array. For example, the an else:
code below will make a new index, 5, and put ‘blue’ if (5 < 6) {
in it:
message = "Yes it is!";
colours.push("blue");
}else if (5==6) {
The length of the array can be found. For example, the
code below will return 5: message = "They're the same";

var arrayLength = colours length; . }else{

message = "It's smaller";

TASK }
Create an array that stores the names of ten different
films. Output each of these films, in turn, on a web page. Switch
Each film should be on a new line. Combining multiple if s can get difficult to manage. A
switch statement is more efficient as it does not
 Chapter 19: Programming for the web

perform alt of the conditions every time. It can take a

variable (or expression) and then check its value against
a series of options. These options can be values, as in the You may want to output a number ten times.
example below, orvariables: Instead of writing the same line of code ten times,
number = 5; you can put it in a loop, which reduces the amount
of code.
switch(number) {
You may not know how many times some code
case 4;
needs to be run. For example, you want to multiply
message = "It's 4"; a number by itself until it is greater than 1000. You
break;
will not know, at the start, how many times this
code needs to be run.
case 5;

message = "It's 5";

For
break; In a for loop, you need to know the number of times the
case 6; loop is to run. The code below adds the value of total to
itself ten times:
message = "It's 6";
for (count = 0; count < 10; count++){
break;
total = total + total;
default;

message = "It was none of

these"; count is a variable that is declared for the loop. It usually
counts the number of times a loop is run, although it can
} be used in other ways. This statement can be excluded if,
for example, you want to use a variable that already exists.
This statement will take the value stored in the variable
number and compare it to the first case statement, in The second element, count < 10, is the condition. As
this code, case 4. If it is equal to it, it will write “It's long as this is true, the loop will run. This code can be
4" into the variable message, then run the break excluded, but the for loop will run continually unless you
statement which forces it to break out of the switch include a break; within the loop to make it stop.
statement (i.e. it will not then compare the value with the The third element is what happens at the end of the
next case). loop. In this case the variable count increments. This
The default catches a value that is not caught by any of statement can be excluded if, for example, you want to
the previous case statements. change the variable elsewhere within the loop.
The for loop shown below will write the first 12 square
numbers:
TASK
1 Create a web page that has a person’s age stored in for (count = 1; count <= 12; count++){
a variable. Using an if statement, output a different
document.write (count * count);
message, depending on their age. For example,
if they are between 13 and 19: "You are a }
teenager".
2 Change the web page you created in the previous task For/in
and this time use a switch statement. If you have an object that you need to loop through each
element, for example to output them all, you can use a
for/in loop:
Loops var film = {title:"The House",
A loop is a construct that repeats a set number of times, genre: "Drama", length:96,
usually based on a condition. releaseYear:2013};
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

var count; In this example, 0*0 will always be output, then the value of
for (count in film){ count is checked and it decides if the loop will run again.

document .write (film[count] ) ;

TASK
1 Create a web page that has a series of colours stored
This code will output each of the elements within the in an array. Use a loop to go through each element in
object film. the array and output it on a new line on the web page.
2 Create a web page that stores a number in a variable.
While Use a loop to output the 12 times table for this
A while loop runs the code while a condition is true: number.
3 Create a web page that stores a number in a variable.
var count = 0; Output that number of asterisks (*) on a web page.
while (count <= 12) {
document, write (count count);
*
Functions
count++;
A function is a set of instructions that perform a specific
} task. It is given a name and can take values (parameters),
This loop will display the first 12 square numbers. A and return values:
counter (count) is declared before the loop. The value of function addNums(numl, num2){
this is checked in the condition to see if it is less than or
return numl + num2;
equal to 12. If it is, it enters the loop, otherwise it skips it
and jumps to the code below the closing. Within the loop }

m this counter is incremented.

Awhile loop does not need to use a counter. For
example,
This function:
• has the name addNums
• it takes two numbers, numl and num2
var check = true;
• it adds these together
while (check = true){ • it returns the result.
document .write ( "It ' s true " ); The add function can now be used within the code:
} var result = addNums (2,3);
At the moment this loop will run infinitely. While the numl is given the value 2, num2 is given the value 3. The
variable check is true, it will continue to run. This is a function addNums adds these together (5) and returns
common programming error. The variable would need the result. 5 is now stored in result.
to change within the loop so that at some stage it is no
longer true. A function does not have to take parameters and it does
not have to have a return value. For example,
Do/while
function outputNums () {
In this loop the condition is checked at the end of the loop,
which means the loop will always run at least once: document .write (0) ;

var count = 0; document.write (1) ;

do{ }
document, write (count count);
* This function can be called with:
count++;
outputNums ();

Functions are very useful for removing repeated code,

while (count <= 12); especially when it may need to be repeated at different
 Chapter 19: Programming for the web

positions in the program. Rather than rewriting the code It will return false, because not all elements in numbers
(which gives more opportunity for errors), just call the are equal to 10.
function.

TASK
Write code that checks if every number stored in an
1 Create a function for each of the three tasks you
array is greater than 0:
created at the end of the ‘Conditional statements’
section. Make sure each one has its own function, function isGreaterThanO (item,
then call these functions. index, array) {
2 Create a function that takes four numbers as
return (item > 0);
parameters. Find the largest of these numbers and
output it in an appropriate sentence. };
3 Edit the function you created for task 2 and make it
find the smallest number. var numbers = [-1, 0, 5, 10],-
var everyCheck = numbers.
every (isGreaterThanO) ,-
Iterative methods
An iterative method is a function (or task) that is repeated, Some
for example applied to each element in an array.
The some method checks if at least one item meets the
condition:
Every
This iterative method will check every element in an array function equalTen(item, index,
array) {
against a condition. It will return true if every item meets
the condition or false if at least one element does not
meet it.
return (item == 10); Q
};
The code below creates a function called isTen. Inside
var numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
the function declaration is (item, index, array).
60];
These apply to the array being used and provide the value
(e.g. 10), the index (e.g. 0) and the array (e.g. numbers) to var someCheck = numbers.
the function: some (equalTen) ,-
function isTen(item, index, array) { This time, the method will return true, because at least
return (item == 10);
one of the elements is equal to 10.

}; Filter
An array (numbers) is declared, and then the function The filter method will return an array with all the
isTen is applied to the array using the every method: elements that meet the criteria:
var numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]; function lessThirtyFive(item, index,
array) {
var everyCheck = numbers.
every (isTen); return (item <= 35);

This code: };
• declares an array called numbers var numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
60];
• calls an every method and sends the array elements
usingthe code function (item, index, array) var filterArray = numbers.
• the condition is item == 10 filter (lessThirtyFive);
• the result of this is returned and stored in the variable This time, the method will return [10, 20, 30] because
everyCheck. these are all the elements that are less than, or equal to, 35.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

ForEach Trap errors

forEach runs a task, or command, on every element Errors can occur in a variety of places in a program and for a
within the array. It does not return any value: variety of reasons. For example, a user may have input invalid
data, a calculation may not be possible or on the wrong data
function addOnefitem, index, array) {
type, or the programmer may have made an error themselves.
item = item + 1;
To trap these errors, try and catch code is used. Within
document .write (item); the try block are the statements that are attempting to
run. You can throw a specific error message to be output
after each statement. The catch block states what to do
var numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, with the error message if generated:
50, 60];
var x = 21;
numbers. forEach(addOne) ;
try{
This time, the method will take each item, add 1to it, then if(x>20) throw "over 20";
output the new value. The actual value stored in the array
is not changed. if(x<=10) throw "less than 11";
}
Map catch(e){
map runs a task, or command, on every element within
message.innerHTML= e;
the array and returns the new, edited array:
}
function mapOne(item, index, array) {
This code checks if the value ofx is greater than 20. If it is,
item = item + 1; it sets the error (e) to be "over 20". If not, it compares
} it to <= 10. If it is, it sets the error (e) to "less than
ll". The catch takes this error, if it is generated, and
var numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40,
then displays it. This code can be used to validate data
50, 60];
on entry. Using if s in this way will ensure all conditions
var mapArray = number s.map (mapOne); are met, whereas a case statement may not catch all
possible errors.
This time, the method will take each item and add 1to it. It
will return the following edited values that are now stored
in mapArray: 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61. Hypertext Markup Language forms and
control events
A Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) form lets you
TASK
combine multiple objects and receive input from the user.
1 Create an array with a series of numbers. You need to tell HTML that you are creating a form using
a Create a function that will multiply each number in the <f ormx/form> tag. All the code to display buttons,
the array by two and output the result, but do not drop-down boxes etc. then comes within these tags.
store the result.
b Create a function that will multiply each number An event can occur within the HTML code that can be
in an array by ten, store the results and output acted upon by JavaScript, for example a button is pressed.
them. Within the HTML code for these objects, a JavaScript
c Create a function that will check if any of the function can be called to perform an action.
numbers are greater than 20.
d Create a function that will check if all the numbers Button
are greater than 20.
The HTML code below will create a button that says
e Create a function that will return an array with
"Press me":
all elements in that are greater than or equal to
ten. cbutton onclick="outputMessage() ">Press
me</button>
 Chapter 19: Programming for the web

The code states that when the button is clicked, the document.write (obj .options [obj.
JavaScript function outputMessageOwill be called. selectedlndex] .text);

This function is then written in JavaScript: }

function outputMessage ( ) { The first line in the function takes the name of the element
colours and stores it in the obj variable:
document .write ( "Hello World");
var obj = document.
getElementByldf "colours");
When the button is clicked, the message "Hello
World" will be displayed on the page. This saves you typing the text to access the name each
time you need it (it would make the line of code very
Text box long).
The HTML code below will create a text box: The second line in the function selects the item in the
drop-down box that you have selected:
cinput type="text" id="enterColour">
In the JavaScript, a function needs to be written to access obj .options [obj .selectedlndex] .text
the text in the text box. In this case it will write it back to It then displays this in the HTML.
the page:
obj .selectedlndex accesses the drop-down
function getColour(){ option you have chosen by a number (the first will be
var colourEntered = document. option 0, the second option 1 etc.), obj .options
getElementByldf " enterColour"); returns the full set of options in a drop-down box.
Combined, these statements access the selected drop¬
document .write (colourEntered.value);
down option.

document .getElementByld refers to an HTML script Radio button

that has been given a name. In this case the HTML code The HTML code below will create a radio button for each
created a text box named "enterColour". of the colours:
.value will access the data that is currently in the object
<input type="radio" name="colours"
named colourEntered. id="purple">Purple<br >
cinput type="radio" name="colours"
Drop-down box
id="orange">Orange<br>
The HTML code below will create a drop-down box
called colours. It will create a number of options. Each cinput type="radio" name="colours"
coption> will be a new choice in the drop-down box: id="blue ">Bluecbr >

cselect id = "colours"> In the JavaScript, a function needs to be written to

coption>purplec/option> access which radio button has been clicked and write
it in the document. This function needs to check each
coption>orangec/option> of the radio buttons you have created, in turn, to find
coption>bluec/option> out which one has been checked. This is done using a
loop:
c/select>
function checkColours ( ) {
In the JavaScript, a function needs to be written to access
the text in the drop-down box and write it to a set place in var colour = document . forms [0];
the HTML document: for(i=0; i<3; i++){ //loop through
function getColour(){ //all radio buttons
var obj = document. if (colour [i] .checked) { //check if
getElementByld(" colours"); //the current button is selected
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

document .write (colour [i] .value) ;

//If true, display the id of the TASK
//button 1 Create a form that takes a person’s first name, second
name and favourite number. Create a username for
them in a function, using the first letter of their first
name, their second name and their favourite number.
Output their username in a sentence.
2 Create a web page that stores a number in a variable
var colour = document. forms [0] sets the and asks the user to guess the number. Count how
variable colour to hold the radio buttons. many guesses the person has attempted, and output
this after each guess along with whether they were
colour [i] .checked accesses theiradio button (first right or wrong.
time through this is 0, then 1) and finds out if it has been 3 Adapt the code you wrote for task 2 and tell them if
selected. their guess was too high or too low.
4 Adapt the code you wrote for task 2 or task 3 and trap
colour [i] .value gets the ID of the radio button
errors such as guessing outside bounds that you set,
colour [i] . making sure they use a number etc.
5 Create a form that lets the user enter their personal
19.02 Pop-up boxes details including name, address and date of birth.
Check that the data they have entered is reasonable
A pop-up box can be used to display text or information. and catch any errors they may input.
There are three types of pop-up box: Alert, Confirm and 6 Create a form that lets the user choose from a series
Prompt. of options in a drop-down box. Change the text
displayed in the web page depending on the option
they have chosen.
Alert 7 Adapt the code you wrote for task 6, this time letting
An alert box only displays text. them choose using a radio button.
e.g. alert ("Hello World");

Confirm 19.03 Summary

A confirm box has two options, ok and cancel. The option JavaScript is a programming language that is used in web
chosen by the user is returned as a value that can then be pages, it can add functionality and interactivity to a web
used to decide what to do. page. A function can be written to perform a task. This can
e.g. then be called from elsewhere in a program and it can be
var answer = confirm ("Ok to proceed?"); used multiple times. JavaScript can be used to validate
data entry using trap errors.
if (answer == true) {
The code is written in a script tag. Variables can store
alert ("Ok")
data and you can change what is in them. A conditional
}else{ statement, such as if or switch, lets you decide which
alert ("Cancelling")
code is to be run dependent on a condition. A loop, or
iteration, will repeat a set of statements a number of
times.

Prompt
A prompt box allows a user to enter some text, and gives
them the option of ok and cancel. If ok is selected, then
Q Remember
When creating web pages, there are a range of tools
and protocols that can be used to add any required
the text input is stored into a variable. interactivity. When deciding which tool, or protocol, you
are going to use, consider the appropriateness to the
e.g.
context and the users.
var answer = prompt("What day is it?")
 Chapter 19: Programming for the web

Review questions
1 Izabella is creating a web page for her business. She has been told to use JavaScript to make
her web page better. Explain, using an example, how she could make use of JavaScript and
the benefits it could have. [4]
2 Describe what an array is. [3]
3 Explain the benefits of using a function. [3]
4 Describe how JavaScript can validate data entry. [3]
 I

Glossary
s>

:
Actuator: this is a type of motor that controls a CAM: computer-aided manufacture
mechanism or system
Cell: a rectangle within a spreadsheet where data can
Alignment: positioning text so that it is in line, for example be positioned; the geographical area covered by a radio
on the left, right or centre transmitter
Alpha testing: initial testing of the software by a limited Chaining: combining together instructions
group of people
Circuit switching: a single communication path is opened
Analogue: this is the smooth stream of data that we for the duration of data transmission
process on a daily basis Client: a computer that is connected to a server
Animation: a series of images played one after another to Closure: completion of a project
simulate movement
Cloud computing: using remote servers hosted on the
Array: a data structure that can store multiple items under internet to store data
one identifier
Coding: representing data by assigning a code to it for
Artificial intelligence: computer systems that perform classification or identification
tasks that normally require human intelligence
Collaboration: working together
Assignment: providing a value to a variable
Compiler: translates high-level programming language
Attribute: a category of information within an entity into an executable file in machine code
Bandwidth: the range of frequencies available for Composite key: two or more fields that form the primary
a communication method which determines the key
transmission rate; the amount of data that can be
Conception: start of a project
transmitted at one time
Condition: a statement that can be evaluated as true or
Beta testing: a sample of users test a pre-release version false, for example5 >6
of the software
Confidential: needs to be kept secret
Biometrics: the measurement of a person's physical
characteristics; unique physical characteristic of a person Construct: a control structure, such as a loop or a
that can be used by a computerfor identification purposes conditional statement
Critical path: the tasks which must be completed on time
Bitmap: an image made up of small squares, called pixels.
for a project to complete on time
Each individual pixel can only be one colour
Custom-written: software that is written especially to
Bit rate: the number of bits that can be transferred per second
meet the requirements of a client
Black box testing: testing of inputs and outputs to a
Data: raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or images
system or part of a system with no consideration for the
without meaning
workings of the system
Database: a structured method of storing data
Bluetooth: a short range wireless communication
standard Database management system: software used to manage
a database
Bridge: connects two LANs
Data dictionary: metadata (information) about the
Broadband: a method of faster data transmission that can database
carry several channels of data at once
Datatype: the type of data being stored, for example a
CAD: computer-aided design number, string (text)
 Glossary

Demographic: a particular section of a population Foreign key: a field in a table that refers to the primary key
in another table
Design specification: illustration of how the system will
look, what the data structures will be and how the system Formula: a mathematical calculation using+, -, x or-s-
will work Frame: one screen, or page, where an image is drawn. A
Device: a hardware component of a computer system series of these frames are played one after the other to
consisting of electronic components create the animation
DFD: data flow diagram which shows how data moves Function: a separate piece of code that has an identifier
around a system and performs a task, it can be called from elsewhere
Diagnosis: identifying a problem or illness by analysis of in the code and returns a value; a ready-made formula
the symptoms representing a complex calculation

Digital divide: the separation between those that have Gantt chart: a chart used for planning a project
access to technologies and the internet and those that do not Gateway: connects two different types of networks
Direct data source: data that is collected for the purpose GPS: global positioning system which uses satellites to
for which it will be used determine the current location
DPI/dots per inch: the resolution of an image Hardware: a physical component of a computer system
Dynamic data: data that changes automatically without Heuristic: discovering knowledge through experience
user intervention
HTTPS: hypertext transfer protocol secure
Ecommerce: business that is conducted electronically
Hub: connects devices on a network in a passive manner
Economic: relatingto a country in terms of their
production and consumption of goods and services
Encoding: storing data in a specific format
Humidity: the amount of water in the atmosphere
Hyperlink: a link that can be clicked to locate to another B
place in a document, or a different document entirely
Encryption: scrambling data so it cannot be understood
Identifier: a name given to a variable or function
without a decryption key so that it is unreadable if
intercepted Import: to bring in data from another application

Entity: a set of data about one thing (person, place, object Indirect data source: data that was collected for a
or event) different purpose (secondary source)
Entity relationship diagram: a diagram that represents Information: data with context and meaning
the relationships between entities
Infrared/IR: a wave of light that is invisible to the naked
Execution: the development stage of a project human eye, emitted by an object; used by remote
controls
Export: to prepare data for use in another application
Infrastructure: the physical structures that are needed for
Fibre optic: a fine strand of glass that transmits data as
a service or operation
light beams
Input device: a device that allows data to be entered into
Field: a category of information; a common word for
a computer system
attribute; an individual item of data in a database, for
example forename Internet service provider/ISP: A company that provides
access to the internet
Filter: selecting records from the source file based on
conditions; an effect, often colour related, that can be Interpreter: translates high-level programming language
applied to a clip into machine code one line of source code at a time
Firewall: prevents external users gaining unauthorised Iteration: a loop, to repeat
access to a computer system Key: a sequence or algorithm used to encrypt or decrypt
Flat file: a database stored in a single table data
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Key frame: a frame that has a change in the animation, for Normal form: the extent to which a database has been
example a drawing has changed, or the start or end of a normalised
tween
Normalisation: process of structuring data in a
Knowledge: information to which human experience has database
been applied
Object: an image, or combination of images, that is
LAN: local area network which connects devices in a manipulated as one item
single building or area
Off-the-shelf: general purpose software available to a
Laser: an intense beam of light used for transmitting data large market
Layer: an object or image given its own timeline for Opacity: the lack of transparency in an image, or part of
independent manipulation an image
Legitimate: looks like the real standard a document would Operating system: software that manages the hardware
have within a computer system
Mail merge: the automatic addition of data, such as Operator: a symbol, or set of symbols that performs an
names and addresses, from a source file into a master image
document, such as a letter
Orientation: the direction of text, for example horizontal
Maintenance: changes made to a system after its or vertical
implementation
Output device: a device used to communicate data or
Malicious code: code that is intended to harm a information from a computer system
computer
Packet: a set of bits which represent data to be
Malware: malicious software transmitted
Management information system: a system that provides Packet switching: data that is broken down into packets
summary data for management to enable them to make are sent through different routes and reassembled by the
decisions recipient
Master document: the main document that will be used Parameter: data used within the criteria fora query
for all records
Peer: a computer in a network that is not connected to a
Message switching: a method of transmitting data server and does not control another computer
through intelligent nodes
Photoresistor: this is a light controlled resistor
Microprocessor: an integrated circuit used in monitoring
and control technologies Piezoresistance: a specific level of electrical charge that is
linked to a specific level of resistance or pressure
Microwave: an electromagnetic wave of energy
Pitch: the highness or lowness of a tone
Model: a representation of a process
Pixel: a very small square of one colour that is illuminated
Morphing: another term for shape tweening. One image on a display screen. These are combined to create a
changes into another image bitmap image
Network: a set of computers and devices connected Pixelate: when a bitmap image is enlarged, the pixels are
together so they can communicate and share enlarged and become visible causing the image to appear
resources blurry
Network architecture: the design of a network Predecessor: a task in a project that must be completed
NFC: near field communication before another task can start
NIC: network interface card which connects the Primary key: a field that contains the unique identifier for
motherboard of a device to a network cable a record
Non-volatile: data remains when there is no power Private key: used in encryption to decrypt data
 Glossary

Prompt: a question asked to the user which requires a Static data: data that does not normally change
response Storage device: a device used to store data onto a storage
Proof reading: checking information manually medium
Protocol: a set of rules that ensure data is transferred Storage medium: the medium on which data is stored
between devices correctly
Streaming: a method of displaying sound or video without
Prototype: a 'mock-up' of a software or manufactured waiting for the whole file to be downloaded
solution
Switch: connects devices on a network in an active
Public key: used in encryption to encrypt data manner
Query: a question used to retrieve data from a System flowchart: an overview of how a system works in
database a diagrammatic format
RAD: rapid application development System specification: the hardware and software needed
to run the system
Record: a common word for entity
Referential integrity: data in the foreign key of the Table: a set of similar data (about people, places, objects
or events)
table on the many side of a relationship must exist
in the primary key of the table on the one side of a TCP/IP: a communication protocol used by the internet
relationship
Teleworking: working from home using technologies to
Relationship: the way in which two entities in two keep in contact with an employer
different tables are connected
Test data: data that will be used for testing a system
Rendering: combining the effects created in a video file to
create an output video file
Repeater: amplifies the signal on a network cable
Track: a single audio section in a sound or video file
Transaction: a collection of data that is exchanged; the
action of buying or selling an item or service
m
Requirements specification: what a user needs a new
Transition: the movement from one clip to the next
system to do
Tunnelling protocol: a tunnel between two points on a
Resolution: the number of pixels per measurement of the
network that is governed by a set of rules
image, for example DPI
Tween: an animation where the start and end points are
RFID: radio-frequency identification
set. The computer generates the actual changes to make
Router: a switch which can forward data to the correct the animation smooth
location in the most efficient manner
User interface: communication between the user and the
Satellite: an object in space that follows an orbital path computer system
Sensor: a device that records data about the surrounding Utility software: software that performs some sort of
physical environment maintenance on the computer system
Server: a computer on a network which provides Validation: the process of checking data matches
resources that can be used by client devices acceptable rules
Simulation: using a model to predict real-life behaviour Variable: a space in memory that is given an identifier
where data can be stored and changed
Software: programs which give instructions to the
computer Vector: an image that uses geometric points and shapes.
Calculations are used to draw the image
Source file: the file containing the data that will be merged
into the master document Verification: ensuring data entered into the system
matches the original source
Spyware: malicious software that records what a user is
doing on a computer system Verify: to check that data matches the original data
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

Virus: software that replicates itself between computer White box testing: testing the whole system in terms of
systems and is designed to cause disruption to a structure and logic covering all paths through the system
computer system
Wi-Fi: wireless Ethernet which allows devices on a LAN to
Volatile: data is lost when there is no power connect wirelessly
WAN: wide area network which connects devices that are Wireless access point: connects Wi-Fi enabled devices to
geographically remote a network
Web browser: a software application for retrieving and WNIC: wireless network interface card which enables a
presenting information on the World Wide Web device to use Wi-Fi

Bj
Answers

Chapter 1- Data, information, type but it may be that the date should have been
29/1/03). Data can be checked against the source,
knowledge and processing but the source maybe incorrect (e.g. the name I
‘Siohan’ is written on the original source and is
1 For example 000000 (there must be no explanation,
visually checked to have been entered as ‘Siohan’,
just the data).
but the actual spelling should have been ‘Siobhan’).
2 For example, context is added to 000000 because
we are told it is a colour code. Meaning is added by
Review questions
telling us it is the colour code for black.
1 E.g. 573dds [1]. If further explanation given then 0
3 Knowledge is applying experience to information so
marks.
that the information can be interpreted.
2 Either of the following [1]: Understanding
4 Area calculator, Length =, Width=, Area=, m, m2 information [1] a person’s experience/learning [1],
(not 3, 5 or 15).
3a Any combination of the following [4]: Static data
5 15 (not 3, 5). does not change [1] whereas dynamic data changes
6 Measure it himself. automatically [1],

7 Accept measurements given by the customer. Static data can get out of date [1] whereas dynamic
data updates when the data source is updated [1].
8 He can rely on the measurements he has taken
himself to be accurate. Static data can be viewed offline [1] whereas
dynamic data requires network connectivity [1].
9 Accuracy, relevance, age, level of detail, Static data is more likely to be accurate [1] whereas
completeness. dynamic data may contain errors if produced
10 The user guide could be written for an old operating quickly [1].
system that has since been updated.
3b Any two of the following [4]: accuracy [1] data that
11 Saving storage space, enables validation, can help contains errors is not of good quality [1],
with presentation of lists, speed of input, speed of Relevance [1] data must be useful for the purpose it
processing, confidentiality. will be used [1].
12 Computers can only understand on and off (1 and Age [1] data must be up to date [1].
0), so text needs to be encoded into a standard
character set that uses numbers represented by Level of detail [1] too much detail makes it difficult
binary. to find the required information [1],

13 Sample rate, bit depth, number of channels. Completeness [1] missing data such as a postcode
for an address [1].
14 WELL DONE.
3c E.g. FT for full-time [1].
15 To ensure data that is input matches the source
data. 3d The video will be downloaded over the internet [1]
so file size needs to be reduced as bandwidth will
16 Presence, range, type, length, format, check digit, be limited [2].
lookup.
3e Any three from the following [1]: Width/height/
17 Data can match the rules but still be incorrect (e.g. resolution; frame rate; audio sample rate; audio bit
date of birth of 29/1/13 matches the rule of a data depth; audio channels; compression.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

3f Any of the following [4]: Image size, the wider and picture. A digital camera is mainly used to take
taller the image the higher the file size. photographs, whereas a scanner is mainly used
to digitise 2D documents. A digital camera can
4a Any combination of the following [4]: Credit card zoom into objects, whereas a scanner can only
information is sensitive [1] because it could be take images at a set distance. A digital camera uses
used for fraud [1] HTTPS is an encrypted method a focal point, whereas a scanner takes an even
of passing information over the web [1] which will focus across the whole document. A digital camera
mean the credit card information will be scrambled captures an image in one go, whereas a scanner has
[1] and unusable by anybody without a key [1]. to digitise an image by moving across it.

4b The sender and receiver use the same encryption/ 6 An OMR will be able to read multiple choice
decryption key [1]. answers that have been completed in specified
positions and will read them accurately with very
4c Any two of the following [2]: The sender uses the little margin of error. An OCR would also be able
public key of the recipient to encrypt the message to read multiple choice answers, but the process
[1] The message is sent in an encrypted format would be slower using a conventional scanner. An
[1] The recipient uses their private key to decrypt OMR would not be able to read written answers
the message [1] The sender and recipient need to to questions as it relies on marks being given. An
exchange digital certificates [1]. OCR could read written answers to questions and
turn them into text, but poor handwriting could be
4d Either of the following [1]: The user could be asked illegible and the OCR would not be able to interpret
to enter their password twice [1] the user could type the answers.
their password and then visually check it [1],
In conclusion, a specially designed scanner that
5a To ensure that data matches a given set of rules [1], can detect when it needs to read lozenge marks
for multiple choice answers combined with more
5b Any of the following [3]: E.g. presence check [1] detailed scanning for OCR of text would be suitable.
to ensure news story [1] is present [1]. E.g. format 7 System software maintains or operates the
check [1] to ensure email address [1] contains @ computer system whereas application software
symbol [1]. carries out tasks for the user.
8 Allocating memory to software; sending data
Chapter 2 - Hardware and and instructions to output devices; responding
Software to input devices such as when a key is pressed;
opening and closing files on storage devices;
1 A physical com ponent of a computer system. giving each running task a fair share of processor
2 Carries out calculations/logical operations; time; sending error messages or status messages
executes instructions; processes data. to applications or users; dealing with user logins
and security.
3 Generates signals needed to display output to a
monitor. 9 Users are usually already familiar with word
processing software so they can create a
4 RAM is volatile meaning that data is lost when website quickly using tools with which they have
power is disconnected, whereas storage is experience. However, some tools required for
non-volatile so data is retained when power website features will not be available, for example
is disconnected. RAM stores currently active forms validation, and so the web page will be
programs and data, whereas storage stores both limited to the capability of the word processor.
active and non-active programs and data. RAM is Web authoring software can be quite complex
much faster than storage devices; storage devices to use but there are plenty of user friendly
can store more data than RAM. applications available to use now. Web authoring
5 Both a digital camera and a scanner can take software will include specialist tools such as
pictures of objects and turn them into a digital setting up the website structure and creating a
 navigation bar automatically, whereas using a Review questions
word processor will require a lot of work to set up
la Connects the main components of the computer
all the navigation on each page. Web authoring
software will include a file transfer feature to together [1],
publish and update the information, whereas in a lb HDD orSSD [1].
word processor this would have to be done using lc Any from [2]: So she can connect a monitor to the
separate file transfer software. In conclusion, computer [1] in order to see the display output that
although web authoring software can take a while is generated from the computer [1].
to master, it is the only suitable tool for creating
a full website because of the specialist features it 2 Any combination of the following [4]: She can
includes. purchase as little or as much backup storage as
necessary [1] based on the amount of data she has
10 To carry out additional tasks that the original stored [1]; the back-up process can be automated
software is not capable of doing, to simplify tasks [1] as long as she is always connected to the internet
that are complex using the original software. [1]; she will not need to transport data off-site [1]
11 Light text on a dark background or vice versa, because it will already be off-site in the cloud [1],
such as white on dark blue, should be used 3 Any combination of the following [6]: Magnetic
so that users can easily read the text against tape can store several terabytes of data [1] which
the background; bright colours can be used to is required for all the servers [1] and user data from
highlight important information so that the user’s 500 employees [1], Magnetic tape is small and
attention is drawn to it; colours in the user’s lightweight which means it is portable [1] so it can
mental model should be used appropriately, such be taken off-site [1] so it is not at the same location
as green for go or yellow for warning, so that the as the original data [1], Magnetic tape is the
user is not confused by colours they expect to cheapest storage medium [1] meaning that several
mean something different. tapes can be used [1] to backup data using a tape
rotation system [1].
12 Anti-virus; backup; data compression; disk
defragmentation; format; file-copying; deleting. 4 Any combination of the following [4]: The surveys
could use multiple choice questions [1] which can
13 To stop viruses or malware from being executed be read by an optical mark reader by identifying the
and causing damage to files and programs. dark areas [1], There will be lots of surveys [1] and
an OMR will have an automatic document feeder to
14 Software that already exists and is readily available
input all the surveys in one go [1],
to be purchased.
5 Any combination of the following [6]: Custom-
15 The client has to wait a longtime for it to be written software will meet all of the requirements
: developed; it is expensive because the client for waste management [1] because it is written
has to cover the whole development cost; especially for the council [1]. Custom software
the software won’t have been used by other can be designed especially to be compatible with
customers before so bugs are likely to be found existing systems [1] such as the web interface used
when the software is used; the only support by residents [1]. Custom-written software will be
available will be from the company that very expensive [1] compared with off-the-shelf
developed the software. software [1], The council will have to wait a few
months [1] for the system to be developed for them
16 To translate source code into object code ready for
[1], There may be very good alternative off-the-
execution.
shelf solutions [1] which would be able to be used
17 When testing a program, an interpreter can instantly [1] at a much lower cost [1] and with a lot
translate just the code that is being tested which of support available [1], In conclusion, the council
saves translation time; source code can be should investigate existing off-the-shelf solutions
translated into object code for more than one before committing to the cost and development
operating system. time of a custom written solution [1].
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

6a Both of the following [2]: Videos can be clipped [1]; The information will be relevant, clear, organised
Titles can be added [1], and presented in a structured and coherent format.
6b Both of the following [2]: The council could remove
Level 2 [3-4 marks]
parts of the raw footage that contained mistakes
[1]; The council could put a title of the information Candidates will address a limited range of
video at the beginning [1]. household appliances and look at their use in terms
of monitoring and controls systems, although
development of some of the points will be limited.
Chapter 3 - Monitoring and control There will be a conclusion. For the most part the
Review questions information will be relevant and presented in a
structured and coherent format.
1 Any combination of the following [2]:
Level 1[1-2 marks]
• An input device that records data about the Candidates may only give reference to a single
environment or surroundings.
household appliance, with limited reference to
• Automatically inputs the data into a computer
monitoring and control systems. Answers may be
system to be processed.
simplistic with little or no relevance.
• Can monitor a range of aspects such as light,
temperature, pressure, moisture and humidity. 0 marks for a response with no valid comments.
2 Any two of the following [4]: Possible points:
• An infrared (motion) sensor can be used . .. • Increased safety for appliances.
• ... monitors infrared energy emitted and can • Appliances can be made more efficient.
detected an increase from an intruder.
• A pressure sensor (switch) can be used ... • It may be possible to remotely control devices.
• ... can sense a change in weight of an intruder 5 Any combination of the following [4]:
entering a building.
• Motion sensors could be used to control light
3 Any two from the following [4]: systems ...

• Sensors can be placed in areas that are • ... this would mean that lights would turn off
dangerous for a human to enter ... automatically when a room is unused, making it
more energy efficient.
• this means that crucial elements of the
...
system, such as areas of radiation, can be • Temperature sensors could be used to control
measured and controlled from a safe distance. the air conditioning system ...
• Sensors can take readings 24/7 ... • the system could be turned off when the
...
room reaches the desired temperate and
• ... this means that humans do not need to
be present in the plant at all time to monitor turned back on again when it falls outside
processes and can just be alerted to a crisis of this, making it more energy efficient.
situation, should one arise. • Pressure sensors could be used on
• Sensor readings will have a higher level of windows ...
accuracy and consistency . . . • this would detect if a window is open and
...
• ... in an environment where the accuracy of turn off an air conditioning system to save
readings is paramount due to safety, this is energy if it is.
vital.
Level of response:
4
Chapter 4 - E-safety and health
Level 3 [5-6 marks] and safety
Candidates will address a range of household
Review questions
appliances and evaluate their use in terms of
monitoring and controls systems. The points raised 1. Mention six points from the following (maximum
will be justified. There will be a reasoned conclusion. four marks for each term) [6]:
 t
Answers

Phishing Level 1[1-2 marks]

• A legitimate-looking email is sent to the user. Candidates may only give reference to a single
• The email contains a link for the user to click. aspect of safety. Answers may be simplistic with
• The link will redirect the user to a legitimate- little or no relevance.
looking website. 0 marks for a response with no valid comments.
• The website will request personal data that will Possible points:
be stolen when entered.
Pharming
• Personal data is very valuable and for this reason
people will put a lot of effort into stealing it.
• Maliciouscode is installed on the user’s hard • perpetrator can steal a person’s identity
A
drive or server. through collecting their personal data/identify
• A user will type in a common web address, but fraud.
will be redirected to a fake website instead. • person could also suffer personal attacks such
A
as blackmail or cyberbullying if they reveal, or
• Unaware, the user enters their personal
have stolen, certain personal information that
details in the fake website and the details are
could be used against them.
stolen.
• Even small amounts of data released on social
2. Any two of the following two points [2j: media over a period of time can be pieced
together for criminal activity.
• It restricts a user’s access to the files on their
computer. 5. Any two of the following injuries and prevention
• restricts the files access to the files either by
It methods [4]:
locking the system or encrypting the files.
• A ransom message will appear when access is
attempted requesting payment for access.
• Repetitive strain injury can occur from repetitive
moments such as clicking a mouse ...
• this can be prevented through the use of
...
support devices such as wrist rests.
m
3. Answer must include the following points [3j:
• Carpel tunnel syndrome can occur through
• It is a bot that is automated to carry out a simple repetitive or continual movements ...
or repetitive task. • ... this can be prevented by taking regular
• tasks it carries out will be party to criminal
The breaks in work sessions/varying the position
activity, such as bombarding mail boxes with used for work.
SPAM email. • Back ache can occur from poor posture .. .
4. Level of response: • this can be prevented by sitting on an
...
adjustable chair with added support.
Level 3 [5-6 marks] • strain can occur as a result of looking at a
Eye
Candidates will discuss in detail the need to keep monitor for long periods of time ...
personal data safe. The points raised will be • this can be prevented by using any
...
settings a monitor has to aid prevention/
justified. There will be a reasoned conclusion.
focussing on points away from the screen
The information will be relevant, clear, organised
periodically.
and presented in a structured and coherent
format.
• Deep vein thrombosis can occur when
pressure is put on the legs from sitting for
Level 2 [3-4 marks] long periods ...
Candidates will provide limited discussion of points • ... this can be prevented by standing regularly
and moving around periodically.
about keeping personal data safe, the development
of some of the points will be limited. There will be 6. Any two of the following safety issues and
a conclusion. Forthe most part the information prevention methods [4j:
will be relevant and presented in a structured and • Fire can occur from equipment overheating/
coherent format. overloaded socket ...
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

... this can be prevented by keeping the room Level 1[1-2 marks]
well ventilated. Candidates may only give reference to a single
... this can be prevented by not plugging in too aspect of the digital divide. Answers may be
many devices to a socket, especially those that simplistic with little or no relevance.
require lots of power.
Trailing wire can cause injury to a person who 0 marks for a response with no valid comments.
trips over them ... Possible points:
... this can be prevented by securing wires in a
cable management system.
• Can prevent access to further education such as
online courses and training.
Electric shock can occur from spilt drinks/
touching wires together ...
• affect entertainment experiences if
Can
connections are too slow.
... this can be prevented by not eating or
drinking at a computer.
• prevent effective communication.
Can

... this can be prevented by an inexperienced

• Can prevent the ability to be competitive in
trading and ecommerce.
user not handling wires.
... this can be prevented by having regular 3. Any two ofthe following strategies with explanation [4]:
electrical safety checks carried out. • Improving the infrastructure that is currently in
place ...
• ... this will provide better access for more
Chapter 5 - The Digital divide people and improve the level of aspects, such
as using technology for entertainment.
Review questions • Getting the technologies of those upgrading
recycled for use by those who do not have
1. Answer must include the following points [3]:
access ...
• The technology divide between countries, • this will improve the access to online services
...
demographic groups and areas. such as education and training.
• It concerns the availability of modern • Setting up cyber cafes in both urban and more
technology. remote areas .. .
• It can include the divide caused by age, status • ... this can provide some access to those who
and location. cannot afford regular access to the benefits
of technology, such as online learning.
2. Level of response:
• Setting up community teach programs . ..
Level 3 [6-8 marks] • ... this can help those who do not know how to
Candidates will discuss in detail a range of use the technology gain an understanding in a
points describing how a country can be affected friendly environment.
by the digital divide. The points raised will be
justified. There will be a reasoned conclusion. The Chapter 6 - Using networks
information will be relevant, clear, organised
and presented in a structured and coherent Review questions
format.
1. Any four of the following points [4]:
Level 2 [3-5 marks]
• LAN covers a small geographical area .. .
Candidates will provide limited discussion of • ... WAN covers a large geographical area.
points describing how a country can be affected • LAN normally uses infrastructure owned by the
by the digital divide, the development of some individual or organisation ...
of the points will be limited. There will be a • ... WAN can often use infrastructure owned by a
conclusion. For the most part the information will third party.
be relevant and presented in a structured and • LAN will normally have a faster data transfer
coherent format. rate, up to 16Gb ...
 Answers

• ... WAN normally has a lower rate of data on education. The points raised will be justified.
transfer, up to 200Mb. There will be a reasoned conclusion. The
information will be relevant,dear, organised and
2. Any four of the following points [4]:
presented in a structured and coherent format.
• It is a privately owned network that uses Level 2 [3-4 marks]
internet technologies.
• is used internally within an organisation.
It Candidates will provide limited discussion of
• It often accessed using a webpage. points about the impact of video conferencing
• It can provide services such as news on education. The development of some of the
updates, file sharing and instant messaging. points will be limited. There will be a conclusion.
• It can provide access to training materials for For the most part the information will be relevant
employees. and presented in a structured and coherent
format.
3. Choose four of the following points (at least one
advantage and one disadvantage) [4]:
Level 1[1-2 marks]
• Uses an additional level of security when Candidates may only give reference to a single
transmitting data ...
aspect of video conferencing and its use in
• ... this means that the user can feet education. Answers may be simplistic with little or
their personal data is safer when being no relevance.
transmitted.
0 marks for a response with no valid comments.
• They use the infrastructure that is already in
place ... Possible points:
• ... this means that there is little additional cost to
setting up a VPN. • Learners can participate in conversation with
... other learners world wide.
• this can mean that the performance of the
infrastructure is outside the control of the • learners can speakto and listen to industry
individual or organisation. experts without the need for travel.
• They require a higher level of expertise to set up • Learners can benefit from watching
international lectures to experience a range of
teaching methods.
• ... if this expertise is not present it may need to
be purchased. • Experts can instruct those in training in
important educational training, such as medical
4. Answer must include both of the following [2]: procedures.
• The internet is the physical infrastructure of the
largest WAN.
• The WWW is a collection of webpages that Chapter 7 - Expert systems
contain text, images, videos and sounds.
Review questions
5. Any combination of four from the following [4]:
l. Any six points from the following (2 marks
• Desktop computer/laptop/mobile device maximum per component) [6]:
• Webcam
• Microphone • The knowledge base .. .
• Monitor • ... a database that allows the storage and
• Speakers retrieval of the knowledge gathered from
• Network infrastructure. experts.
6. Level of response: • ... contains both factual knowledge and
heuristic knowledge.
Level 3 [5-6 marks] • The inference engine .. .
Candidates will discuss in detail a range of • ... the component that makes judgements and
points about the impact of video conferencing carries out reasoning.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

*
• ... based upon a set of rules and follows a line of • ... this means they can only provide a
logic. logical answer to a question and not a
• ... chains together IF-THEN rules to form a line of creative one.
reasoning. • Errors may be present in the knowledge
• ... can use eitherforward chaining or backwards bases .. .
chaining to draw a conclusion. • ... this can result in incorrect conclusions being
• User interface...
The drawn.
• ... is the method used by the user to interact 4. Choose four from the following points [4]:
with the system.
2. Two expert systems and its use from the
• An online processing system processes data in
transactions ...
following [4]:
• whereas a real-time processing system
...
• As a medical diagnosis tool ... process data as soon as it is input.
• ... it can help a doctor narrow down a diagnosis • Online processing systems are often used
by providing a list of possible diagnoses from in booking systems, where all the data for
the symptoms. the transaction can be collected and then
• a car mechanical diagnosis tool ...
As processed ...
• ... a car mechanic can connect a car • whereas real-time processing systems are
...
electronically to the system and all elements of used when the immediacy of the data is vital,
the car can be tested to find the fault. such as air traffic control systems.
• As a telephone helpdesk ... 5. Any combination of two from the following points [2]:
• ... to help narrow down the reason for a
customer’s call to direct them to the right • A collection of fields about a main element of a

m person.
• a troubleshooting tool ...
As
• ... can obtain a description of a fault that has
occurred with hardware, such as a printer, and
•
data system.
Stores all of the more permanent data about the
customer/employee.
• A transaction file is normally used to update a
provide a diagnosis and information on how to master file.
fix the error.
3. Any combination of four from the following Chapter 8 - Spreadsheets
(advantages) [4]:
1 The named range can be referenced directly by
• They can help provide information that is name instead of by cell references; it can be used
outside a user’s knowledge and experience ... as an absolute reference when replicating a lookup
• ... this can help a user solve a problem that function.
they may not have the knowledge to do so
otherwise. 2 A formula is a simple calculation using basic
• They will not forget to ask question or be subject arithmetic of +, -, x, -*•, whereas a function is a
to other human errors .. . predefined complex calculation that can be called
• this means that all the data required to
... by name and includes a series of formulae of which
draw a conclusion can be obtained and will be the user is unaware.
consistent.
• They do not require a human to be present to 3 The user could read each cell in a row and compare
answer questions ... each cell with the source data. When finished
• this means they can be made available to
... reading the row, the user would move to the next
use 24/7. row and repeat the process.
Any combination of two from the following
4 When formulae and functions are replicated, absolute
(disadvantages) [2]:
cell references remain the same, whereas relative cell
• They are not able to use common sense ... references change in relation to the row or column.
5 A tax rate could be stored in a single cell. A set of prices lbi Either of the following [1]: Arithmetic calculation [1]
would be stored in a column. When calculating the plus, minus, divide, multiply [1],
tax to be applied to the first price in the column, the
lbii E2*4.55 [1],
price would be a relative reference (e.g. B3) and the tax
rate would be an absolute reference (e.g. $F$1). These lbiii Any of the following [1]: Complex calculation [1]
two references would be multiplied together and then reserved word in spreadsheet [1] ready-made
replicated down the spreadsheet. B3 would change to formula [1J.
B4, B5 and so on as it is replicated to each row below, lbiv Lookup or vlookup or hlookup or index [1].
but $F$1would remain thesame.
2a Two of the following [2]: Select column D [1] apply a
6 Line, because it shows how data has changed over filter [1] of fuel type = petrol [1].
a period of time.
2b Any two of the following [2]: Apply conditional
7 Pie, because it is showing each piece of data in formatting [1] to fuel type column [1] where
proportion to the rest of the data. diesel, petrol and Ipg are each set to a different
colour [1],
8 The ability to change variables within the
software; asking what-if questions to see what the 3 Any combination of the following [4]: Relative
result of changing variables might be; formulae referencing used for cost per gallon [1] so when
and functions to carry out the mathematical the formula is replicated [1] it refers to the cost per
calculations that form the basis of the model; litre on the next row down [1], Absolute referencing
automatic recalculation of formulae and functions; used for the fuel type table [1] within the lookup
rules that define how the model behaves; layers function for cost per litre [1] so that when replicated
of abstraction so that different parts of the model down the lookup function keeps referencing the
can be viewed and analysed separately. fuel type table [1],

9 Variables can be used to change the rental costs; 4a Any three of the following [3]: Variables can be used to
formulae and functions can be used to calculate change the distances travelled [1] what-if questions can
the total cost of each of the premises; graphs can be asked such as “what will be the cost if the car travels
be used to show the distances from important 300 miles?” [1] formulae and functions can be used to
locations for each of the premises; goal-seek can calculate the total cost [1] graphs and charts can be
be used to find out what the rental cost would used to compare the costs of each car [1] formulae
need to be to match the current costs; conditional and functions will automatically recalculate so results
formatting could be used to show the cheapest and can be seen instantly [1] conditional formatting can
most expensive options. be used to show cars that cost a specific amount [1]
goal-seek can be used to find out the optimum speed
10 Fuel costs can be saved by not havingto fty real
to travel at [1].
aircraft; wear and tear of aircraft does not take place
during training which saves on maintenance costs; 4b Any one of the following [1]: The model will only
instructors do not need to be present for all training be as good as the rules [1] the speed the car is
sessions; unforeseen or dangerous circumstances travelling at will need to be taken into account [1]
can be invoked to test the pilot’s reaction without unforeseen circumstances such as traffic jams will
experiencing the real danger. affect the costs [1],
11 The learner driver does not get to experience the 5 Any combination of the following [4]: Dangers
real reaction of a car; the simulator is only as good such as hazards, other cars, pedestrians etc can
as the model it is based upon meaning that the be avoided [1] because the simulator can model
simulator will not react exactly the same as a car these instead of using the real road [1], Learners do
would. not always need to have an instructor present [1]
because the simulator does not pose any danger
[1]. Learners can experience circumstances they
Review questions
may not normally encounter [1] such as a child
la Horizontal set of cells [1] e.g. for one car [1], running into the road [1] because these can be
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

modelled [1]. The learner can practice complex 10 Text

manoeuvers without holding up other road users
[1] because the simulator can model the presence
Date/Time
of other traffic [1], Date/Time
Text
Integer
Chapter 9 - Database and file
Text
concepts
Boolean/Logical.
1 Afield that is a unique identifier for each record.
11 Starts with zeros and numbers can’t start with zero;
2 Simple query uses one criterion, whereas a complex may contain spaces, which requires a text data
query can use multiple criteria. type which allows spaces; may contain hyphens or
3 To allow the user to decide the parameter value of brackets, which can’t be stored as a number data.
the query, such as choosing the class for which to
display student records. 12 Different software applications store files in
different ways and so generic file types are needed
4 Decide the file format; decide whether to use fixed to transfer data between software applications.
length or variable length fields; decide whether to
include field names; decide where to save the file. 13 Read through the index until the required data is
found in the key column; identify the corresponding
5 Referential integrity is a form of lookup validation storage address; go directly to the storage address;
that ensures data exists in a related table. It is read sequentially until the record is found.
important because it prevents data from being
entered that is not valid and that does not have 14 Sequential access requires the data to be stored in
any related data, so it ensures data is linked. For order, which is a problem when new records need to
example, an order must have a customer. If a be added and old records are deleted, whereas direct
customer that does not exist is entered, then this access does not require a sequential order and so
can create mismatched orders which can be lost new records can be added using a hashing algorithm
because they are not linked to the customer. and found again usingthesame hashing algorithm.
6 Non-atomic data; no repeating groups of data; 15 Collates data from databases and other sources;
unique primary key. interconnects data from different sources; analyses
7 No attributes can be dependent on a non-key data to provide the data that is required by
attribute. management; produces summary reports and charts
for managers that will help with decision making.
8 Duplicate data is removed from a database,
which reduces the database size and removes
the potential for errors and inconsistencies; Review questions
the database will perform better because
searches can be carried out on indexed fields; la All of the following [3]: Charity [1]; Donor [1];
maintenance tasks such as rebuilding indexes can Donation [1].
be completed more quickly because there is no
lb Both of the following [2]: One charity has many
longer any redundant data; the database is more
flexible because it is easy to add new fields to
donations [1]; One donor makes many donations [1].
tables without affecting other columns and new lc Both of the following [2]: Each donation will need
tables can be added without affecting existing to be for a charity that already exists and from a
tables. customer that already exists [1], This will prevent
9 Any three data dictionary components listed with donations from unknown donors orto unknown
related description e.g. field size is the maximum charities and therefore ensure the money gets to
length of data for a field. where it needs to go [1],
 Answers

2a Both of the following [2]: Apartment ID [1] ; • ... this can be used to pass time quickly in a
Customer ID [1]. scene.
• ... it can add a comedy effect to certain
2bi Alphanumericortextorstring[l]. actions.

2bii Boolean [1],

• the timing of the video is slowed down, this
If
can add a calming effect ...
2biii Integer [1]. • this can be used to enhance and show the
...
beauty of an action scene.
2c Any combination of the following [4]: Query would • ... this can also be used to create a solemn
include all three tables [1]; dynamic parameter would feeling, creating almost a tedious effect.
be used for the Apartment ID or Apartment Name 2. Answer must include both of the following
[1]; dynamic parameters would be used to compare explanations [2]:
the start date and end date [1]; the names of the
customers would be included as fields in the query [1], • a single still image.
• the individual parts of a video that are joined
2d Both of the following [2]: Complex queries have together to create the video.
two or more criteria [1]; there are three criteria for 3. Answer must include both of the following
Apartment ID, start date and end date [1]. explanations:

2e Any three of the following [6]: Field names [1] to • a single audio section in a sound file.
identify each field [1]; validation rules [1] to restrict • they can be layered together to create a more
data entry for each field [1]; relationships [1] complex/interesting sound file.
between each table [1]; primary keys [1] which are 4. Any four of the following points [4]:
unique to each table [1]; data types [1] to define
the type of data that is stored in each field eg • It provides a voice over ...
alphanumeric [1]. • ... without removing the noise or sound in the
clip that is already present.
3 All of the following [4]: STUDENT (Student ID, • voice over is recorded as a spate track ...
The
Forename, Surname, Address 1, Address 2, Address • ... it is then layered over the original sound
3, ZIP, Telephone, Tutor Group) [1], clip.
TUTOR (Tutor Group, Forename, Surname) [1] 5. Answer must include all four of the following points
LOAN (Book ID, Student ID, Return Date) [1] [4]:

BOOK (Book ID, Title) [1]. • The number of samples taken of recorded
sound ...
4 Both of the following [2]: Proprietary formats are • ... normally per second.
used by manufacturers of software applications • It is measured in Hz or kHz.
for their applications only [1] whereas open-source • A sample rate of 20 Hz means that 20,000
file formats can be used by any application that samples were taken in a second.
supports them [1],

Chapter 11 - Emerging
Chapter 10 - Sound and video technologies
editing
Review questions

Review questions
1. Level of response:
Level 3 [6-8 marks]
1. Choose any fourof the following [4]:
Candidates will discuss in detail a range of points
• If the time of the video is sped up, this can create relevant to the impact 3D printing has had on
a rushed effect ...
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

medicine. The points raised will be justified. There Level 1[1-2 marks]
will be a reasoned conclusion. The information will Candidates may only give reference to a single
be relevant, clear, organised and presented in a
aspect of artificial intelligence and self-driving
structured and coherent format.
cars. Answers may be simplistic with little or no
Level 2 [3-5 marks] relevance.
Candidates will provide limited discussion of 0 marks for a response with no valid comments.
points relevant to the impact 3D printing has had
Possible points:
on medicine, the development of some of the
points will be limited. There will be a conclusion. • It can make the experience of travellingfrom
Forthe most part the information will be relevant one place to another a more pleasurable
and presented in a structured and coherent experience.
format. • can increase the level of safety on the roads
It
because a computer can have a faster reaction
Level 1[1-2 marks]
time to safety issues that may occur.
Candidates may only give reference to a single • It can affect the current legislation and
aspect of 3D printing in medicine. Answers may be insurance process in place for driving a car on
simplistic with little or no relevance. the road.
0 marks for a response with no valid comments. • More powerful algorithms will cost more to
develop, so this could add to the digital divide.
Possible points: • Some decisions can be more ethical rather than
• Used to create casts for broken bones that are a logical, such as would a person swerve to avoid
lot more flexible that conventional casts. a pedestrian if it meant putting themselves in
• Used to create complex and intricate prosthetic danger, in comparison to how a computer would
limbs that have improved the mobility of the react to this.
user. 3. Level of response:
• Used to create artificial organs and blood Level 3 [6-8 marks]
vessels allowing access to replacements without
the need for others to have suffered loss. Candidates will discuss in detail a range of points
• artificial organs created are not subject to
The about the impact of emerging technologies on our
life expectancy or blood type. personal entertainment. The points raised will be
justified. There will be a reasoned conclusion. The
2. Level of response:
information will be relevant, clear, organised and
Level 3 [6-8 marks] presented in a structured and coherent format.
Candidates will discuss in detail a range of Level 2 [3-5 marks]
points about the impact of artificial intelligence
Candidates will provide limited discussion of points
being used to create self-driving cars. The points
about the impact of emerging technologies on
raised will be justified. There will be a reasoned
our personal entertainment, the development of
conclusion. The information will be relevant, clear,
some of the points will be limited. There will be
organised and presented in a structured and
a conclusion. Forthe most part the information
coherent format.
will be relevant and presented in a structured and
Level 2 [3-5 marks] coherent format.
Candidates will provide limited discussion of points Level 1[1-2 marks]
about the impact of artificial intelligence being
Candidates may only give reference to a single
used to create self-driving cars, the development
aspect of emerging technologies and personal
of some of the points will be limited. There will be
entertainment. Answers may be simplistic with little
a conclusion. Forthe most part the information
or no relevance.
will be relevant and presented in a structured and
coherent format. 0 marks for a response With no valid comments.
 Answers

Possible points: Possible points:

• Virtual reality can give users an experience of a • It can be much more convenient for both the
situation that they may not able to do otherwise, customer and the trader.
such as flying a plane. • Customers can shop on the go with their mobile
• Ultra-high definition can enhance the user device and an internet connection.
experience of watching movies. • It is easier for a customer to see the range of
• It is difficult to be able to stream data at ultra- choices offered to compare products.
high definition, so this may prevent users being
able to take advantage of the technology.
• Customers who do not enjoy public places are
able to enjoy shopping for products from the
• Wearable technology has allowed an element comfort of their home.
of gamification to everyday tasks or exercises,
people can compete against each other or their
• Customers can shop around different
companies more easily to get the best price for
own previous records.
their product.

Chapter 12 - Role and impact 3. Level of response:

Review questions Level 3 [5-6 marks]

1. Choose from any three of the following points [3]: Candidates will discuss in detail the effect that
social networking has on our social patterns.
• It is an internet based form of money. The points raised will be justified. There will be
• It is a currency that can be used a reasoned conclusion. The information will be
internationally...
relevant, clear, organised and presented in a
• ... without the need for exchange rates. structured and coherent format.
• A good example would be bitcoin/litecoin.
• They are often anonymous in their use, so Level 2 [3-4 marks]
cannot be tracked.
Candidates will provide limited discussion of points
2. Level of response: about the effect that social networking has on our
Level 3 [5-6 marks] social patterns, the development of some of the
points will be limited. There will be a conclusion.
Candidates will discuss in detail the impact of For the most part the information will be relevant
online shopping for the customer. The points and presented in a structured and coherent format.
raised will be justified. There will be a reasoned
conclusion. The information will be relevant, clear, Level 1[1-2 marks]
organised and presented in a structured and Candidates may only give reference to a single
coherent format. aspect of social networking. Answers may be
Level 2 [3-4 marks] simplistic with little or no relevance.
Candidates will provide limited discussion of 0 marks for a response with no valid comments.
points about online shopping, the development
Possible points:
of some of the points will be limited. There will be
a conclusion. For the most part the information • Many forms of social networking now exist to
will be relevant and presented in a structured and suit the individual.
coherent format. • They have allowed many people to stay in touch
Level 1[1-2 marks] over long distances, with greater ease.

Candidates may only give reference to a single

• Some argue they can help develop greater social
skills through encouraging communication.
aspect of online shopping. Answers may be
simplistic with little or no relevance.
• Some argue they have a negative effect on
social skills as people do not act as they should
0 marks for a response with no valid comments. in many situations.
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

• There is concern that young people may see the pixelating until the full transmission rate is available
way many act on social media and believe this is again, even if it was only for a split second. A buffer
normal behaviour. downloads parts of the video in advance of it being
• Some believe this had led to greater issues such watched so the user is always watching video that
as online bullying. has already been downloaded while the next part
of the video is added to the buffer.
4. Any combination of fourfrom the following points [4]:
5 Packet switching; message switching; circuit
• Sorting through large sets of data ... switching.
• ... to identify patterns and trends.
• ... to establish relationships between the 6 Fibre optic strands are very fine so lots can be
data. fitted into a small space to enable more data to be
• Extracting information from sets of data to transmitted at once; fibre optics carry data at the
inform and instruct future decisions. speed of light, meaning there is negligible latency;
• Can involve three stages, exploration, validation light signals in fibre optics are not susceptible to
and deployment. interference or hacking.
• Used to try and predict changes before they occur. 7 Hands-free operation in a car/headset; linking to a
5. Any combination of four from the following smartwatch; linking to biometric devices; streaming
points [4]: videos to a display; streaming music to speakers;
transferring files.
• Learners can learn at their own pace ...
• ... this means that they may have more confidence 8 Wi-Fi is susceptible to interference from other radio
and can revisit areas with which they struggle. devices and microwaves; Wi-Fi signals deteriorate
• Training can be given in many forms, such as over distance, especially when transmittingthrough
text based, videos and podcasts ... walls and other obstacles; Wi-Fi can be easily
• ... this can help allow for different learning styles intercepted and hacked if encryption is not set up
between people. correctly.
• A bespoke course can be created depending on 9 A video conference is a live transmission of data
a learner’s needs ... and so it is critical that the data arrives in real time.
...
• this can be automated by the software The bandwidth needs to be sufficient to provide a
adapting the training to weaknesses highlighted transmission rate capable of transmitting the video
by the learner. and audio immediately. If the transmission rate is
• Software can be designed to automatically mark insufficient, then there will be delays in the delivery
any assessment ... of the video and audio, or parts of video and audio
• ... this can provide the learners with instant will be missing.
feedback. 10 Both IMAP and POP allow emails to be downloaded
to client email software; POP removes the email
Chapter 13 - Networks from the server by default when it has been
downloaded, whereas IMAP leaves a copy of the
1 It boosts a signal along a network cable by receiving
email on the server; IMAP supports multiple folders
data packets and then retransmitting them.
on the server, whereas POP only supports one
2 File server; print server; mail server; application folder on the server.
server; proxy server.
11 Unauthorised access; DoS attack; malware.
3 Bandwidth measures the frequencies available
12 The user would be expected to log on using
on a communications channel in Hz, whereas bit
their username/banking number and password/
rate measures the amount of data that can be
PIN; the user could provide additional personal
transferred in bps.
information such as specific characters from
4 A buffer is used to keep a video running smoothly. their mother’s maiden name; the user could be
Without a buffer, any data congestion would be asked to put their debit card into a card reader
noticed by the video pausing, missing out frames or and provide a code issued by the card reader;
 Answers

a Short Message Service (SMS) text message 2 Any combination of the following [4]: Levi will need
that contains a number the user enters into the sufficient bandwidth to stream the music and
bank account website could be sent to the user's video without it being interrupted. [1] If there is
mobile phone. insufficient bandwidth then there will be gaps in
13 Backups are a second copy of data and are only the music or videos or distortion [1] that will ruin
needed if the original data is damaged. The original his listening or viewing experience [1], For the
data will still be available and hackers could still video conferencing, he needs enough bandwidth
gain unauthorised access. to receive both the audio and video streams
synchronised together [1] and live so that he can
14 Data must be used fairly and lawfully; used for participate in real-time [1], If there isn’t sufficient
limited, specifically stated purposes; used in a bandwidth then he will receive the audio and video
way that is adequate, relevant and not excessive; after it happened [1] and if he tries to respond it will
accurate; kept for no longer than is absolutely not be at the right time [1],
necessary; handled according to people’s data
protection rights; kept safe and secure; not 3 All of the following [4]: If Levi wants to use a wired
transferred outside the European Economic Area connection then his desktop computer will have to
without adequate protection. be nearthe switch [1] which is probably part of the
router and must be by the telephone connection
15 Information about salary scales must be accurate [1]. This may not be a suitable location. If he
so that the employee gets paid the correct amount;
uses it somewhere else then a long cable will be
information about next of kin details must be up to required [1] which could be unsightly, could be a
date in case of an injury.
trip hazard and he may not be allowed to fix cables
16 Subscription costs are expensive compared with to the walls of the apartment [1],
other broadband options; there is a latency so it is 4a A set of rules used for communication in
not suitable for real-time applications; bandwidth
networks [1],
is lower than other broadband options; the
equipment is costly to set up. 4b Both of the following [2]: it sends requests to a web
server to view a page [1] and sends that page back
17 Some channels will be subscription only and so the
to the browser [1].
satellite television networks will want to ensure that
only those viewers that have paid for a subscription 4c Either of the following [1]: IMAP or POP [1],
are able to access those channels. 5a All of the following [4]: Levi should check the
18 GPS can provide an exact location on earth legitimacy of the site and download links [1] to
which can be useful for identifying where the check that they are genuine [1], Levi should have
nearest emergency vehicle is to an emergency; anti-malware software installed [1] that will prevent
GPS can identify an exact location in order to any malware from infecting his computer [1],
automatically add geotagging information to a 5b Any two of the following [2]: Malware could be
photograph; GPS can identify an exact location attached to a file on a USB stick or other portable
on a map so a driver is always aware of their
memory that Levi uses [1]. Levi could open an
current position when driving to a destination.
infected attachment from an email [1], Levi could
open a macro that is infected with malware [1],
Review questions
6a Two of the following [2]: Levi could have full
la Either of the following [lj: Router [1] or Gateway [1], create, read, update and delete access to his own
lb Any three of the following [3]: Switch or Hub user documents because they belong to him [1].
to connect the devices together using cables Levi could have read-only access to documents
[lj; wireless access point to provide a wireless provided by his lecturers so he can view them
connection for the laptop and mobile phone [lj; but not change them [1], Levi could have create,
NIC to connect the desktop PC to the network [lj; read and update access to files for a project he
wireless NIC to enable the laptop and mobile phone is working on with a group of other students so
to connect wirelessly [lj. they can collaborate together [1], Levi might
Cambridge International AS and A level IT

have no access permissions to printers while 4 Power cut; fire; flood; denial of access to premises;
working from home so that he doesn’t send lots malware; unauthorised access to data; theft of data;
of documents to be printed [1]. corruption to data; loss of key personnel.
6b Both of the following [2]: Levi’s finger print will be 5 Recovery procedures are not used very often, if at
unique so it will identify who he is to give him access all, so they need to be tested to ensure they work; if
rights [1] and it will confirm that it is Levi because he they don’t work, then disaster recovery won’t work
is the only person with his finger print [1]. and that could shut down an organisation.
7a Any two of the following [4]: Levi will have access
6 Evolutionary prototyping develops each prototype
to more channels [1] because there is a higher
further, whereas throwaway prototyping
bandwidth available with satellite television [1]. involves disposing of the prototype. Evolutionary
Levi will be able to access subscription channels
prototyping involves refining user requirements
[1] because he will have a set-top-box capable of
after each evolution of the prototype and
decrypting the signal [1],
throwaway prototyping also involves refining
7b Any one of the following [1]: The satellite dish requirements after the prototype is developed.
will need to be installed [1] and he may not have Both methods involve producing a basic version of
permission to install it in his apartment [1], If what the user interface will look like. Both methods
weather conditions are bad then the broadcast involve getting feedback from the user early during
may be interrupted [1] meaning he cannot watch the project.
the television channels properly [1],
7 JAD involves both users and developers working
together to develop a working prototype, with the
Chapter 14 - Project management user being able to refine the design and layout as
development progresses. Software application
i During monitoring and control of the execution, frameworks are used to develop the prototype and
resources may become unavailable, timescales may end solution.
not be met and the budget may be exceeded. If this
happens, plans will need to be revised to allocate 8 A library of objects (e.g. walls, windows) could
different resources, adjust timescales and adjust be used to design the model; 3D views could be
expenditure. used to see what the extension will look like from
a variety of angles; windows and doors can be
2 Web-based software can be used by multiple users added to the design and their size and position
at once, whereas single-user desktop software is altered; the colour of walls can be experimented
only available to one user; web-based software with until the right one is found; different lighting
can be used by any device, whereas desktop options can be experimented with to give the right
software can only be used by the device(s) on which amount of light.
it is installed; web-based software can be used 9 Loss of jobs; imperfect testing; not the same as a
for collaboration, whereas single-user desktop prototype; highly trained staff required; initial costs
software can only be used by one person. of purchasing software; still prone to human error;
limited to vector objects.
3 Resources will have been defined within the
software, including their availability and costs.
The project manager can then select available Review questions
resources and allocate them to tasks where
they are required. Allocation of already assigned 1 Conception/initiation; planning; execution;
resources at specified times will be prevented by monitoring/control. [4]
the software. The project manager will be able to 2a A large team is likely to require sub-project
assign an amount oftimetoeach resource for each managers who will need to update different parts of
task. The project manager will be able to see the the plan at different stages of the project; members
costs involved for each resource and how much of the team will be able to use a web interface
each task will cost. to update their progress; access will be available
 from any computer which is important for a large information from the user; questionnaires take time
team who may be working in different places; to create and are unnecessary when a small group
team members can collaborate on documents of users can all be interviewed.
throughout the project; each team member will 3 To identify the hardware and software required to
be using the same version of the software so there operate the developed system.
won’t be compatibility issues.
2b Personal; desktop; single-user. [1] 4 To show the data flows within a system.

3 The software will provide an option to define 5 Each data flow must have a process attached to it.
resources; availability of each resource can be A data flow cannot move directly from one external
identified; costs can be assigned to each resource; entity to another or from one data store to another
resources can be allocated to individual tasks; or between an external entity and a data store.
resource conflicts and overload can be 6 A tick box allows more than one response, whereas
highlighted. [3] an option button only allows one response.
4a Both charts can show the critical path; both charts
7 To test that a validation rule accepts data that is only
show the length of time each task takes; both
just acceptable and to test that it produces an error
charts show predecessors/dependencies. [2] message for data that is only just unacceptable.
4b Resource allocation; start/finish dates; task 8 Alpha testing is carried out by the development
progress. [2] team, whereas beta testing is carried out by users;
5a A ‘mock-up’ of a software solution; partially alpha testing is planned and structured, whereas
completed product used forevaluation/ beta testing is ordinary everyday use; alpha testing
feedback. [1] uses test data, whereas beta testing uses real data.
5b Evolutionary prototyping develops each prototype 9 Tester will use input data to test part of a system
further whereas throw-away prototyping involves or a whole system and check the expected
disposing of the prototype so the prototype results against actual results without knowing or
can grow rather than having to start again. understanding the code inside the black box.
Evolutionary prototyping involves refining
user requirements after each evolution of the
10 A test plan will identify all the tests that are needed
for every input, every button, every link, every
prototype which will enable the landscape
report, every screen and all other elements of a
gardening company to better understand their
system. The test plan will include DIFFERENT types
own requirements as the prototype develops.
of test data including valid, invalid and extreme
The landscape gardening company can canvass
so that inputs are tested to their limits. Without
opinion from customers on what the user interface
this planning, important parts of testing would be
will look like. The project team can get feedback
missed out and errors could be left undiscovered.
from the landscape gardening company early
The plan will also coverall the user’s requirements
during the project. [4]
and ensure that they are tested.
6 Paving slabs; shed; borders; flowers; trees; shrubs;
garden furniture; soil; grass; hedge; wait. [3] 11 Parallel; direct; phased; pilot.
12 If it would be too costly or take too long to input
Chapter 15 - System life cycle data into both systems, then direct would be more
appropriate.
1 Feasibility; analysis; design; implementation/
13 If there are a lot of users, then pilot changeover
development/coding/programming; testing;
will enable training to take place in stages rather
installation/changeover/implementation;
than all at once; if the new system is not very big
maintenance.
and doesn’t have features that can be separated,
2 The analyst can expand upon questions that have then pilot could be used instead of trying to phase
been asked during the interview to gain further something that can’t be broken into parts.
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

14 Cover, contents, introduction, hardware/ 4b Beta testing requires a very large user base and
software requirements, instructions, glossary, usually applies to off-the-shelf software whereas
troubleshooting, index. the hotel system will need to be used consistently
by all staff within all the hotels. [2]
15 To give definitions of any technical terms used in
the user documentation. 4c It’s needed to check that the system can cope with
16 When a system requires maintenance. invalid data and reject it appropriately without
system errors occurring. [2]
17 Working relationship; efficiency of system; bugs 5a There are tots of hotels so one hotel could pilot the
or errors in the system; ease of use of the system; system and identify any problems which could be
possible improvements to the system. rectified before the system is installed in other hotels.
18 If a bug or error is found within a system. Only a small group of staff need to be trained in how
to use the system initially at the one hotel. The hotel
that pilots the system could be used to train staff
Review questions
from the other hotels how to use the new system. [4]
la To find out how the current system works; to find
5b Troubleshooting will show common errors and how
out the requirements of the client. [1]
to solve them so if the staff come across one of
lb There will be lots of staff in several hotels so these errors they can find out what to do. Glossary
there won’t be time to interview them all but will include definitions of technical terms used in
questionnaires can get information from all staff; the documentation so if staff don’t understand a
the data will need analysing and so the questions term in the documentation they can look it up. [4]
can be written in a way that will gather responses in
5c Errors may need correcting; the system may need
a structured manner. [4]
i lc

2
Interviews; observation; document analysis. [3]
To identify what the client needs the new system to
to be adapted due to organisational or external
changes; to prevent problems from occurring; to
improve on the software. [4]
do. [1]
3a Use of colour; consistent use of fonts; avoiding Chapter 16 - Graphics creation
clutter; legibility of fonts; instructions to the user;
optional vs compulsory questions; sufficient space 1 An image made up of pixels. It pixelates when it is
for answers; tick boxes or drop down boxes or enlarged too much.
option buttons for multiple choice lists. [3] 2 An image stored as coordinates and equations. It is
3b Example should identify the input data, type of recalculated then displayed. It does not pixelate.
validation, rule and error message. For example,
3 Image manipulation can be used to make people
Number of nights, Type check, Must be numeric,
look worse, make fun of people, be negative or give
Please enter a numeric value. [3]
false impressions that people believe.
3c Printerto print invoices forthe customer; barcode
scanner to read barcodes on customer booking 4 Parts of an image, or an object, that can be built up
printout or mobile phone display; magnetic stripe on top of each other to create the final image.
/ smart card reader/writer to initiate room keys; 5 Lasso, marquee, magnetic lasso.
touch screen for the point of sale terminal in the bar
and restaurant. [3] 6 Combines the objects into one object that can then
be manipulated.
4a White box testing requires understanding of the
module or system being tested whereas black box 7 It lets you apply a technique to just part of an image.
testing only requires input data and output data to
8 The colours in the image will be replaced with
be used; white box testing is usually carried out by
the developer whereas black box testing is usually
shades of red and blue.
carried out by the user or specialist testers. [4] 9 A selection tool (lasso, magic wand, magnetic lasso).
 Answers

Review questions Chapter 17 - Animation

1 Two marks from Bitmap and two from Vector [4] Review questions
Bitmap 1 Any combination of the following [2]:
• Made of pixels (small squares).
• Each pixel has a colour. • Each layer can be manipulated independently
Vector
• Each element of an image that needs to be
manipulated ....
• Stored as points/coordinates and • ... must have its own layer.
calculations.
• The image is recalculated when loaded. 2 Maximum four marks, (two from Key frame, two
from tween ) [4],
2 Both of the following [2]:
Key frame
• The pixels are increased in size/the squares of
colour are enlarged. • Each Key frame is a change in an image.
• makes the pixels more visible/the squares
This • The animation is jerky (depending on the fps).
that make the image are more visible. Tween
3 The following [2]:
• The start and end points are created.
• The image is recalculated when enlarged. • The computer generates what happens in between.
4 Maximum four marks for benefits (two for benefits, • It is a smoother animation.
two for expansions) [4]. 3 Changing an object into a different object [lj.

• Flaws in the images can be removed.

• Result in better appearance/more professional Chapter 18 - Mail merge
images/magazine.
• Magazine may have more sales. Review questions
• If the clothes look better ... more companies la Both of the following [2j: Mail merge is the
may want to advertise in the magazine.
automatic addition of data from a source file
Maximum four marks for drawbacks (two for [1] such as names and addresses into a master
benefits, two for expansions) [4], document such as a letter [lj.
• The clothes/models are not 'real life’/fake. lb Any combination of the following [6]: Create the
• Deceiving the audience ... as the clothes may not master document [lj; link the master document to
look the same in real life. the data sourceflj; insert merge field codesflj; spell
• Self-esteem issues .... models are too ‘perfect’/ check the master document!!]; visually inspect
unrealistic .... teenagers may try and achieve the master document to check for accuracy!]; set
their looks/size. up any filters that are required!]; preview the mail
merge!]; check the preview for accuracy including
Maximum two marks fora reasonable, justified
conclusion. Accept a conclusion going either way, the correct records and layout!]; run the mail merge
to produce the letters [1].
or compromising [1].
2 All of the following [4]: Filter will be required [1] that
• The magazine should allow for some compares the date of service [1] from the source file
manipulation but this should not change the
[1] with the date specified by the user [1],
actual people or clothes.
• magazine should not allow for manipulation
The 3 Any combination of the following [6]: Service to You
because they should not be deceiving the already has a source file [1] so using mail merge saves
audience. having to enter atl the data again [1] as it would take
• magazine should allow for manipulation
The a long time to change each letter for each service
because they need to create sales and the [1]; errors are likely to occur when changing data [1]
images need to look good to do this. whereas the data in the database is more likely to be
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT
I
accurate [1]; filters can be used [1] so that the letters • Relevant example, e.g. stopping words being
are only sentto customers who have a ear due for entered where a number is required, or
service [1]; the same master document can be used restricting the range of numbers.
every month [1] and only the date specified in the filter
Benefits:
needs changing [1]; Service to You will only need to
proofread one master document [1] rather than every • Allow users to change content so it is relevant to
single letter they send out [1]; customers will know the their needs.
tetter is specifically fortheir car [1] and that a service is • Validate to restrict/prevent data entry errors.
genuinely due rather than it being merely marketing [1], 2 All of the following [3]:
• It stores multiple pieces of data.
Chapter 19 - Programming for • Of the same data type.
• Under the same identifier.
the web
3 All of the following [3]:
Review questions
• Code is independent of the main code.
1 Maximum two marks for Uses and two marks for • It can be called multiple times.
Benefits [4], • Saves the code being repeated.
Uses: 4 Any combination of the following [3]:

• Add interactivity and/or functionality. • Check the data being input...

• Relevant example, e.g. choosing an option and • ...against restrictions.
displaying text for it. • Trap errors.

m • Add validation to data entry. • Report the error to the user.

- :ÿ IT::
Acknowledgements
;;

The authors and publishers acknowledge the following Opener 9 Sergey Nivens/ Shutterstock; Chapter OpenerlO
sources of copyright material and are grateful for the Don Farrall/Getty Images; Chapter Opener 11 Anthony
permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it Harvie/Getty images; Fig.11.01 Trevor Williams/Getty
has not always been possible to identify the sources of all Images; Fig.11.02 Bloomberg/Getty Images; Fig.11.03
the material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any Sean Gallup/Getty Images; Fig.11.04 ERIC PIERMONT/
omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to Getty Images; Fig.11.05 Aaltazar/Getty Images; Fig.11.06
include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting. YASUYOSHI CHIBA/Getty Images; Fig.11.07 Bloomberg/
Getty Images; Fig.11.08 Neiison Barnard/Getty Images;
Cover image: wu kailiang/Aiamy Stock Photo; Chapter
Chapter Opener 12 violetkaipa/Getty Images; Fig.12.01
Opener 1 agsandrew/ Shutterstock; Fig.1.01 MBI/Alamy
Stock Photo; Fig.1.03 CBW/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig.1.04 Met
KTSDESIGN/Getty Images; Fig.12.02 Ramon Espelt
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Images; Fig.12.04 Monty Rakusen/Getty Images; Chapter
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Opener 13 Ivlina De La O/Getty Images; FigJ.3.01 vtls/
Photo; Fig.1.13 RT Image/Ala my Stock Photo; Fig.1.21
Shutterstock; Fig.13.02 Jelena83/Getty Images; Fig.13.04
AngelSID/Shutterstock; Chapter Opener 2 Sergey Nivens/
luxxtek/Getty Images; Fig.13.06 Noraznen Azit/Getty
Shutterstock; Fig.2.01 Robert Lucian Crusitu/Shutterstock;
Images; Fig.13.07 umbertoleporini/Getty images, Fig.13.11
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by Jeff Ogden (W163) for Wikipedia, using dated by the
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Lewis Mulatero/Getty Images; Fig.6.07 Dan Kitwood/Getty On CD-ROM (landscape) Iilu330/Shutterstock; (bench)
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Index

absolute references, 112-14, 116 black box test, 261 CPA (critical path analysis), 237-9, 247-8
access rights, 222, 223, 230, 242 blog, 204-5 CPU (central processing unit), 24-5,
ACL (access control list), 224-5 Bluetooth, 197,217-8,221, 230 35-6,52 f
ADF (automatic document feeder), 30 Blu-ray, 31-3, 52 cryptography, 14, 15, 195, 196 88
ADSL (asynchronous digital subscriber BMP (bitmap image file), 13 CSV (comma separated values), 126, 146, lit
lines), 91,228 Boolean, 137-8, 159, 167, 172, 297 160, 168, 170, 287
adware, 49, 66, 69, 226 Boolean operators, 96, 125, 152, 156 CU (control unit), 24
Al (artificial intelligence), 96, 191-2, bot, 66, 70
196,199 broadband, 72-6, 91, 111, 205-6, 228 data:
algorithm, 13-14, 19-20, 120, 189, 195 buffer, 214-5, 219, 221 allowance, 219
ALU (arithmetic logic unit.), 24 byte, 10-11, 214-5 compression, 49, 52, 220
analogue, 11, 25,55 dictionary, 165-6, 168, 173-4, 253,
analysis 6, 236, 241, 251 CAD (Computer Aided Design), 130, 246-8 259,265
mathematical, 130, 134 Caesar cipher, 13-14, 16 mining, 203-4, 209
animation, 179, 272,281-4 Cailliau, Robert, 87 Data Protection Act, 34, 226, 227, 230
anti-spyware, 226 CAM (computer-aided manufacture), DBMS (database management system), 39,
anti-virus, 49, 51, 52, 64, 67, 226 246-7 42-3, 137-8, 146, 149, 157, 160, 171
app, 37, 41, 52,87, 198, 201 camera, 28, 56, 59, 92-3, 130, 192-3, 196-8 decryption, 14-16, 195, 225-6, 228
application layer, 220-1, 225 accurate, 45 design specification, 250, 252-3, 268
application server, 79, 81, 214 digital video, 28, 31 device driver, 36, 52
application software, 37-43, 52 CD (compact disc), 11, 31-2 DFD (data flow diagram), 253-5, 260
array, 296-7, 300, 302-4 CD-ROM, 3 diagnosis, 75, 93, 96-8, 100, 192
ASCII {American standard code for cell, 89, 103-10, 113, 123, 127 digital currency, 203,209
information interchange), 10, 13, 221 cellular communication, 190 digital divide, 72-7, 92
aspect ratio, 176-7, 186 chaining, 96-7, 100 direct data source, 3, 5, 6, 21
attribute, 137, 139, 143, 160, 165-6, chart, 56, 127-9, 172, 233, 236 document analysis, 252
168, 259 circuit, 55,211,212,215 DOS (denial of service), 213, 222
audio clips, 183 closure, 233, 247 DRP (disaster recovery plan), 241-2, 247
augmented reality, 192-3 cloud, 27, 33, 189, 194, 225, 227, 234, 274 duplex unit, 28
cloud storage, 27,52,254 DVI (digital video interface), 25
backup, 31-4, 49, 82, 225, 230, 242, 265 Code Red, 66 dynamic data, 3-4, 21, 22
bandwidth, 72, 74, 214-7, 218, 221, codec, 10, 12-13, 91-2 dynamic parameter, 155, 156, 160, 173
228, 230 coding system, 9, 10
broadband, 33 Colossus, 14 EBCDIC (extended binary coded decimal |8
higher, 219 colour gradients, 274, 278-9 interchange code), 10, 221
restricted, 13
barcode, 4, 19, 30-1, 196, 202-3, 219
compiler, 36-7, 51-2
complex query, 152, 154-5
e-business, 201, 209
ecommerce, 72-4, 76-7 1is
batch, 98, 100, 170, 203 compression, 10-13, 68, 168-9, 186, 275, email encryption, 16
BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form), 164 278-9 encoding, 8, 10, 13, 16, 21, 40
Berners-Lee, Tim, 87 computer-assisted translation, Enigma machine, 14, 191
beta test, 260, 261, 263 194, 195 entity, 137, 139, 141, 143
binary, 10, 11, 13 conception, 233, 247 ERD (entity relationship diagram), 137,
biometric, 193, 211, 224
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), 35
confidential data, 62, 69, 105, 106, 222
confidentiality, 9, 84, 207
141-2, 173, 265
expansion cards, 25,212
8
bit rate, 11-12, 169, 211, 214, 219 consistency check, 18-19 expert system, 96-101, 192 ;
888.
Bitcoin, 203, 209 construct, 296, 301 export, 126, 160, 181-2, 186, 275
bitmap, 10, 39, 169, 271-2, 276, 278-9 control technologies, 55-7, 59 external hard drive, 31-2, 34
BitTorrent protocol, 221, 230 corrupt data, 211 extranet, 83-84, 234
filter data, 124 index, 48, 137,141, 171, 173, 265, 300, MICR (magnetic ink character reader),
financial modelling, 131 303-4 30,52
fingerprint, 15,193, 231, 224 indirect data source, 2, 3, 5-7 microphone, 25, 28, 43, 90-2, 205-6
firewall, 67, 211, 213-14, 224-5, 230, 242 inference engine, 100 microprocessor, 55, 58
application layer, 225 infrared, 309 MicrOSD card, 31
proxy, 225 infrastructure, 72-73, 85, 191 microwave, 55-6, 81, 217, 228
flash memory drive, 52 physical, 87 MIS (management information
flat file, 137, 143-5, 160, 172 input device, 24, 33, 35, 41, 45, 52, 55, 59 systems), 172-3
flowchart, 55, 253, 255-6 interface, 25, 27, 43-48, 50, 52, 234-35, mobile network, 89-92, 224
foreign key data, 148 243-45 commercial, 74
foreign key value, 139 internet connection, 73, 79, 81, 90-91, mobile network coverage, 75
format check, 18, 21 194, 206, 208, 214 monitoring and control technologies,
forward chaining system, 97 interpreter, 36-37, 51-52, 299 55-7,59
FTP (file transfer protocol), 221 interview, 92, 96, 250-53, 268 MOOC (massive open online courses), 208
FTTC (fibre to the cabinet), 216 intranets, 83-84, 94, 234 morphing, 281, 283-4
IP address, 203 motherboard, 24-7,52, 211-12
Gantt chart, 233, 235, 238-9, 241, 247-8 ISDN (integrated services digital motion tween, 283-4
gateway, 211, 213-14, 220, 224 network), 91 mp3, 13, 169, 186
GEO (geostationary earth orbit), 228 ISO (international organization for mp4, 12, 169, 182
GIF (graphics interchange format), 11, standardization), 169-70, 220 MPEG (Moving Pictures Experts Group), 12,
13,278 ISP (internet service provider), 84-5, 169-70
GPS (global positioning system), 228-9 94,213-14 MTD (maximum tolerable downtime), 242
graphics card, 25, 27, 35, 52 iteration, 233, 243, 296, 303, 306
integrated, 24 nanotechnology, 207
grouping, 273, 276, 279 JavaScript, 296-7, 304-6 network architecture, 79
GUI (graphical user interface), 44, 52, 244 JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)/ network connection, 4, 234
JPG, 11,13, 169, 278 network security, 221
hacker, 64, 202, 218, 222-3, 225 news, 4, 22, 83, 86, 88, 180, 253
HD (high definition), 12, 25, 27, 73, 176, key card, 254-55 NFC (nearfield communication), 211,
191, 197 key field, 100,159-60,171 218-19, 223
HDD (hard disc drive), 25-6, 31-2, 34, 49, key frame, 281-3 NHS (National Health Service), 74, 98
52, 171 key logger, 66, 222 NIC (network interface card), 211, 212
HDMI (high-definition multimedia knowledge base, 3, 96-7, 100 node editing, 274
interface), 25 non-volatile, 25-6, 31, 310, 314
health and safety, 62, 67 LAN (local area network), 79-81, 83, 91, 94, normal form, 137, 160-5, 173
hologram, 195 211, 213-14, 216, 218-20 first (INF), 140, 161
hotspot, 16, 217, 225 laser, 28-9, 30, 31, 41, 217, 230 second (2NF), 162
HTML (hypertext markup language), 41, layer, 13, 195, 220, 273-84 third (3NF), 160, 163
168, 304 LED (light-emitting diode), 28 normalisation, 160,164-5, 173
HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol), 15, length check, 18, 21
221,226, 229 LEO (low earth orbit), 228 Object code, 52
HTTPS (hypertext transfer protocol link editor, 37 OCR (optical character reader), 30, 35, 52
secure), 8, 15, 64, 202, 203, 221, 226 linkers, 37, 52 off-the-shelf, 51
hub, 211-3 OMR (optical mark reader), 30, 33-5,
hyperlink, 45-6, 87, 253, 265 magnetic tape drive, 32 52-3
mail merge, 286-94 one to many, 139-40, 172
IDE (integrated drive electronics), 26 mail server, 214 one-to-one, 139, 141, 172
identification number, 19, 211 malicious bots, 66, 69 ONF (unnormalised form), 160
identifier, 296 malicious code, 62, 64 online banking, 15, 41, 76, 189, 201-2,
unique, 137, 147, 173 malware, 49, 64-7, 221-2, 225-6, 230, 241 209,227
IM (instant messaging), 40, 83, 88, many-to-many, 140, 143 online courses, 208-9
204, 236 memory card, 31, 33, 52 online shopping, 41, 75, 201, 209
IMAP (internet message access mental model, 46, 48, 124 impact of, 209
protocol), 220 MEO (medium earth orbit), 228 opacity, 276-8, 281,283-4
 Cambridge International AS and A level IT

operating system, 26, 32, 35-7, 48-50, RAD (rapid application development), smishing, 63-5, 69
52, 66 243-5, 247 SMS (short message service), 64, 65
operator, 14, 152, 292, 297-9 radio button, 47, 159, 258, 305-6 social network, 62-3, 66, 73, 85-8, 182,
arithmetic, 297 radio waves, 81, 85, 212, 218, 228, 231 204-5, 209
assignment, 297 RAM (random access memory), 25, 32, 35, sound card, 25, 52
conditional, 291 52 sound clip, 11, 87, 180-6
logical, 298 range check, 17, 21, 122 slowing down, 184
optical communication, 216, 230 ransomware, 66-7, 69 sound track, 180,184-5, 187
optical storage methods, 195 raster, 10, 169-170 source file, 36-7, 286-8, 294, 309-11
output device, 24, 33-5, 52 ROMS (relational database management), spam, 86, 214
overdubbing, 184, 187 137 spyware, 49, 66, 69, 221-2, 226
recovery management, 242 SSD (solid state drive), 25-6, 32, 52, 171
packet switch, 84-5,88, 91, 211, 215 recovery testing, 242 SSL (secure sockets layer), 8
parallel running, 263 referential integrity, 18, 148-9,159-60, 173 static data, 3, 21
parameter, 155-6,173, 224, 302 relational database, 139-140, 143, 144-7, static parameter, 155, 156, 173
dynamic, 155-6, 160, 173 165 STB (set top box), 44, 228
static, 155-6, 173 relative cell, 134 stem cell technology, 189
peer, 80-3, 94, 221 repeater, 211, 213, 221 stock control system, 99, 203
pen drive, 31-3, 35 multi-port, 212 storage, 24, 31,33, 35
pharming, 63-4, 69-70,86 reverberation (reverb), 184-5 string manipulation, 298-9
phishing, 63-5, 69-70, 86, 214 RFID (radio frequency identification), 211, SVG (scalable vector graphics), 11
photoresistor, 58 218-19, 311 SVGA (super video graphics array), 12
piezoresistance, 57 RGB port, 25 swipe card, 223, 226
PIN (personal identification number), 28, risk assessment, 241, 247 switch, 211-16,300-6
223, 326 RLE (run-length encoding), 11 system flowchart, 253, 255
336 pixelation, 13, 219, 272 robotics, 196, 208, 283 system software, 35, 52
platter, 26 ROM (read only memory), 25, 52 system specification, 250, 252-3, 259
plotter, 28-9, 35 rotation, 273, 283
PNG (portable network graphic), 11, 13, router, 44, 211, 213, 215-16, 224 TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/
169-70, 278 RPO (recovery point objective), 242 internet protocol), 84-5, 220-1
POP (post office protocol), 220 RSI (repetitive strain injury), 27, 68 telecommunications, 85
predecessor, 79, 237-40, 247 test data, 123-4, 260-2
pressure sensor, 57, 60 sample rate, 11, 186-7 extreme, 263
primary key, 137, 139-41, 143-4, 147-8, sample resolution, 186 invalid, 269
160, 162-3, 165, 173-4 SATA (serial advanced technology test plan, 123-4, 261-3
printer: attachmeilt), 26 effectiveness of, 123
colour laser, 29 sat nav (satellite navigation), 229 three-dimensional (3D) printing, 189
dot matrix, 28-9 satellite, 81, 85, 228-9, 231 TIFF (tagged image file format), 278
inkjet, 28-9 SD (secure digital), 31 timeline, 176-7, 180, 235-6, 281-2
large-scale, 190 SDSL (synchronous digital subscriber TLS (transport layer security), 15
laser, 28-9 lines), 91 token, 223
simplex, 28 security cameras, 28 transition, 176-9, 184
private key, 14-16, 201, 214, 226 security method, 15, 222-30, 242 transport layer, 220-1
proofreading, 234 security system, 56 trap errors, 304, 306
proprietary file formats, 169, 173 seeders, 221 Trojan, 65, 67, 69, 222
prototype, 243-4, 248 sensor, 41, 45, 55-6, 59-60, 76, 196 tunnelling protocol, 83
manufactured, 246 moisture and humidity, 58, 60 Turing, Alan, 191
proxy server, 213-14, 225 server, 80-2, 94, 213-14 tween, 281-4
public key, 14-16, 201, 225-6 session layer, 220 type check, 18, 21
shape tween, 283-4
QR (quick response), 31, 196 simulation, 3, 132-4, 135, 207 ultra-high definition, 197-8
QR codes, 196-7 smartphones, 59, 74, 82, 87-92, 189, Unicode, 10, 13
quantum cryptography, 195-6 197, 234 UPC (unique product code), 19-20
questionnaire, 110, 250-1, 253, 256, 268 smartwatches, 197, 326 URL (uniform resource locator), 64, 75, 221
 i
Index

USB (Universal Serial Bus), 15, 24, 31, 33, VGA (video graphics array), 12, 25 waterfall method, 244-5, 247
\
212, 223 video conference, 28, 90-4, 93, 205-6, 230 WAV (waveform audio file format), 12
USB port, 27-8, 31, 33 virtual reality, 45, 195, 198-9 web browser, 15, 37, 65, 87, 94, 168,
utilities, 36, 49-52 vishing, 63, 65, 69 221, 267
Visual Basic, 36 webcam, 28, 52, 90, 205-6
validation, 9, 16-21, 41, 103, 121-3, VLE (virtual learning environment), 84 webmail,40-l
149-50, 227 voice over, 180, 184, 186 white box testing, 260-61
validation routines, 253, 258 voice recognition, 193, 224 Wi-Fi, 211-12, 217-18, 221, 230
validation rules, 121-3, 149-50, 165, 173, VOIP (voice over internet protocol), 40, WIMP (windows icons menus
258-62,265,268 88, 94 pointers), 44
valid data, 20 volatile, 25, 312 wireless communication method,
variable, 38, 42, 130-2, 204, 293, VPN (virtual private network), 83-4, 217, 219-20
296-302, 306 94, 225 WNIC (wireless network interface card),
vector, 28, 271-2, 276, 279, 281 211-12
vector graphics, 39, 169, 246, 271-2, 279 WAN (wide area network), 79-81, 211, WYSIWYG (what you see is what you
verification, 16, 20-2, 134, 173, 244, 252 213-14, 220, 224 get), 41

337
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