1

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data.
— Sherlock Holmes

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The laws of physics are, in fact, the relationships between measured physical
quantities (and the laws of physics remain same for all observers in inertial reference
frames, sec. 4.1.3). The importance of measurement may be stated from often quoted
view of Lord Kelvin:
“I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express
it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot express it in num-
bers, your knowledge is a meagre and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of
knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of Science,
whatever the matter may be.”
Although scientists may not always remain confined only with strictly measurable
concepts, none would deny the great importance of measurement to science. Often in
the history of science small but significant discrepancies between the existing theory
and accurate measurement have led to the development of new and more general
theories. Thus the measurement of velocity of light in various media facilitated to
establish the wave theory of light. The special theory of relativity actually appeared
from an attempt to measure the absolute velocity of the earth and the quantum theory
emerged from the measurement of the distribution of energy in the black body spectrum
etc. Such advances in our understanding would have not been possible if scientists
were satisfied with only a qualitative explanation of the natural phenomena.

1.2 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, STANDARDS AND UNITS

For the purpose of physics the physical quantities (such as force, time, velocity,
density etc.) must be defined clearly and precisely. The operational point of view for
such definition requires the procedures for measuring that quantity. The operational
definition of a physical quantity involves two steps:
(1) the choice of a standard (i.e., unit) and
(2) procedure for comparing the standard to the quantity to be measured and
following this prescription the measured value of any physical quantity can be
expressed using
2 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

(i) a unit of the same kind and

(ii) a number stating how many times the unit is contained in the quantity:
Physical quantity = numerical value × unit

Examples:
F (force) = 32 newton
l (length) = 5 metre
An ideal standard has two principal characteristics: it is accessible and it is invari-
able. In practice, most quantities cannot be measured by direct comparison to the
primary standard which is usually not very accessible. In practice, accurate master
copies of the primary standard are made and used to calibrate the more accessible
ones, which are usually used for measurements. The ruler, micrometer, or vernier
callipers in daily use are in fact, produced following a complicated chain of comparison
with the standard metre preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
in Sevres, near Paris. Very large distances, such as astronomical distances or very
small distances, such as those within atoms and molecules—say, the effective radius
of the proton (~1.2 × 10–15 m), are usually measured following an indirect approach,
using more involved procedures.
However, the above method of comparison can only be made between two homo-
geneous quantities. We can compare the height of a building with that of a tree or with
the distance between two places, the duration of a year can be compared with that of
a day etc.; but it is absolutely senseless in trying to find out whether the speed of a train
is greater than the distance between two towns or whether the volume of a book is
greater than its weight.
For a measurement to be single-valued, it is essential that the ratio between two
homogeneous quantities must be independent of the unit used to measure them.
If a1 is the numerical value of the magnitude A of a physical quantity using the unit
α1, then from our procedure,
A
= a1 1.2.1
α1
If the numerical value of the same magnitude A be a2, when it is measured using a
unit α2, then we have,
A
= a2 1.2.2
α2
∴ A = a1α1 = a2α2 1.2.3
a1 α2 1
i.e., = or a ∝ 1.2.4
a2 α1 α
that is, the numerical value of a physical quantity and the unit used to measure it are in
inverse proportion. If the height of a person measured in centimetre be expressed by
the number 175, then the same height measured in metre will be expressed by 1.75.
Eq. 1.2.4 is used in converting the numerical value of a physical quantity measured in
one unit into another.
Units and Dimensions 3

1.2.1 Direct and Indirect Measurements

In a direct measurement, we usually compare a given quantity with another ho-
mogenous quantity taken as a unit. However, in many instances, such a comparison
cannot be made directly. In many cases, what we measure is not the quantity of
interest to us, but the other quantities that are related to it in a definite manner. Thus to
find the mean speed (ν) of a vehicle we usually measure the distance (l) it has covered
and the time (t) spent to cover it; to determine the mean density (ρ) of a body, we
usually measure its volume (V) and mass (M). These are related as
l M
ν= and ρ = 1.2.5
t V
Using these defining relationships, we measure v and ρ indirectly by measuring l & t
and M & V directly.
An area can be measured directly by superposing on it a suitably selected unit of
area, say, in the form of a square, a circle or a triangle. The volume of a liquid can also
be found our directly by choosing the volume of a vessel as a unit. And a time interval
can be measured directly by simply counting the number of periods of a cyclic process
such as number of oscillations of a pendulum or number of days and nights.
The above measurements may also be made indirectly by reducing the areas and
volumes to linear measurements (sec. 1.11) and by reading the time on the face of a
time-piece.

1.2.2 Basic and Derived Units

Most of the earlier units were established independently of one another except
those of length, area and volume in some cases. Conversely, the main feature of mod-
ern units is that they are related to one another through the laws or defining relation-
ships between different physical quantities. In an indirect measurement (sec. 1.2.1) the
value of a physical quantity is determined from the values of other quantities related to
it. The same relationship does exist between the relevant units.
Physical quantities are often divided into two groups: fundamental or basic and
derived. Choosing a set of physical quantities as fundamental all other quantities in
physics may be defined in terms of above fundamental ones. Taking length, time and
mass as fundamental quantities, all other mechanical quantities such as force, torque,
velocity, acceleration, work etc. can be expressed (derived) in terms of these funda-
mental quantities. However, the choice of fundamental quantities is not at all unique.
One may easily choose force instead of mass as a fundamental quantity. However,
having selected the fundamental quantities and determined their units, we automatically
fix the units for the derived quantities.

1.3 SI UNITS1
Until recently several systems of units have been used in the field of science and
engineering. The Commission for Symbols, Units and Nomenclature (S.U.N. Com-
mission) recommended [Document U.I.P. 11 (S.U.N. 65—3) 1965] the use of only

1. Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) took leading part in establishing the metric system of weights and
measures.
4 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

one system of units known as SI units (Système Intèrnational d’Unitès), for use in all
scientific measurements all over the world. The system is being widely used all over
the world.
SI units are of three kinds: the base (or fundamental), supplementary and derived
units. There are seven base units (for the seven dimensionally independent physical
quantities, table 1.3–1) and three supplementary units (table 1.3–2).

Table 1.3–1: Base SI units

Physical quantity Name Symbol

length metre m
mass kilogram kg (not kgm)
time second s (not sec.)
electric current ampere A (not amp.)
temperature kelvin K (not °K)
luminous intensity candela cd
amount of substance mole mol

Table 1.3–2: Supplementary SI units

Physical quantity Name Symbol

plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
radio-activity curie ci

The SI unit of any other quantity is derived from its defining relationship by mul-
tiplication and/or division of the base units without introducing any numerical factors
and is called a derived unit (table 1.10–1). The defining equation for velocity (v) is
length (l) ÷ time (t). Therefore, the derived unit for velocity in SI units is ms–1. Simi-
larly, the derived unit for acceleration [a = (v 2 – v 1) / t] and force (mass × acceleration)
in SI units are ms–2 and kg m s –2 respectively. The unit of force in SI units has a special
name (newton) and symbol (N). In SI units fifteen derived units have special names
and symbols, — such as hertz (Hz), joule (J), newton (N), watt (W), pascal (Pa) etc.
A coherent or absolute system of units is a system based on a certain set of
fundamental units, from which, all derived units are obtained by multiplication or division
without introducing any numerical factors. For example, the erg is the absolute unit of
work in cgs system (sec. 1.5), it is given by 1 erg = 1 dyne × 1 cm. The joule, which
is equal to 107 erg, is not an absolute unit in the cgs system. But in mks system (sec.
1.5), the joule is the absolute unit of work since 1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre. SI, cgs,
mks, fps etc. are all absolute or coherent systems of units.
Unlike that in cgs system (sec. 1.5) the SI units do not require any practical set of
units, nor any separate electrostatic and electromagnetic units. Only the absolute set of
units is enough for all purposes.
The recommendation of the S.U.N Commission regarding SI units is summarised
below:
Units and Dimensions 5

(a) Regarding Units

Symbols for units
(i) should be written in Roman letters
(ii) should not contain a final full stop (m for metre, not m.)
(iii) should remain unaltered in the plural
(10 kg, not 10 kgs; 10 ms indicates 10 milliseconds, not ten metres.)
(iv) names of the units should ordinarily be written in lower case roman letters. How-
ever, when a unit is in the name of a person, it should begin with a roman capital letter.
[N (newton), J (joule), W (watt); but m (metre), s (second) etc.]
(b) Multiplication and Division of Units
Symbols for units should be treated as algebraic quantities and rules of index are
applicable for them:
m3
=m m × m × m = m3 etc.
m2
(i) multiplication may be expressed as
Nm or N m or N. m (N = newton, m = metre)
(ii) division may be expressed as
m
or m/s or ms–1 (m = metre, s = second)
s
(iii) for division, slash ( / ) should not be used more than once.
m/s2 or ms–2 should be written instead of m/s/s. Unit for universal gas constant R
should be written as J/K mol or JK–1 mol–1 instead of J/K/mol.
(c) Prefixes used with SI units
SI units are used with a set of fourteen prefixes (table 1.3–3) to form decimal
multiples and submultiples of the units.

Table 1.3–3: Prefixes used with SI units

Name of the Name of the

prefix Factor Symbol prefix Factor Symbol

deci- 10–1 d deca- 10 da

centi- 10–2 c hecto- 102 h
milli- 10–3 m kilo- 103 k
micro- 10–6 µ mega- 106 M
nano- 10–9 n giga- 109 G
pico- 10–12 p tera- 1012 T
femto- 10–15 f
atto- 10–18 a

(i) Minimum number of prefix should be used

ns, not mµs; GW, not kMW; pF, not µµF.
(ii) A prefixed unit should be treated as a single symbol which can be raised to a
power without using brackets:
cubic centimetre = cm3 [ = (10–2 m)3 = 10–6 m3] ≠ 10–2 m3
6 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

square milliampere = mA2 [ = (10–3 A)2 = 10–6 A2] ≠ 10–3 A2

micro second–1 = µs –1 [ = (10–6 s) –1 = 10+6 s –1] ≠ 10–6 s –1
(iii) Although gramme (g) is not a SI unit itself, it has a special place in SI units;
prefixes are attached to the symbol g and not to kg, e.g., 103 kg is written as Mg and
not kkg.

1.4 DEFINITION OF UNITS

An ideal standard should not only be accessible and invariable, but also be accu-
rately reproducible. To fulfil the above requirements units are defined at present in the
following manner:
(1) The metre (m)
Historically, the metre was intended to be one ten millionth of a distance from pole
to equator along the meridian line of the earth through Paris. The first truely interna-
tional standard of length is the distance (at 0.00 °C) between two transverse lines in the
neutral plane near the ends of a bar of a platinum-iridium alloy, called the International
Prototype Metre and preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
Sèvres, near Paris.
A fundamental unit should be an invariable quantity. Unfortunately, the Interna-
tional Prototype Metre has shown a slow, secular change of the order of a few parts in
108. Besides, with the advent of weapons of total annihilation like the hydrogen bomb,
the risk of destruction of the prototype metre increased. The development of the inter-
ferometer provided scientists with a precision optical device in which light waves can
be used as a natural standard of length. So finally in 1960, the General Conference of
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures adopted the following definition:
The metre is 1,650,763.73 times of the wavelength in vacuo of the radiation cor-
responding to the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 levels of the krypton isotope of
mass number 86 (It is very sharply defined line in the orange region of the spectrum of
86 9
36 Kr). The accuracy of this new standard is much higher (1 part in 10 ) compared to
that (1 part in 107) of the standard metre bar.
All the atoms of a given isotope are identical and emit light of the same wavelength.
Moreover, this particular isotope of krypton can be obtained with great purity, relatively
easily and cheaply. Above all, it gives very sharply defined spectral line. Now, if all the
standard metre bars in the world are somehow destroyed, we would still be able, by
this optical definition, to re-establish the metre.
Accuracy in the measurement of velocity of light has been increasing day by day
using laser techniques. It is likely that the velocity of light will replace length as a
fundamental quantity in future (sec. 1.11).
(2) The Kilogram (kg)
Of the three fundamental units (in mechanics) only mass is still defined in terms of
a man-made standard.
The cgs unit of mass, the gram, was originally intended to be equal to the mass of
a cubic centimetre of water at its greatest density. At present the accepted SI standard
of mass is the mass of a solid cylinder called the International Prototype Kilogram,
having a diameter equal to its height. It is made of the same alloy (90 Pt 10 Ir) as the
Units and Dimensions 7

metre standard and is preserved at the same place as the metre. Masses can be com-
pared on a very sensitive balance with an accuracy of one part in 109.
Perhaps some day we will be able to define the kilogram in terms of a natural unit,
such as the mass of an atom. But before that we must learn to count reliably the large
number of atoms needed to constitute a useful sample 1.
(3) The second (s)
Any phenomenon that repeats itself can be used as a measure of time by counting
the repetitions. An oscillating pendulum, coiled spring, quartz crystal, diurnal or annual
motion of the earth can be used for example.
The unit of time, the second, is now (1954), defined as the fraction
1/31,556,925.9747 of the length of the tropical year for 1900. Previously it used to be
the fraction 1/86,400 of the mean solar day. But the mean solar day was found to be a
slightly variable quantity. The difference between the two at present is about 2 parts in
108. Time measured according to the present definition, which is based on the earth’s
orbital motion, is called ephemeris time (ET). The time measured according to the
earlier definition, which is based on the diurnal rotation of the earth, is called universal
time (UT). Both UT and ET must be determined by astronomical observations. A UT
determination takes several weeks, while an ET determination takes several years. To
realize the time, good quartz crystal clocks have been invented, which are checked by
astronomical observations from time to time. They serve as secondary time standards
and some can maintain an accuracy greater than one part in 108. The times are hourly
broadcast by several national observatories according to regular plans and provide the
highest precision in time measurement available to a scientific worker.
The diurnal and annual rotation of the earth are not as constant as is required for
the high precision time measurements of modern times, which in many cases comes to
1 part in 1010. So scientists provisionally adopted (in 1964) another time standard for
which the accuracy is a few parts in 1012. It is a caesium atomic clock and “the second
is the duration of 9,192, 631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transi-
tion between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of Cs133 ”. In atomic clocks,
the basis of time measurement is the periodic time of the oscillations associated with
the transition of an atom or molecule from one energy state to another. Note that these
are natural and invariable intervals of time. A caesium atomic clock would have to run
for about 6000 years before it might gain or loose a single second. They are now in a
state of rapid development, and we may get atomic clocks other than caesium clock
having higher accuracy. At present, time is by far the most accurately determined
fundamental quantity.
(4) Ampere (A)
Ampere is defined (in 1948) as the strength of that constant current which when
flowing in two parallel infinitely long rectilinear conductors of negligible cross-
sectional area, placed at a distance of one metre from one another in vacuo, produces
between these two conductors a force equal to 2 × 10–7 newton per metre length of the
conductor.
(5) Kelvin (K)
Kelvin is defined (in 1954) as the fraction 1/273.16 of the temperature interval
between absolute zero and the triple point of water.
1. The International Committee for Weights and Measures (ICWM) will redefine the unit of mass
(either based on Planck Constant or Avogadro Constant) in October 2007.
8 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

(6) The Candela (cd)

The candela is defined as one-sixtieth of the luminous intensity, in the perpendicu-
lar direction per square centimetre of the hollow of a black body radiator at the tem-
perature of solidifying platinum (2046K).
(7) The Mole (mol)
The mole is the SI unit of amount of substance that contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. The elementary entities
must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, radicals, photons,
other particles or specified groups of particles.
(8) The Radian (rad)
The radian is the supplementary SI unit of plane angle. One radian encloses an arc
equal to the radius of a concentric circle.
1 radian = 57.296° = 57°17′45′′. 2π radian = 360°
(9) The Steradian (sr)
The steradian is the supplementary SI unit of solid angle 1. One steradian is sub-
tended at the centre of a sphere of radius r by a portion of its surface of area r2.
Note further that both the plane angle and solid angle are non-dimensional quanti-
ties. Their SI units are given above [(8) & (9)].
(10) Curie (ci)
Curie is the supplementary SI unit of the activity of a radio-active substance cor-
responding to 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second. It is approximately equal to the
activity of 1g of radium.

1.5 CGS AND MKSA SYSTEMS

Both are coherent systems.
(i) In cgs system, units of length, mass and time are centimetre (cm), gram (g)
and second (s) respectively. In mechanics, all the derived units can be formed with the
help of these three fundamental units: cm, g and s. But this cgs system assumes two
different forms in electricity (cgs electrostatic or cgse) and in magnetism (cgs electro-
magnetic or cgsm). In cgse and cgsm systems, permittivity (ε0) and permeability (µ0)
of vaccum are arbitrarily assumed to be 1.
In this way, the introduction of fourth fundamental unit has been avoided in cgse
or cgsm. But this has produced some difficulties. The MKSA system alone, however,
can be used smoothly in mechanics, electricity and magnetism without producing any
difficulty whatsoever.
(ii) In MKSA system (Giorgi system) four fundamental units are metre, kilogram,
second and ampere. It being a coherent system of units, all the practical units (joule,
watt, ampere, ohm, volt etc.) in mechnics, electricity and magnetism come out as
coherent units of the system.

1. The solid angle of an area at an outside point (O) is measured (in steradian) by the area
subtended (by projection) on a concentric sphere (i.e., with the centre at O) of unit radius, or by the
ratio of area (A) intercepted on a concentric sphere of radius r to the square of the radius (A/r2). Thus
the solid angle of a closed surface at an inside point is 4π sr. An element of area dA at P subtends a solid
dA cos θ
angle 2 steradian at O, where OP = r and the normal on dA makes an angle θ with the OP line.
r
Units and Dimensions 9

1.5.1 Non-System Units

Units that do not fit into any system but are used mainly for convenience in definite
fields or for historical tradition only, are called non-system units. The non-system units
may be classified into three groups. Decimal multiplies (deca–, hecto–, kilo– etc.) and
submultiples (milli–, centi–, deci– etc.) of units should be set apart into the first group.
The second group is constructed from the units of a system without following the
decimal principle. Examples of the second group are: minute, hour, mile, gallon etc.
The third group of non-system units have no relation with units of the established
systems. Standard atmosphere or millimetre of mercury are widely used as the units of
pressure. Galileo discovered the pendulum principle (amplitude independence of the
time of swing) using his own pulse. Shortly thereafter (in 1602) Sanctorius, a medical
friend of Galileo, invented pulsologium (a simple pendulum) to measure the pulse rate
of his patients. He adjusted the length of simple pendulum until it swung in tune with
the pulse rate and expressed the pulse rate of the patient as the length of the pendulum!

1.6 DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY

The units of all physical quantities encountered in mechanics can be derived from
the fundamental units of mass, length and time by raising them to various powers. The
powers to which they must be raised to obtain any derived unit are called the dimen-
sions of that unit or of the quantity itself. Writing [L] for the unit of length and [A] for
the unit of area, [A] = [L2] is the dimensional equation involving area and length. We
see that the dimension of area is two in length. For volume, we shall similarly have [V]
= [L3]. Volume has the dimension three in length.
In other words, we may say that the dimensions of a physical quantity are the
number of times the fundamental units enter in the description of the quantity. Dimen-
sions represent a property of a physical quantity which is independent of the units used
in measuring it. Even if the units are changed in magnitude, the dimensions remain the
same. This applies to all quantities however complex their dimensions. Besides, any
two quantities with the same dimensions are mutually convertible (see sec. 1.8) and
can be expressed in the same units. Thus, a quantity having the dimensions of one in
length and minus one in time [LT–1] is always a velocity (see below). A quantity having
the dimensions one in mass, one in length and minus two in time is a force. We shall get
many examples later. Note that dimensions are concerned with the quality (i.e., nature)
of the physical quantity and not with its magnitude.
The dimensional formula for length is [L], for mass [M] and for time [T]. These
are also called the fundamental dimensions. The brackets can be dispensed with if
there is no risk of confusion.
velocity
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, i.e., a =
time

[ LT −1 ]
Hence its dimensional equation is [a] = = LT –2 .
[T ]
Momentum of a body is the product of the mass of the body and its velocity.
Hence the dimensional equation of momentum is obtainable from the relation mv =
mass × velocity. [Momentum] = [M] [LT–1] = [MLT–1].
10 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

Force F on a body is given by the product of its mass and acceleration. We have
F = ma, whence the dimensional equation [F] = [ma] = [M] [LT–2] = [MLT–2].
Pressure (p) is defined as the force per unit area and its dimensional equation is
 force   MLT 
−2

given by [p] =  area  =   = [ML–1 T–2].

   L2 
Work (W) or energy is the product of force and displacement.
∴ [W] = [MLT–2] [L] = [ML2T–2].
Moment of inertia (I) of a body is given by mk 2 where m is the mass of the body
and k is a length. Hence the dimensional equation is [I] = [mk 2] = [ML2].
A stress is a force per unit area. Its dimensions will be [ML–1 T–2]. A strain is
either a change in length per unit length or a change in volume per unit volume. As it is
a ratio of two quantities of the same kind, it is a mere number and has no dimension.
Since a modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to strain, its dimensions will be the
same as those of the stress, namely [ML–1 T–2], which are also the dimensions of
pressure.
Frequency is the number of vibrations executed per second and hence, [fre-
[a number ]
quency] = = [T–1], since a number has zero dimension.
[time]
Surface tension is defined as a force per unit length. Its dimensions will be
[force] [ MLT −2 ]
= = [ MT –2 ]
[length] [ L]
Co-efficient of viscosity is defined as a tangential force per unit area per unit
velocity gradient. The last quantity is the rate of change of velocity with distance, and
has the dimensions of velocity/length, i.e., [LT–1] ÷ [L] = [T–1].
[ MLT −2 ]
∴ [Co-efficient of viscosity] = 2 = [ML–1 T–1].
[ L ][T –1 ]
Dimensions of the universal gravitational constant G. The force F of attraction
between two masses, m1 and m2, kept at a distance r from each other is given by
m1 × m2
F =G
r2
[Fr 2 ] [ MLT –2 ] 2
∴ [G ] = = [ L ] = [ M −1 L3 T –2 ].
[ M 2] [M 2 ]

1.6.1 Change of Dimensions with Change of Fundamental Quantities

Dimensions of derived quantities are expressed in terms of those of the fundamen-
tal quantities. Usually length, mass and time are taken as fundamental quantities for
convenience, but it is not at all compulsory. In engineering force is taken as a funda-
mental quantity instead of mass. Taking L, F and T as the dimension of length, force
and time, dimensions of mass = force/acceleration = F/LT –2 = FL –1 T 2, momentum =
mass × velocity = FL –1 T 2 × LT –1 = FT = force × time etc.
Units and Dimensions 11

1.7 USE OF DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

A given physical quantity will have a fixed set of dimensions and it can be recognized
by its dimensions. Thus an area is of dimension two in length, any quantity which is
found to have this dimension will always be an area. Velocity has dimension 1 in length
and –1 in time, [LT–1] will always represent a velocity (see sec.1.8).
(1) Checking equations: We know that a quantity can be equated to another
quantity only if the two are of the same kind, i.e., we can equate a ‘length’ only to a
‘length’, an ‘area’ only to an ‘area’, a ‘speed’ only to a ‘speed’, and so on. But a
‘length’ cannot be equated to a ‘volume’, or a ‘speed’ to a ‘mass’. Since a given
quantity has a fixed set of dimensions, the dimensions of all terms on the two sides of
an equation must be the same. Otherwise, the equation will not be valid. This assertion
of the equality of dimensions in the terms of an equation is called the principle
of homogeneity. This useful principle may be applied to check the correctness of an
equation.
1
Take, for example, the well-known relation s = ut + ft2 for the distance traversed
2
under constant acceleration. s has the dimension [L]; so have ut and ft2, as you can
satisfy yourself. Each term in the equation shall have the same dimensions according
1
to the principle of homogeneity. An equation written as s = ft + ut2 will be clearly
2
wrong, as you can check by applying the principle. The example may appear too
simple to be impressive; but the method is applicable to all equations, however
complicated. As pure numbers are dimensionless, they cannot be represented in this
type of analysis.
(2) Derivation of simple formulae: When one quantity is known to depend on
several other quantities, the principle of homogeneity may be applied to find the na-
ture of dependence. This method of analysis, known as dimensional analysis, has
been particularly useful in the development of hydrodynamics, aerodynamics and vari-
ous other fields.
Dimensional analysis does not answer ‘On what quantities does the result de-
pend?’, but ‘How does the result depend upon certain quantities which are known to
affect it?’ It does not yield the numerical constant, which can be determined by direct
experiment, or mathematical analysis in simple cases.
Dimensional analysis is performed through dimensional equations. These are
equations connecting physical quantities by a consideration only of the dimensions of
the quantities involved, without a detailed theory and without consideration of magni-
tudes.
We shall illustrate the method of dimensional analysis with some very simple cases.
For example, let us see how the distance traversed by a particle depends on its accel-
eration and the time of motion. The dimension of distance is [L]; of acceleration,
[LT–2]; and of time [T]. Suppose the dependence of distance on the other two quantities
is given by
Distance = k (acceleration) x × (time) y ,
k being a constant, i.e., a mere number without dimension. Then the corresponding
dimensional equation is
12 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

[L] = [LT–2]x × [T]y = [L]x [T] y–2x

According to the principle of homogeneity, the dimensions on the two sides of the
equation must be the same. Therefore, x = 1, and y = 2; i.e., distance = k. acceleration
× (time) 2. This method however, cannot find the value of k. For a body moving from
1
rest with constant acceleration, we know that k = .
2
Some other cases are worked out below.
(i) The period of a simple pendulum: Assuming that the period t of a pendulum
depends on (a) the length l of the string. (b) the mass m of the bob, (c) the acceleration
g due to gravity, we may write
t = k l x m y g z,
k being a constant without dimension.
∴ [T] = [L]x [M]y [LT–2]z = M y L x+z T –2 z
Equating the powers of M, L and T, we get
y = 0, x+z = 0, –2z = 1
1 1
∴ z=– and x =
2 2
∴ t = k l / g.
As y = 0, the period does not depend on the mass of the bob.
The constant k may be determined experimentally or by mathematical analysis.
(ii) Frequency of a stretched string: Let the frequency of vibration (f) of a
stretched string depend on its mass m, its length l, and the stretching force F. We may
then write
f = km x l y F z
∴ [Τ –1] = [M]x [L]y [MLT–2]z
∴ x + z = 0, y + z = 0, 2z = 1
1 1 1
∴ z= ,x=– ,y=–
2 2 2

F
∴ f =k
ml
if µ = mass per unit length of the string m = µl, and

k F
f =
l µ
(iii) The velocity υ of a sound wave in a gas: It depends on the pressure p and
density ρ of the medium.
In this case υ ∝ p x ρ y or υ = kp x ρ y .
The dimensions of velocity, pressure and density are respectively [LT –1] ,
[ML–1 T–2] and [ML–3]. Hence, we obtain the dimensional equation
[LT–1] = [ML–1 T–2]x [ML–3] y = [M x+y ] [L–x–3y] [T –2 x ]
Equating the powers of [L], [M] and [T] on the two sides, we get
x + y = 0, –x –3y = 1, and –2x = –1,
Units and Dimensions 13

1 1
∴ x= and y = –
2 2
1 1
− p
∴ υ = kp 2 ρ 2 =k
ρ
(3) Change of unit: With the help of dimensional relations it is very easy to find
the numerical measure of a quantity when the unit in which it was expressed is changed
into some other unit.
(i) The unit of force in the mks system is called the newton. It is the force
required to produce an acceleration of 1 ms–2 in a mass of 1 kilogram. To express it in
dyne, let us write,
1 newton = 1 kg × 1 ms–2 = x dyne = x gcms–2
kg m
∴ x = g . cm = 1000 × 100 = 10
5

or 1 newton = 105 dyne

(ii) To express the universal gravitational constant G in mks system, let
us remember that its dimensions are [M–1 L3 T–2]. The value of G in cgs units is
6.66 × 10–8. To find its value in mks units, we have to write
6.66 × 10–8 g–1 cm3 s –2 = x kg–1 m3 s –2
FG kg IJ. FG cm IJ
3

∴x = 6.66 × 10 –8
H g K H mK
× 1000 × GH
F 1 IJ 3

100 K
= 6.66 × 10 –8
= 6.66 × 10–11

∴G = 6.66 × 10–11 mks units.

1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

The method of dimensional analysis is subject to the following limitations: (i) If any
physical quantity depends upon four or more other physical quantities, we fail to find
the relationship between them for the following reason. In the method of solving a
physical problem by the help of dimensions we obtain three equations depending on the
powers of [L], [M] and [T]. And from three equations we cannot determine four or
more unknown quantities. (see sec. 1.7)
(ii) It cannot take numbers into consideration.
(iii) Two quantities may have the same dimensions, but differ in nature.
For example, consider energy and the moment of a force. The moment of a force
is given by the product of the force and its distance from a point or axis. Its dimensions,
therefore, are [MLT–2] × [L] = [ML2T–2]. These are also the dimensions of work or
energy. Though the dimensions are the same, it cannot be claimed that energy and the
moment of a force are quantities of the same kind. This discrepancy is explained by the
fact that while energy is a scalar, the moment of a force is a vector.
14 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

As another example, consider energy density and force per unit area. Energy
density is energy per unit volume, and has the dimensions [energy] / [volume] =
ML2T–2/L3 = ML–1T–2. Force per unit area has dimensions [force] / [area] = MLT–2 / L2
= ML–1T–2. Pressure is also force per unit area. So, all these quantities are expressible in
the same units. Of the three, energy density and fluid pressure are scalar quantities. So
we may treat them as mutually convertible. We may therefore look upon pressure as
some kind of energy density. The corresponding energy may be called pressure energy.
This concept of pressure is utilized in some hydrodynamical problems, and we shall
come across it in connexion with Bernoulli’s theorem (sec. 13.6). Note that in the case
of fluid, pressure × change of volume = work, which means the same thing as a
change of energy.

1.9 THE ∏ -THEOREM IN DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Let us see what kind of dimensional analysis is possible when a physical quantity
depends on more than three other quantities. Suppose a spherical ball is being drawn
through water with a constant velocity. The water offers a resistance to the motion of
the ball. Let F be the resisting force, ρ the density of water and η its co-efficient of
viscosity, ϑ the velocity of the ball and r its radius. Assuming that F depends on these
quantities, we can write the dimensional equation as
F = k ρ x η y ϑ z r w.
The dimensions of η have already been found to be ML–1T–1. Hence the dimen-
sional equation is
[MLT–2] = [ML–3]x [ML–1 T–1]y [LT–1]z [L]w
Solving x+y =1
–3x –y +z +w =1
–y –z = –2
Here we have only three equations connecting four unknowns which we cannot
solve. We see that y is present in all three equations. Let us put y = n. Then
x = 1 – n, y = n, z = 2 – n and w = 2 – n
FG η IJ n

∴F = k ρ 1– n η n ϑ 2– n r 2– n = k ρ ϑ 2 r 2 H ρϑr K
We shall find η / ρϑ r is a dimensionless quantity (sec 12.5). So, if in the above
equation, the right-hand side is the sum of several terms with different values of k and
n for each, the equation will still be dimensionally correct. This tells us that F is some
unknown function of η / ρϑ r. So, we can write
FG η IJ
F = ρ ϑ 2 r2 f
H ρϑr K
F F η IJ = φ FG ρϑr IJ
= fG
or
ρϑ 2 r 2 H ρϑr K H η K
We see that F / ρ ϑ 2 r 2 is also a dimensionless quantity. The quantity (ρϑr/η) is
known in physics as the Reynolds number, and we shall come across it in the chapter
on viscosity (sec.12.5). Because it is a familiar quantity, we have introduced
Units and Dimensions 15

it here. Otherwise, its reciprocal would also have served our purpose. Had we taken
n = –1, we would have come to Reynolds number right away; but you might have
wondered why we took n as minus one. The quantity F / ρ ϑ 2 r 2 is known as the force
co-efficient. It is also dimensionless. Our last equation tells us that the force co-
efficient in the case under consideration is a function of the Reynolds number. The
equation is a relation between two dimensionless quantities.
The ∏-theorem in dimensional analysis states that if m physical quantities are
related together and they are expressible in terms of n fundamental dimensions then the
relation between the m quantities can be expressed as a product of m–n dimensionless
combinations of the quantities. The name ‘pi’ is derived from the capital greek letter ∏
often used to indicate a product of quantities.
In the example taken, the five quantities F, ρ, η, ϑ and r were related. Three
fundamental dimensions, M, L and T, were used to express them. So, according to the
∏–theorem, the relation should be expressible in terms of 5–3 = 2 non-dimensional
combinations of the quantities. And this is exactly, what we have found. In the examples
(i & ii) we have taken in sec. 1.7, m = 4 and n = 3. So each result can be expressed in
terms of only one dimensionless combination. Try them as an exercise. In the first of
the examples there the relation is t g / l = a dimensionless constant.
Number of dimensionless groups sometimes exceed m – n. In that case, the analy-
sis is possible with a number of fundamental dimensions less than n. One should use
minimum number of fundamental dimensions in ∏-theorem.
The ∏-theorem has wide application in problems of motion of a solid through a
liquid or gas, and in the convection of heat.

1.10 TABLE OF UNITS

Table 1.10–1 gives the names of the various dynamical quantities, their dimensions, the
names of the units (where there is one) in the C.G.S. and SI units and the symbols for
these units.
The symbols should be treated as algebraic quantities, and not as abbreviations.
Hence they should not be followed by full stops. Where symbols are derived from
proper names, such as N, J, W, P, use capital letters. Otherwise use small letters (as
for cm, g, s, etc.). This method of writing has been recommended for international
practice.

1.11 ARBITRARINESS IN THE NUMBER OF FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

The number of fundamental (or basic) units required in a field and the ones selected
and also their dimensions and the selection of the defining relationships are all arbitrary
(i.e. not determined by any law of nature) and therefore the construction of a system
of units is, in principle, quite arbitrary. A system of units is usually selected complying
with a number of practical requirements and convenience. Before coming to the above
conclusion we must closely follow the procedure of establishing a derived unit.
The relationship between areas of geometrical figures and their linear dimensions
is established by the theorem: “the ratio between the areas (A) of geometrically similar
16 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

figures is equal to the square of the ratio between their corresponding linear dimensions
(l)”.

Table 1.10–1

Quantity Dimens- C.G.S. S.I. units

ions Unit Symbol Unit Symbol
Fundamental
Length L centimetre cm metre m
Mass M gram g kilogram kg
Time T second s second s
Derived
Area L2 — cm2 — m2
Volume L3 — cm3 — m3
Density ML–3 — g/cm3 — kg/m3
Velocity LT–1 — cm/s — m/s
Momentum MLT–1 — g.cm/s — kg.m/s
Acceleration LT–2 galileo cm/s2 — m/s2
Force MLT–2 dyne dyn newton N
(= g.cm/s2) (= kg m/s2)
Pressure ML–1T–2 barye dyn/cm2 pascal Pa = N/m2
Work, Energy ML2T–2 erg dyn cm joule J (=Nm)
Power ML2T–3 — erg/s watt W (=J/s)
Surface tension MT–2 — dyn/cm — N/m (=J/m2)
(= erg/cm2)
Viscosity ML–1T–1 poise P — kg/ms
(= g/cms)
Moment of inertia ML2 — g cm2 — kg m2
Frequency T–1 hertz Hz hertz Hz = cycle/s

A1′ / A0 FG
l′ / l
= 1 0
IJ 2

or
A2′ / A0 H
l2′ / l0 K 1.11.1

where A 0 and l0 are the chosen units of area and length respectively. From eq. 1.11.1
A1 A2
= 2 = c1 = a constant 1.11.2
l12 l2

A1′ l′
Here A1 = , l1 = 1 etc. denote not the quantities (here area & length) themselves,
A0 l0
but the numbers by means of which these quantities are expressed in the relevant units
used. In the expression of any physical law we must always adhere to such a meaning
of the symbols. Now from eq. 1.11.2
A = c1 l 2 1.11.3
where c1 depends on the shape of the geometrical figure and the units chosen for
measurement of area and length. At this stage, we have every freedom of choosing
both the units and dimensions for the area and length absolutely independently of each
other and in general c1 has dimensions.
Units and Dimensions 17

We may take any arbitrary area of our choice as our unit area and prescribe any
symbol, say [S], for its dimension. In that case c1 has dimensions [SL–2]. However, the
existence of the relationship between the area and length (eq. 1.11.3) makes it possible
to relate the unit of area to the unit of length i.e., to make the unit of area a derivative
of the unit of length. In doing so
(1) the dimensions [L2] is customarily identified with the dimensions of area by choice
and not by necessity. In that case c1 is a dimensionless number (e.g. Reynold’s number,
sec. 12.5).
After asserting that c1 is dimensionless we still have the absolute freedom of choosing
the magnitude of unit area. It may be an area of any plane geometrical figure of any
shape (circle, square, equilateral triangle etc.) having linear size equal to a definite
(conventionally accepted) number of unit of length. It is customary to make the choice
in such a way that c1 becomes equal to 1. This has the added advantage that the
proportionality constant c1 disappears from eq. 1.11.3.
(2) Say, we take the area of a square of unit length as our unit area. Then the dimen-
sionless constant c1 = 1 and for a square of length l units
A=l2 1.11.4
which makes (the unit of) area as the derivative of (the unit of) length. The whole
procedure may be simulated by simply assuming the proportionality constant in the
defining equation or in the law to be dimensionless and equal to unity. In such a
formulation only one dimensional entity [L] is sufficient for both length [L] and area
[L2]. However, in this case, we must sacrifice the freedom of choosing the unit of area
independent of the unit of length.
In fact, this is a general rule for defining derived units. Whenever, we have a
relationship between quantities having apparently different dimensions a universal
constant (see below) appears in the relation and by asserting that the constant is dimen-
sionless and equal to one we introduce a derived unit for some physical quantity and
remove the universal constant from the basic equation.
The proportionality constant in the defining relationship which depends on the
choice of basic units and not on the specific properties (e.g. specific gravity, critical
temperature etc.) of the substances, is called universal constant (e.g. c1, universal
gravitational constant etc.). From above discussion, it is clear that there is a single-
valued relationship between the number of universal constants and the number of
fundamental dimensions (i.e., basic units). A reduction in the number of fundamental
dimensions is always accompanied by a reduction in a number of universal constants.
In general, the greater the number of dimensional entities chosen, the more independent
units can be chosen to suit the order of magnitude convenient for a particular purpose.
However, in that case, we must have greater number of universal constants in the
formulas of physical laws and definitions.
If we choose the proportionality constant c2 in the Coulomb’s law in the form
q1 q2
F = c2 1.11.5
r2
(F is the magnitude of force between charges q1 & q2 at separation r) to be dimension-
less, then the charge q automatically acquires the dimensions L3/2 M1/2 T–1 and no addi-
tional basic unit beyond those of mass (M), length (L) and time (T) of classical me-
18 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

chanics is necessary. This is simply analogous to setting c1 in eq. 1.11.3 equal to a

dimensionless constant and thus giving an area the dimension L2.
It is customary, although not at all mandatory, to formulate the classical mechanics
in terms of three dimensional entities: mass (M), length (L) and time (T). The number
could be increased by one by choosing c1 in eq. 1.11.3 (to be different from unity) to
have dimensions. The number could be increased further by choosing basic units for
volume (V), velocity (v) or acceleration (f) in their defining equations:
dl dv
V = c3 l 3, ν = c4 , f = c5 etc. 1.11.6
dt dt
or for the force (F) in Newton’s second law
F = c6 mf 1.11.7
However, it is customary (not compelling) to express volume, velocity, acceleration
and force in derived units involving MLT only by equating the proportionality con-
stants to unity (c3 = c4 = c5 = c6 = 1) and assuming them dimensionless. We mention
these examples only to illustrate that even in classical mechanics the number of inde-
pendent dimensions is arbitrary, although convenience suggests a specific choice.
The arbitrariness in the size of basic units will hardly raise any doubts. The exist-
ence of systems with different units of lengths (the metre and the centimetre) or mass
(the kilogram and the gram) clearly illustrates this principle. We have already
mentioned that there is also complete arbitrariness in selecting the factors of proportion-
ality in the defining relationships.
We usually determine the unit of force from Newtons second law by assuming the
inertial constant (c6) to be dimensionless and equal to unity. This gives the value of
universal gravitational constant c7 in the law of gravitation
MM'
F = c7 1.11.8
r2
where c7 = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2. However, the process may be reversed with c7 = 1 and
then we have the gravitational unit of force (used mainly in astronomy) which is the
force of mutual attraction between two unit mass points separated by a unit distance.
In MKS system, the new gravitational unit of force will be equal to 6.67 × 10–11 N and
the inertial constant c6 will be different from unity and is equal to c6 = 1.5 × 1010 grav.
force. unit s2 / (kg.m). We have now seen that Newton’s second law and the law of
universal gravitation can be used with equal right as the defining relationship for force.
When these two are combined, we get (from eq. 3.12.5) the Kepler’s 3rd law
a3
M = c8 2 1.11.9
T
2
where c8 = 4π / c7. This formulae can however serve as the defining relationship for
establishing the unit mass as a derived unit, if we assume c8 as dimensionless. A
system of geometrical and mechanical units constructed in this way will have only two
(and not three) basic units—length and time. In such a system both the inertial and
gravitational constants will be dimensionless and in particular can be made equal to
unity. This again illustrates the arbitrariness in the number of basic units even in clas-
sical mechanics!
If we equate Boltzmann’s constant (k) to a (dimensionless) constant, we will get
the unit of temperature as a derived one. Number of basic units may be further reduced
Units and Dimensions 19

by equating the electric and magnetic constants to unity in a system constructed ac-
cording to SI system or equating the velocity of light (c) (in vaccum) to unity—in a
C.G.S. system. Then, we have only two basic units i.e., those of light intensity and
length (or time). The unit of luminous intensity (cd) not being directly related to com-
mon physical quantities we virtually have only one basic unit—that of length (or time).
In this system, Planck’s constant (h) and electronic charge (e) have the dimensions
[h] = L2 and [e] = L 1.11.10
The unit of length may now be so selected that Planck’s constant will be equal to unity
and we ultimately have a system which is in general dimensionless; i.e., in such a
system we are completely deprived of the freedom of selecting magnitude of any unit
whatsoever. Systems in which the greatest numbers of universal constants have been
equated to (dimensionless) unity are called natural systems. The above proposal
(h = 1) is due to Planck. There are other proposals also1. In Planck’s system (c7 = k =
c = h = 1) the unit of length is 4.05 × 10–33 cm, of mass 5.46 × 10–5 g and of time
1.35 × 10–43 s! (see Ex. 1.11–1).
In a natural system all the basic units are automatically defined (Ex. 1.11–1) and
the relevant universal constants have magnitude one. In such a natural system all other
universal constants will be dimensionless numbers and all physical quantities are di-
mensionless.
However, we cannot randomly equate the universal constants to unity owing to
the fact that there are definite relationships between some of them. For instance the
electronic charge (e), Planck’s constant (h) and the velocity (c) of light form a dimen-
sionless combination, so-called fine structure constant
e2 1
α= = 1.11.11
hc 137
Clearly we cannot simultaneously equate all of them to unity. In the Planck’s system
1
(c = h = 1) the charge of an electron is 2 π × 137 .
On the other extreme of this natural system, we have the choice of choosing an
arbitrary magnitude for the units of different kind of physical entity such as length,
area, volume, velocity, acceleration etc. In this case, the number of dimensions will be
equal to the number of different types of physical entities and an enormously large
number of universal constants will appear in the equations of physics!
Although in a natural system all the units are quite far from the size of the quanti-
ties in practical work, such a system is usually preferred in theoretical physics owing
to great simplification of fundamental equations.
The change of units or the number of fundamental dimensions does not affect2 the
physical content of any equation if it is correctly interpreted.

1. D. Hartree proposed to equate all the following quantities to unity — charge and mass of elec-
h
tron, the radius of the first Bohr orbit and =h.
2π
l
2. In a system with c = = 1, the length and time have the same dimensions. A time of 1 cm then
t
means the time taken by light to traverse 1 cm distance in vaccum. It may appear peculiar, but it
is absolutely flaw-less from the physical point of view.
20 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter

Since a system of units is a sort of apparatus intended for facilitating calculations

in science and engineering, it must comply with a number of practical requirements.
With increase of number of basic units, number of universal constants in the physical
formulas also increases, which are difficult for memorization and complicates calcula-
tions. Enormous work would also be required to establish standard specimen of all
basic units. On the other hand, with decrease of number of basic units we are increas-
ingly deprived of the freedom of selecting the size of units convenient for practical
work. An extreme example is a natural system discussed above. However, this latter
requirement has at present become somewhat diffused owing to the extreme broaden-
ing of the range of dimensions of physical quantities [length: 10–15 m (nuclear physics)
— 1026 m (astronomy); Power: 109 W (Power Plant) — 10–16 W (power of a signal
picked up by a radar); etc.]. Too small a number of basic units are also unsuitable for
dimensional analysis.
With a view to the above discussions, it has been found satisfactory to construct a
system having about three to six basic units.

Ex. 1.11–1 Unit of mass, length and time in the Planck’s natural system
In the natural system proposed by Planck, the universal gravitational constant (c7 ), the velocity
of light (c) and the Planck’s constant (h) are equated to unity. In the Planck’s natural system let the units
of mass, length and time be represented by m0 g, l0 cm and t0 s respectively.
The dimensions of the universal gravitational constant [c7 ] is (sec. 1.6) [M–1 L3 T–2 ]. Therefore,
6.67 × 10–8 g–1 cm3 s–2 = 1 (m0 g)–1 (l0 cm)3 (t0 s)–2
since c7 = 1 in the Planck’s natural system.
l03
∴ G0 = (1)
m0 t02
where G0 = 6.67 × 10–8
Similarly, for velocity of light [c] = [LT–1 ] and
3 × 1010 cm. s–1 = 1 l0 cm (t0 s)–1
l0
∴ c0 = (2)
t0
where c0 = 3 × 1010 .
And the dimensions of [h] is [ML2 T–1 ] (from ε = hν, where ε and ν are energy and frequency
respectively). Therefore,
6.63 × 10–27 g cm2 s–1 = 1 (m0 g) (l0 cm)2 (t0 s)–1

m0l02
∴ h0 = (3)
t0
where h0 = 6.63 × 10–27
From eq. (1), (2) and (3) we get the unit of mass, length and time in the Planck’s natural system:
1 1
 h c  2  6.63 ×10−27 × 3 ×1010  2 −5
m0 =  0 0  =   = 5.46 × 10 g
 G0   6.67 × 10 −8 
1 1
 G h  2  6.67 ×10 −8 ×6.63 ×10 −27  2 −33
l0 =  03 0  =   = 4.05 ×10 cm
 c0   (3 ×1010 ) 3 

L G h OP = LM 6.67 × 10 × 6.63 × 10 OP
1 1
–8 –27
=M
2 2
0 0
. × 10 – 43 s
= 135
N c Q N ( 3 × 10 ) Q
t0 5 10 5
0
Units and Dimensions 21

QUESTIONS
Q.1.1. Name and define the seven fundamental units of the present International System.
Q.1.2. What is an operational definition? If temperature is defined as ‘the property which deter-
mines the direction of flow of heat when two bodies are brought into contact’, discuss if the
definition can be considered operational.
Q.1.3. Which of the seven international fundamental units are based on operational definition, and
which are arbitrary standards?
Q.1.4. What is a physical quantity? What is meant by its dimensions?
Calculate the dimensions of (i) the universal gravitational constant, (ii) Young’s modulus,
(iii) surface tension, (iv) viscosity. How would you express these quantities in mks units?
Q.1.5. State the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. What is a dimensional equation? What
is dimensional analysis? What can you achieve by dimensional analysis?
Test the principle of dimensional homogeneity in the expression for the distance traversed
in t-th second under uniform acceleration.
Q.1.6. State the ∏-theorem in dimensional analysis, and illustrate it in the case of a simple
pendulum.
A particle having an initial velocity u and a constant acceleration f traverses a distance s in
time t. Show with the help of the ∏-theorem that s/ft2 = φ (u/ft). Also show that the actual
value of s will be of the form s = k 1 ut + k 2 ft2 where k 1 and k 2 are numerical constants.
Q.1.7. What are the limitations of the method of dimensional analysis? In what sense can pressure
be considered as a kind of energy density?
Q.1.8(a) The acceleration due to gravity is 32 ft/s 2 . If the unit of length is a mile and the unit of time
is a minute, what will the above value be in the new units? [Ans. 21.8 mi/min2 ]
(b) If 1 ft = 30.48 cm, 1 lb = 453.6 g, g = 32 ft/s 2 , how much is a horse-power in mks units?
[Ans. 7.4 × 102 W]
(c) Find the number of dynes in a force which, acting on a mass of 15 kg for 1 min produces a
velocity of 4.6 km/s. [Ans. 11.5 × 107 ]
(d) Find the number of newtons in the force which, acting on a mass of 1cwt (hundred weight)
for one minute, gives it a velocity of one mile per hour. (Given that 1 cwt = 112 lb, 1 ft =
30.48 cm, 1 lb = 453.6 g). [Ans. 3.78 × 104 ]
Q.1.9 (a) The density of a liquid is d and its surface tension, S. A drop of the liquid of radius r
oscillates with a period T. Assuming T depends on d, S and r, prove dimensionally that
T ∝ (r 3 d/S)1/2.
(b) Assuming that the mass M of the largest stone that can be moved by a flowing river
depends only upon the velocity ϑ and the density ρ of water and on g, show that M varies
with the sixth power of the velocity of flow.
(c) You are told that the volume V of a liquid flowing out per second through a length l of a
narrow tube of radius r under a pressure P is directly proportional to P and r4 and inversely
proportional to l and η. Check the result dimensionally.
Q.1.10(a) If the units of length, velocity and force are taken as the fundamental units, what will be the
dimensions of mass and time?
(b) If force, velocity and momentum are taken as the fundamental quantities, what will be the
dimensions of mass, length and time?
(c) If the units of length, velocity and force are doubled, show that the units of mass and time
will not change, but the unit of energy will be quadrupled (i.e., increase in the ratio 1 : 4).