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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

Topic Level Hours Allotted
Servomechanisms 2 1
Open loop system 2 1
Closed loop system 2 1
Transducer 2 1
Types of Transducer 2 1
Linear Variable 2 1
Differential Transformer(LVDT)
Rotary variable differential 2 1
transformer(RVDT)
TRANSFORMER 2 1
E AND I TRANSFORMER 2 1
E & I BAR TRANSDUCER 2 1
STANDARD SYNCHRO 2 1
TYPES/SCHEMATICS
Direct –current synchronous system 2 1
The Desynn system
The Micro-Desynn system 2 1
Slab-Desynn transmitter 2 1
Alternating – current synchronous 2 1
system
Torque synchro system
Control synchro system 2 1
Differential synchro system 2 1
Resolver synchro 2 1
A.C. TACHOGENERATORS 2 1
DAMPING 2 1
Follow up
Null
Dead band

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 Servomechanisms

 A servo (servomechanism) is an electromagnetic device that converts electricity

into precise controlled motion by use of negative feedback mechanisms.
 Servos can be used to generate linear or circular motion, depending on their type.

 Open loop system

 Open loop control is one where the control action is independent of the output.
 The open loop control does not self correct when the process variable drifts, and
this may result in large deviation from the optimum value of the PV.
 Full manual control.
 No system feedback.
 An open loop control system does not use a comparison of the actual result and the
desired result to determine the control action.
 Advantages of Open loop system:-

1. Simpler to implement
2. Less expensive
 Disadvantages of Open loop system:-
 Error caused by unexpected disturbances are not corrected

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 Closed loop system

 Closed loop control differs from open loop control in that feedback is added to the
system
 Feedback consists of measuring the difference between the actual result and the
desired results.
 By using the difference, the closed loop control system will drive the actual result
toward the desired results.
 The advantages of a closed loop control system are that it gives more accurate
control over the process.

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 Transducer

 A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a
transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.

 Types of Transducer

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 Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a
continuous function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, R.V.D.T.,
thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of the analogue transducer.

 Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input quantity into a digital

signal or in the form of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)

 Principle of LVDT:

 LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which
is a non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy. And the way how
the energy is getting converted is described in working of LVDT in a detailed
manner.
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 LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by one primary
winding in the centre of the former and the two secondary windings at the sides.
The number of turns in both the secondary windings are equal, but they are
opposite to each other, i.e., if the left secondary windings is in the clockwise
direction, the right secondary windings will be in the anti-clockwise direction,
hence the net output voltages will be the difference in voltages between the two
secondary coil. The two secondary coil is represented as S1 and S2. Esteem iron
core is placed in the centre of the cylindrical former which can move in to and fro
motion as shown in the figure. The AC excitation voltage is 5 to 12V and the
operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

 Working of LVDT:

 Let’s study the working of LVDT by splitting the cases into 3 based on the iron
core position inside the insulated former.

 Case 1:On applying an external force which is the displacement, if the core
reminds in the null position itself without providing any movement then the
voltage induced in both the secondary windings are equal which results in net
output is equal to zero
i.e., Esec1-Esec2=0

 Case 2:When an external force is appilied and if the steel iron core tends to move
in the left hand side direction then the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil is
greater when compared to the emf induced in the secondary coil 2.Therefore the
net output will be Esec1-Esec2

 Case 3:When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core moves in the
right hand side direction then the emf induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater
when compared to the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil 1. therefore the
net output voltage will be Esec2-Esec1
 Advantages of LVDT:
 Infinite resolution is present in LVDT

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 High output
 LVDT gives High sensitivity
 Very good linearity
 Ruggedness
 LVDT Provides Less friction
 Low hysteresis
 LVDT gives Low power consumption.

 Disadvantages of LVDT:
 Very high displacement is required for generating high voltages.
 Shielding is required since it is sensitive to magnetic field.
 The performance of the transducer gets affected by vibrations
 It is greatly affected by temperature changes.

 Applications of LVDT:
 LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fraction millimeter to
centimeter.
 Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device to measure force,
weight and pressure, etc..

 Rotary variable differential transformer(RVDT)

 A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) is a type of

electrical transformer used for measuring angular displacement.
 More precisely, a Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) is an
electromechanical transducer that provides a variable alternating current (AC)
output voltage that is linearly proportional to the angular displacement of its input
shaft. When energized with a fixed AC source, the output signal is linear within a
specified range over the angular displacement.

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 The basic construction of RVDT is shown in above fig. The RVDT consists of one
primary winding and two secondary windings. The emf induced in the secondary
winding is a function of rotary displacement. The both secondary windings are
placed in such a way to produce emf 180 degree out of phase to each other.
 Working of RVDT:-

 The working of RVDT is similar to that of LVDT. According to movement of the

shaft, three differential conditions are formed.
Condition 1:
When shaft is at null position as shown in above fig, the emf induced in both the
secondary windings are equal but opposite in phase. Therefore, the differential
output potential is zero.
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 E1 = E2
 E0 = E1-E2 = 0
Condition 2:
When the shaft moves in clockwise direction, more portion of the core comes
across the winding S1. Hence, the emf induced across the coil S1 is more than S2.
The differential output potential is positive.
 E1 > E2
 E0 = E1-E2 = positive
Condition 3:
When shaft moves in anticlockwise direction, more portion of the core comes
across the winding S2. Hence, the emf induced across the coil S2 is more as
compared to S1. Therefore, the differential output potential shows 180 degree
phase shift i.e. negative.
E1 < E2
E0 =E1-E2 = negative

 TRANSFORMER

 The transformer is a electrostatic device which is used to transfer electrical energy

(voltage or current) from one circuit to another by mutual induction of two electric
circuits without change in frequency, which is working under the principle of
electromagnetic induction.

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 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

 The transformer is working under the principle of electromagnetic induction.

 By using this principle, which transfers electrical energy from one winding to
another winding by mutual induction between the two windings.
 An alternating flux is established in the magnetic core when the primary winding
is energized from an ac source (V1) and the secondary is open circuited.
 This flux links both the primary and secondary windings; thereby an emf is
induced in them due to the rate of change of flux linkages with the windings
 The purpose of a transformer is to change an electric system quantity (e.g., voltage
or current) from one level to another.
 A transformer is made up of two or more conductors wound around a single
magnetic core, usually iron. The wound conductors, usually copper, are called
windings.

 Turns Ratio

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 At the beginning of this section, we state that the transformer's purpose is to
change an electric system quantity from one level to another. The amount a
quantity changes is determined by the turns ratio, which is the ratio of the number
of turns in the two windings.
 The magnetic flux links the turns of the primary and secondary windings. This
induces a voltage in each winding. Since the same flux cuts both windings, the
same voltage is induced in each turn of both windings.
 The total voltage in each winding is proportional to the number of turns in that
winding:
V1 ÷ V2 = N1 ÷ N2
 V1 and V2 are the voltages in the primary and secondary windings, respectively.
 N1 and N2 are the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings,
respectively.
 V1= Primary Volts
 V2= Secondary Volts
 N1= Primary Turns
 N2= Secondary Turns Turns Ratio
 I1= Primary Current
 I2= Secondary Current
 P1= Primary Power In
 P2= Secondary Pwr Out

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 E AND I TRANSFORMER

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 E & I BAR TRANSDUCER
 The E & I bar transducer is so called because of the shape of its component parts.
 The diagram below shows the construction and operation of an angular displacement E & I bar
transducer.
 A winding on the centre limb of the E bar carries an A.C. excitation supply. Secondary coils are
connected in series opposition. With the I bar in the centre position equal flux will flow in the
outer limbs of the E bar, the voltages induced in the two secondary coils will be equal and
opposite and will therefore cancel out and there will be no output signal. If the I bar is displaced
from the central position, more flux will flow in the limb of the E bar with the smaller air gap
and less flux will flow in the limb with the larger air gap.
 The induced voltages in the two windings will no longer cancel out and an output voltage will
be produced.
 The phase of the output voltage is determined by the direction of movement of the I
bar.
 The magnitude is determined by how far the bar moves. In a servo system the
amount of movement will be kept small due to the follow-up action.

 The E & I Bar may also be used to convert linear movement to an electrical signal. A practical
application of this is shown in the diagram below. The I bar is moved linearly by an evacuated
capsule. Note that the diagram contains a complete servo system.

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 SYNCHRO SYSTEM

 SYNCHROS are electromagnetic devices used to transmit positional data

electrically from one position to another, or to detect and compute the difference
existing between electrical and mechanical information. They are used in
applications requiring low output torques.

 STANDARD SYNCHRO TYPES/SCHEMATICS-

1. SYNCHRO TORQUE TRANSMITTER

2. SYNCHRO TORQUE RECEIVER
3. SYNCHRO DIFFERENTIAL RECEIVER
4. SYNCHRO DIFFERENTIAL TRANSMI TTER
5. SYNCHRO CONTROL TRANSFORMER
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6. SYNCHRO RESOLVER

 Synchro types are identified by a two or three letter code compiled from the
following table:

 The first letter classifies the type, the second/third letters identifying the function
of the type. The following codes are in common use:-

1. CX Control transmitter
2. CT Control transformer
3. CDX Control differential transmitter
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4. RS Resolver synchro
5. TX Torque transmitter
6. TR Torque receiver
7. TDX Torque differential transmitter
8. TDR Torque differential receiver

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 Types of synchronous data transmission systems

1. Direct –current synchronous system

a. The Desynn system

b. The Micro-Desynn system
c. Slab-Desynn transmitter.

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2. Alternating – current synchronous system

a. Torque synchro system

b. Control synchro system
c. Differential synchro system
d. Resolver synchros system

 Introduction:-

The large multi-engine aircraft the problem arose of how to measure various
quantities such as pressure, temperature, engine speed and fuel tank contents at
points located at greater distances from the cockpit.

a. Desynn System
 The rotary motion or toroidal resistance for position and liquid-contents
indications in desynn system.
 Linear motion or microDesynn for pressure indication,
 Slab-Desynn also for pressure indication.

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 Construction:-

 The electrical element of the transmitter consists of a resistor wound on a circular

former (called the 'toroidal resistor') and tapped at three points 120° apart.
 Two diametrically-opposed wiper contact arms, one positive and the other
negative, are insulated from each other by a slotted arm which engages with a pin
actuated by the appropriate mechanical element of the transmitter.
 The receiver element consists of a cylindrical two-pole permanent magnet rotor
pivoted to rotate within the field of a laminated soft iron stator, carrying a star-
connected three-phase distributed winding supplied from the toroidal resistor
tappings.
 Tubular brass housing is fitted inside the stator, and together with its end cover,
provides a jeweled bearing support for the rotor spindle.
 The front end of the spindle projects through the end cover and a dial mounting
plate, to carry the pointer.

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 Operation

1. When direct current is applied to the transmitter contact arms, which are in contact
with the toroidal resistor, currents flow in the resistor causing the three tapping
points to be at different potentials.
2. For example, with the contact arms in the position shown in Fig. The potential at
tapping No 2 is greater than that at No l because there is less resistance in the
circuit between the positive arm and the No 2 tapping.
3. Thus, currents are caused to flow in the lines between transmitter and receiver, the
magnitude and direction of which depend upon the position of the contact arms on
the toroidal resistor.
4. In turn, these currents flow through the coils of the receiver stator and produce a
magnetic field about each coil similar to that of a bar magnet; thus either end of a
coil may be designated as a N-pole or a S-pole, depending on the direction of the
current through a coil.
5. The combined fields extend across the stator gap and cause the permanent-magnet
rotor to align itself with their resultant.

b. Micro-Desynn System
 The micro-Desynn transmitter was therefore developed to permit the magnification
of such small movements and to produce, by linear movement of contacts, the
same electrical results as the complete rotation of the contact arms of the basic
transmitter.

 With single toroidal resistor

 In order to understand the development of this transmitting element, Jet us imagine
that a toroidal resistor has been cut in two, laid out flat with its ends joined
together, and three tapping’s made as before together with positive and negative
arms in contact with it.
 Movement of the contact arms will produce varying potentials at the tapping, but
as will be clear from Fig (a)
 The full range will not be covered because one or other of the arms would run off
the resistor.
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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 We thus need a second resistor with tapping’s so arranged that the contact arms
can move through equal distances.

 If we now take two toroidal resistors and join them in parallel then, by cutting
them both in two and laying them out flat, we obtain the circuit arrangement shown
at (b ).
 By linking the contact arms together and insulating them from each other, they can
now be moved over the whole length of each resistor to produce voltage and
current combinations which will rotate the receiver through 360°.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

c. Slab-Desynn System

 In addition to the cyclic error present in the basic and micro-type systems, small
errors also arise due to friction set up by the contact arms having to move over a
considerable surface of resistance wire.
 Although such errors can be reduced by providing a good contact material and by
burnishing the resistance wire surface, the cyclic error is still undesirable in certain
measurements.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 Working

 The three contact arms are insulated from each other and pivoted over the centre of the
slab, and are each connected to a slip ring.
 Spring-finger brushes bear against these slip rings and convey the output currents to the
stator coils.
 Movement of the mechanical element is transmitted to the brushes via a gearing system.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

2. Alternating – current synchronous system

a)Torque synchro system

 This is the simplest form of synchro , in which torque is derived totally from the
input to its transmitting element.
 No amplification of this torque is takes place . moderate torque only is developed
at the output shaft of the receiving element, and for this reason the system is used
for data-indicating process
 E.g. oil or fuel pressure
 The principal physical differences between the two elements are that the TR is
usually fitted with a mechanical damper to reduce oscillation, and that the TX rotor
is mechanically rotated whereas the TR rotor is rotated by a magnetic field
produced by the TX.

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 When power is applied to the system, current flows in both rotor windings and sets
up an alternating magnetic flux.
 Since the rotor windings and stator windings of the TX and TR correspond, in
effect, to the primary and secondary windings of a transformer, then the flux
induces an alternating voltage in the stator winding coils.
 The induced voltages are at maximum, and in phase with the rotor voltages, in the
'electrical zero' position, and are zero when the rotors are at 90° to this position.
 At 180°, the induced voltages are again maximum but out of phase with the rotor
voltages.
 At 270°, the induced voltages will again be zero.

 OPERATION:-

 When the TX and TR rotors are in the same angular positions, e.g. the electrical
zero position, the voltages induced in the stators are equal and opposite, and so no
current will flow in the stator coils.
 If, however, the rotors occupy different angular positions, e.g. the TX motor is
moved through an angle of 30° while the TR rotor is at 'electrical zero', then an
unbalanced condition between voltages induced in the stator coils arises.
 This imbalance causes current to flow through the closed circuit between TX and
TR stators. The magnitude and phase of the currents are in proportion to that of the
induced voltages.

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 The currents are greatest in the coil sections of stator windings when the voltage
imbalance is greatest; thus, with the TX rotor at 30°,the imbalance is greatest in the
section comprising coils S1 and S3•
 The greatest current therefore flows through these coils to the corresponding ones
in the TR stator.
 The current flow through the TX stator produces a resultant magnetic field, and as
with normal transformer action, this field and the one produced by current flowing
in the rotor winding must always be in balance; the directions of the fields are,
therefore, in opposition.
 The Current flowing through the TR stator also produces a resultant magnetic field,
but as the direction of current flow is opposite to that through the TX stator, then
the direction of the field will also be opposite.
 The interaction of this field with that of the rotor will develop a torque and thereby
turn the rotor from 'electrical zero' to the same position as that of the TX.
 As the rotor turns, the imbalance of induced voltages decreases, and in turn the
currents produced by them also decrease. When the TR rotor synchronizes with the
30° position of the TX rotor, its field will be in alignment with the resultant field,
its voltages will be balanced, and current no longer flows between the stators.
 The system is then said to be at the 'null’ position.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

2) Control synchro system

 Control synchros differ from torque synchros, in that their function is to produce
an error voltage signal in the receiving element, as opposed to the production of a
rotor torque.
 Typical uses of control synchros are in servoed altimeters and airspeed indicators
which operate in conjunction with central air data computers
 The transmitter is designated as CX, and the receiver designated as a con trol
transformer (CT).
 The CX is similar to a torque transmitter
 The CX is similar to a TX, and from the diagram it will be noted that the single-
phase ac power is connected to its rotor only
 The CT rotor is not energized since it acts merely as an inductive winding for
detecting the phase and magnitude of error signal voltages which are supplied to an
amplifier.

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 The amplified signals are then "fed to a two-phase motor which is mechanically
coupled to the CT rotor.
 Another difference to be noted is that a control synchro system is at electrical zero
when the rotor of CT is at 90° with respect to the CX rotor.

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 If the rotor of CX is rotated through a certain angle, the resultant flux in the CT
stator will be displaced from its datum point by the same angle, and relative to the
CT rotor position at that instant.
 An error voltage is therefore induced in the rotor, the phase and magnitude of the
voltage depending on the direction of CX rotor rotation, and on the degree of
misalignment between it and the CT rotor.
 The error voltage is then amplified and fed to the control phase of the motor, the
other phase (reference phase) being continuously supplied with alternating current.
 Since the control phase voltage of a two-phase motor can either lead or lag the
reference phase voltage, then the phase of the error voltage will determine the
direction in which the motor will rotate, and its magnitude will determine its speed
of rotation.
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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 As the motor rotates, it turns the rotor of the CT in the appropriate direction,
thereby reducing its displacement relative to the ex rotor.
 Rotation continues until both rotors are in alignment (bearing in mind, of course,
that the electrical zero points are at 90° from each other) at which position no
further error voltage is induced.

3) Differential synchros:-

 In some applications it is necessary to detect and transmit error signals

representative of two angular positions, and in such a manner that the receiver
element of a synchro system will indicate the algebraic difference or the sum of the
two angles.
 This is achieved by introducing a differential synchro into either a torque or
control synchro system, and then using it as a transmitter.
 Unlike TX or CX synchros, the rotor of a differential synchro also has three star
connected windings; the rotor core is of cylindrical shape.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 The three synchros comprising a TDX system, their interconnection in this case
being set up for detecting the algebraic difference between two inputs.
 One input shaft controls the angular position of the TX rotor, and the second input
shaft controls the angular position of the TDX rotor.
 Clockwise rotations of the rotors are taken as positive and anti-clockwise rotations
as negative.

OPERATION:-

 The TX rotor is shown rotated clockwise through 60° while the rotor of TDX
remains at electrical zero; all the magnetic fields rotate, and the rotor of TR takes
up the same angular position as the rotor of TX.

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 If now the TX rotor remains at electrical zero, and the TDX rotor is rotated
clockwise through 15° say, the fields of both synchros remain in the electrical zero
position because their position is determined by the orientation of the TX rotor.

 However, a 15° clockwise rotation of the TDX rotor without a change in the
position of its field is equivalent to moving the rotor field 15° anticlockwise whilst
leaving the rotor at electrical zero.
 This relative angular change is duplicated in the stator of TR and so its rotor will
align itself with the field i.e. for a 15° clockwise rotation of the TDX rotor, the TR
rotor will rotate 15° anticlockwise.

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 Assume now that the TX rotor is rotated through 60° clockwise, and the TDX rotor
through 15° clockwise, then because the TR rotor will rotate 15° anticlockwise, its
final angular movement will be equal to the difference between the two input
angles
 i.e. it will turn through 45° (diagram (c)). The differential effect is of course
reversed when the TDX rotor is rotated in the opposite direction to the TX rotor, so
that the TR rotor rotates through an angle equal to the sum of the two input angles.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 Differential synchro in a control synchro system

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

4) Resolver synchro

 This particular synchro, also known as the INDUCTIVE RESOLVER, is widely

used.
 It is an a.c. operated device and is available in various voltage and frequency
ratings.
 For aircraft use the frequency of operation will be 400 Hz. In VOR(VERY HIGH
FREQ. OMINI- DIRECTIONAL RANGE) equipments 30 Hz is the frequency of
operation.
 Fig. shows that the device has two stator windings 90 degree apart and two rotor
windings 90 degree apart.
 The rotor is free to be rotated by either manual or automatic control, the 90 degree
relationship being maintained regardless of the angle through which the rotor is
turned.
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 If used as a RESOLVER TRANSMITTER only one rotor winding is active. The
unused winding is short circuited. If used as a RESOLVER CONTROL
TRANSFORMER again only one rotor winding is active. The unused winding in
this case, however, is open circuit.
 If used as a RESOLVER DIFFERENTIAL all windings are used.

 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

 The function of resolver synchros (RS) is to convert alternating voltages, which

represent the Cartesian coordinates of a point, into a shaft position and a voltage,
which together represent the polar coordinates of that point.
 They may also be used in the reverse manner for voltage conversion from polar to
Cartesian coordinates.
 Typical applications of resolver synchros are to be found in flight director.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 An alternating voltage is applied to the rotor winding R1-R2, and the magnitude of
this voltage, together with the angle through which the rotor is turned, represent the
polar coordinates.
 In this application, the second winding is unused, and as is usual in such cases, it is
short circuited to improve the accuracy of the RS and to limit spurious response.
 In the position shown, the alternating flux produced by the current through rotor
winding R1-R2 links with both stator windings, but since the rotor winding is
aligned only with S1-S2 then maximum voltage will be induced in this winding.
Winding S3-S4 is in phase quadrature so no voltage is induced in it.
 When the rotor is at a constant speed it will induce voltages in both stator
windings, the voltages varying sinusoidal.
 The voltage across that stator winding which is aligned with the rotor at electrical
zero will be a maximum at that position and will fall to zero after rotor
displacement of 90°; this voltage is therefore a measure of the cosine of the
displacement.
 The voltage is in phase with the voltage applied to R1-R2 during the first 90° of
displacement, and in anti-phase from 90° to 270°, finally rising from zero at 270°
to maximum in-phase at 360°.
 Any angular displacement can therefore be identified by the amplitude and phase
·of the induced stator voltages. At electrical zero, stator winding S3-S4 will have
zero voltage induced in it, but at 90° displacement of rotor winding R1-R2 ,
maximum in-phase voltage will be induced and will vary sinusoidal throughout
360°; thus, the S3-S4 voltage is directly proportional to the sine of the rotor
displacement.
 The phase depends on the angle of displacement, any angle being identified by the
amplitude and phase of the voltages induced in stator winding S3-S4. The sum of
the outputs from both stators, i.e. r cos Ø plus r sin Ø , therefore defines in
Cartesian coordinates the input voltage and rotor rotation.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 A.C. TACHOGENERATORS
 Tachogenerators provide the velocity feedback for servo systems. A tachogenerator normally
utilises the drag cup principle and will always produce a voltage with the same frequency as
the supply voltage.

 The diagram below shows the electrical components of the tachogenerator. With the drag cup
stationary no voltage is induced in the secondary winding as it is placed at right angles to the
primary winding and the output is zero.

 As the output shaft drives the rotor, the current in the input coil produces a field that
induces a current in that part of the cup passing through the primary axis.
 As the cup rotates, rotating eddy currents are induced and this will in turn induce a voltage
across the output winding. The amplitude of the voltage will be proportional to the speed of
rotation of the drag cup and the phase will be dependent on the direction of rotation.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 Ideally, the output of the tachogenerator would be zero when stationary but in
practical systems a small voltage is present.

 Tachometer system
 The tachometer indicating system is a small three phase AC generator
connected via a mechanical link to engine accessory gearbox.
 A tachometer system is found on most general aviation aircraft. Referring to
fundamental principles, the tachometer’s output increases with increased
engine speed; the output is rectified and connected to a moving coil meter.
 The output from the generator is supplied to a three-phase AC synchronous
motor in the indicator see Fig.
 The AC generator tachometer consists of a permanent magnet that is rotated
inside stator windings wound in a three-phase star configuration.
 Three stator outputs are connected to the stator windings of the motor. As the
engine turns, the permanent magnet induces currents in the stator windings.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 The three-phase output induces a rotating field in the motor stator windings.
Referring to Fig. 10.15 , a permanent magnet is attached to the rotor shaft of
the synchronous motor; this is connected to the pointer of the indicator.
 As the stator field rotates, the permanent magnet keeps itself aligned with the
field. A second permanent magnet is attached to the indicator rotor; this is
located within a drag cup, see Fig. 10.16 . As this second magnet rotates, it
induces eddy currents in the drag cup. These currents produce their own
magnetic fields in opposition to the rotating magnet.
 When the rotating magnet increases in speed, the drag (or torque) on the drag
cup increases.
 A hairspring attached to the shaft opposes this torque; the net result is the
pointer moves across the scale in proportion to the speed of the engine shaft.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 Basic definition:-

 DAMPING: - It is a method used in synchro receivers to prevent the rotor from

oscillating or spinning.
 There are two types of damping methods - ELECTRICAL and MECHANICAL.
The electrical method is commonly used in small synchros, while the mechanical
method is more effective in larger synchros.

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REF.DOC:-Module 04(EASA BOOK), AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT PALLET

 Follow up:-A device or group of devices which serves to govern (continues
watching) in some predetermined manner, the electric power delivered to the
apparatus to which it is connected.

 Null :-
A balanced condition which results in zero output from device or system.
In a synchro system if “B” rotor was rotated to electrically align with “A” rotor, its
error voltage would fall to zero, i.e. it will be in a “NULL” position.

 Dead band :-It is the amount of error in a servomechanism that can exist without
correction.

 Hunting:- continuous cyclical searching by a control system for a desired or ideal

value. rapid hunting usually is termed oscillation, slower cycling is called bird-
dogging.

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