UNIT FOUR: Steps in Research Design

INTRODUCTION

In a very general term, research is a systematic way for finding things you and
other people did not know which are called as research problems. Research is a
process consisting of the identifying and defining research problem, formulating
and testing the hypothesis through data collection, organization and analysis,
making deductions and reaching of conclusion from the test results of the
hypotheses, and reporting and evaluating the research. Viewing its process,
research is essentially a problem driven activity.

Since research is problem driven, the first thing to deal in undertaking a study is
to identify and determine the problem to study. Identifying a research problem is
important because, as the issue or concern in a particular setting that motivates
and guides the need for conducting a study.

4.1. Selection and statement of research problem

Research Problem is the issue being addressed in a study. This issue can be a
difficulty or conflict to be eliminated; a condition to be improved; a concern to
handle; a troubling question, a theoretical or practical controversy (or a gap) that
exists in scholarly literature. A research problem helps in narrowing the topic
down to something that is reasonable for conducting a study. Creswell, 2012)
defined research problem as “a general educational issue, concern, or
controversy addressed in research that narrows the topic” p. 60).

Locating the research problem in a research could be accomplished by asking

ourselves the following questions. (1) What was the issue, problem, or
controversy that the researcher wanted to address? (2) What controversy leads to
a need for this study? (3) What was the concern being addressed “behind” this
study? (4) Is there a sentence like “The problem addressed in this study is . . .”?
(Creswell, 2012, p. 59).

The first and most important step of a research is formulation of research

problems. It is like the foundation of a building to be constructed. To solve a
problem someone has to know about the problem. So, the problem identification
and formulation is very crucial for the researcher before conducting a research,
and this is perhaps one of the most difficult aspects
of any research undertaking. The “problem” is stated in the opening passages of
a study and, in effect, provides a reader the rationale for why the study is
important and why it is necessary to read.

A problem statement is usually one or two sentences to explain the problem in

the study process. It outlines the negative points of the current situation and
explains why this matters. It also serves as a great communication tool, helping
to get into and support from others.

One of the most important goals of any problem statement is to define the
problem being addressed in a way that's clear and precise. Its aim is focus the
process improvement team’s activities and navigate the scope of the study.

During the creation of a problem statement one should be able to apply the 5
'W's (Who, What, Where, When and Why) to the problem statement. A problem
statement can be refined as we start to further investigate root cause. Finally,
the new problem statement will be review against the following criteria:
● It should focus on only one problem.
● It should be one or two sentences long.
● It should not suggest a solution.

4.1.1. Considerations in selecting a research problem

When selecting a research problem/topic there are a number of considerations

to keep in mind which will help to ensure that your study will be manageable
and that you remain motivated. These considerations are:

Interest – If you select a topic which does not greatly interest you, it could
become extremely difficult to sustain the required motivation and put in enough
time and energy to complete it.

Magnitude –Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear.
It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time
and with the resources at your disposal.

Measurement of concepts – If you are using a concept in your study (in

quantitative studies), make sure you are clear about its indicators and their
measurement.
Level of expertise – Make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the
task you are proposing. Allow for the fact that you will learn during the study
and may receive help from your research supervisor and others, but remember
that you need to do most of the work yourself.

Relevance –Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge,
bridges current gaps or is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to
sustain interest in the study.

Availability of data – If your topic requires collection of information from

secondary sources make sure that this data is available and in the format you
want before finalizing your topic.

Ethical issues –How ethical issues can affect the study population and how
ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the
problem-formulation stage.

Identification of research problem: Initially the researcher must recognize the

problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or
part of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. At the onset the
problem may be discussed in a broad way and then the doubts, if any, relating
to the problem may be resolved. Then, the probability of a particular clarification
has to be considered before working on formulation of the problem. Basically two
steps are involved in formulating the research problem, which means,
understanding the problem systematically, and reshape the same into significant
terms from an analytical point of view.

After determining the research problem and deciding the research approach to
use, it is time to begin writing about the “problem” in a statement of the problem
section that introduces our research study. Bryman (2007) defined a problem as
“a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a
difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in theory or in
practice that point to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.” A problem statement concisely overviews the issues or problems
existing in the concerned area selected for the research. It explains the issues
predominant in a particular area which drives the researcher to do in-depth
study and analysis in order to understand the issues and/or solve the problem.

4.2. Formulating a hypothesis

The word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis. ‘Hypo’
means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement
about solution of a problem. The word meaning of the term hypothesis is a
tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Another meaning of the
word hypothesis which is composed of two words – ‘Hypo’ means composition of
two or more variables which is to be verified. ‘Thesis’ means position of these
variables in the specific frame of reference. This is the operational meaning of
the term hypothesis. It is a proposition about the factual and conceptual
elements. Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about
the solution of a problem. It is a tentative statement about the relationship
between two or more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction
about what you expect to happen in your study.

To be complete the hypothesis must include three components –

●The variables;

●The population; and

●The relationship between the variables.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis

predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of research is to determine
whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment,
researchers might explore a number of different factors to determine which ones
might contribute to the ultimate outcome. In many cases, researchers may find
that the results of an experiment do not support the original hypothesis. When
writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that
should be explored in future studies

When we refer to hypotheses formulation, Hypothesis is derived from the research

problem, literature review and conceptual framework. Since Hypothesis is to be
tested therefore it should be very specific and limited to the piece of research. It
sharpens the researcher’s thinking and focus on the important facts of the
problem.

Hypothesis formulation could be done by using the following approaches:

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the research problem, its
source, cause and the objectives in search of a solution;
(b) Assessment of data and records,
(c) Evaluation of similar previous studies in the area similar problems; and
(d) Personal investigation which involves original field survey
Thus, any hypotheses take place as a result of a-prior thinking about the
subject, assessment of the available data and material including related previous
studies. Formulation of working hypotheses is a basic step of any research
process.

CONCLUSION

Identifying and determining the research problem, is the issue being addressed
in a study, is the first and most important step in undertaking a research. A
research problem is derived from a topic, or the broad subject matter addressed
in a study. Since a topic is selected by considering the factors of interests,
capabilities, motivations, manageability, and contribution to literature, the
research problem is supposed to have fulfilled these factors. The
fulfillment of these factors can indicate that the problem can and should be
studied.

Before writing the research problem statement, the investigator also needs to
consider whether the problem will better suit a quantitative or qualitative
approach. If the problem concerns with the issue that needs to be explained, it is
best addressed by quantitative research. If the problem concerns with the issue
that needs to be explored, it is best addressed by the qualitative approach.

Identifying and Formulating the Research Problem

Parlindungan Pardede
[email protected]
English Education Department
Summary Universitas Kristen Indonesia
The formulation of a research problem is the most important step in the research
process. It is the foundation, in terms of design, on which you build the whole
study. Any defects in it will adversely affect the validity and reliability of your
study. It is operational in nature and follows a logical sequence that takes the
beginner through the complexities of formulating a research problem in a simple
and easy-to-understand manner.

4.3. Review of related literature

The literature review is an integral part of the research process and makes a
valuable contribution to almost every operational step. One of the essential
initial tasks when you start a research study is to go through the existing
literature in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of knowledge in
your area of interest. Reviewing the literature can be time consuming,
discouraging and frustrating, but it is also rewarding. It has value even before
the first step; that is, when you are merely thinking about a research question
that you may want to find answers to through your research journey. In the
initial stages of research it helps you to establish the theoretical roots of your
study, clarify your ideas and develop your research methodology. Later in the
process, the literature review serves to enhance and consolidate your own
knowledge base and helps you to integrate your findings with the existing body
of knowledge. Since an important responsibility in research is to compare your
findings with those of others, it is here that the literature review plays an
extremely important role. During the write-up of your report it helps you to
integrate your findings with existing knowledge – that is, to either support or
contradict earlier research. The higher the academic level of your research, the
more important a thorough integration of your findings with existing literature
becomes.

In summary, a literature review has the following functions:

 It provides a theoretical background to our study.

 It helps you establish the links between what we are proposing to examine
and what has already been studied.
 It enables us to show how our findings have contributed to the existing
body of knowledge in your profession. It helps us to integrate our research
findings into the existing body of knowledge.

In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four ways. It can:
1. bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
2. improve your research methodology;
3. broaden your knowledge base in your research area; and
4. contextualize your findings.

Teaching and Learning Support (TaLS) – Fact Sheets

http://www.une.edu.au/current-students/resources/academic-skills/fact-sheets

A literature review gives an overview of the area of study: what has already been
said on the topic; who the key writers are; what the prevailing theories and
hypotheses are; what questions are being asked; and what methodologies are
appropriate and useful. In a literature review, you demonstrate that you have
read and understood previous and current research in the area.

1. Format for a literature review

2. Steps for writing a literature review

4.3.1. Format for a literature review

A literature review follows an essay format (Introduction, Body, Conclusion), but

if the literature itself is the topic of the essay, your essay will need to consider
the literature in terms of the key topics/themes you are examining.

Example plan
Introduction
Topic sentence that states the broad topic of your thesis
Following sentence/s that state what is included/excluded (parameters)
Final sentence/s that signals list of key topics that will be used to discuss the selected sources
Body
Divide up your text into sections/topics as indicated in the last sentence of your introduction.
Each paragraph will be a synthesis of the many texts that you have chosen for your literature
review.
Conclusion
NOTE: Do not confuse a literature review with an annotated bibliography

4.3.2. Steps for writing a literature review

i. Do a literature search

Find out what has been written about your topic. A good starting point is the list
of references or bibliography of a recent article or book on the topic. Then use
other bibliographical sources including abstracts, electronic data bases and the
Internet. If you decide that a text is relevant, write down the bibliographical
details in full—as the item would appear in your list of references or
bibliography. If you use systems cards and write one item at the top of each
card, you will save time later on. Personal bibliographic software such as End
Note, is an extremely useful tool for tracking reading, organizing references and
automatically generating reference lists.

ii. Find the literature

First check whether the material found. If it is not, your supervisor might be able
to assist with some of the material, you may be able to spend some time working
in a library which has more comprehensive holdings.

iii. Read the literature

Record the author and the title (you already have the other bibliographical
information) and take notes. Your aim is to determine how the topic is
approached and what is said about it.
As you make notes, ask yourself the following questions about each text.
• What sort of text is it?
• What is the methodology?
• Is a particular approach or school followed?
• What are the definitions used?
• What is the theoretical basis?
• What evidence is used to back up the thesis?
• What are the conclusions?

iv. Write short summaries

For each relevant text, try to write a one paragraph summary similar to an
abstract.
v. Organize the summaries
Try to identify similarities and group the summaries accordingly. The headings
under which the summaries are grouped will vary, depending on the topic and
the subject.
vi. Write each section
Each section of your literature review should deal with a specific aspect of the
literature.
vii. Decide on the order of presentation
In most cases, this would be from most important to least important, or from
established to more controversial theories.
viii. Write the conclusion
The conclusion should include a summary of major agreements and
disagreements in the literature and a summary of the general conclusions
drawn. If the literature review is part of a dissertation or thesis, you should also
indicate your own area of research. This might involve identifying a gap in the
previous research, identifying problems with the previous research or
proposing to extend previous knowledge.
ix. Write the introduction
The introduction should include a clear statement of the topic and its
parameters. You should indicate why the research area is important, interesting,
problematic or relevant in some way.
x. Proofread and edit carefully
The literature review is an important part of a dissertation or thesis. It should be
thorough and accurate.
 4.4. Methodology

Research Methodology and Research Method

Research Methods and Research Methodology are two terms that are often
confused as one and the same. Strictly speaking they are not so and they show
differences between them. One of the primary differences between them is that
research methods are the methods by which you conduct research into a subject
or a topic. On the other hand research methodology explains the methods by
which you may proceed with your research. Research methods involve conduct
of experiments, tests, surveys and the like. On the other hand research
methodology involves the learning of the various techniques that can be used in
the conduct of research and in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys and
critical studies. This is the technical difference between the two terms, namely,
research methods and research methodology.

Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of

studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which
researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting
phenomena are called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of
methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of
research.

Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in
research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are
termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-
neutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical
schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples,
data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods
call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations
and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be
verified by experiments.

In short it can be said that research methods aim at finding solutions to

research problems. On the other hand research methodology aims at the
employment of the correct procedures to find out solutions. It is thus interesting
to note that research methodology paves the way for research methods to be
conducted properly. Research methodology is the beginning whereas research
methods are the end of any scientific or non-scientific research.

Research Methodology

Research methodology is a collective term for the structured process of conducting

research. There are many different methodologies used in various types of
research and the term is usually considered to include research design, data
gathering and data analysis. Research methodology seeks to inform: Why a
research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined,
in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been
collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular
technique of analyzing data has been used and a host of similar other questions
are usually answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a
research problem or study.

Research methodologies can be quantitative (for example, measuring the number

of times someone does something under certain conditions) or qualitative (for
example, asking people how they feel about a certain situation). Ideally,
comprehensive research should try to incorporate both qualitative and
quantitative methodologies but this is not always possible, usually due to time
and financial constraints. Research methodologies are generally used in
academic research to test hypotheses or theories. A good design should ensure
the research is valid, i.e. it clearly tests the hypothesis and not extraneous
variables, and that the research is reliable, i.e. it yields consistent results every
time.

Part of the research methodology is concerned with the how the research is
conducted. This is called the study design and typically involves research
conducted using questionnaires, interviews, observation and/or experiments.
The term research methodology, which prescribes the research method to use,
usually encompasses the procedures followed to analyze and interpret the data
gathered. These often use a range of sophisticated statistical analyses of the data
to identify correlations or statistical significance in the results.

Objective, representative research can be difficult to conduct because tests can

normally only be conducted on a small sample (e.g. you cannot test a drug on
every person in the world so a sample needs to be used in research). This means
that researchers need to have a very detailed understanding of the types and
limitations of research methodologies which they are using.

In simple terms research methodology is used to give a clear cut idea on what
the researcher is carrying out his or her research. In order to plan in a right
point of time and to advance the research work, research methodology makes the
right platform to the researcher to mapping out the research work in relevance to
make solid plans. More over research methodology guides the researcher to
involve and to be active in his or her particular field of enquiry. Most of the time,
the aim of the research and the research topic won’t be same at all time it varies
from its objectives and flow of the research, but by adopting a suitable
methodology this can be achieved.

Right from selecting the topic and carrying out the research, the research
methodology drives the researcher in the right track. The entire research plan is
based on the concept of right research methodology. More over through the
research methodology the external environment constitutes the research by
giving an in-depth idea on setting the right research objective, followed by
literature point of view, based on that chosen analysis through interviews or
questionnaires findings will be obtained and finally concluded message by this
research.

The research methodology constitutes the internal environment by

understanding and identifying the right type of research, strategy, philosophy,
time horizon, approaches, followed by right procedures and techniques based on
his or her research work. Additionally, the research methodology acts as the
nerve center because the entire research is bounded by it and to perform a good
research work, the internal and external environment has to follow the right
research methodology process.

The system of collecting data for research projects is known as research

methodology. The data may be collected for either theoretical or practical research
for example management research may be strategically conceptualized along with
operational planning methods and change management. Some important factors
in research methodology include validity of research data, ethics and the
reliability of most of your work is finished by the time you finish the analysis of
your data. This is followed by research design, which may be either experimental
or quasi-experimental. The last two stages are data analysis and finally writing the
research paper, which is organized carefully into graphs and tables so that only
important relevant data is shown.

Importance of Research Methodology in Research

It is necessary for a researcher to design a research methodology for the problem

chosen. One should note that even if the research method considered for two
problems are same the research methodology may be different. It is important for
the researcher to know not only the research methods necessary for the research
under taken but also the methodology. For example, a researcher not only needs
to know how to calculate mean, variance and distribution function for a set of
data, how to find a solution of a physical system described by mathematical
model, how to determine the roots of algebraic equations and how to apply a
particular method but also need to know (i) which is a suitable method for the
chosen problem?, (ii) what is the order of accuracy of the result of a method?, (iii)
what is the efficiency of the method? And so on. Considerations of these aspects
constitute a research methodology. More precisely, research methods help us get
a solution to a problem. On the other hand, research methodology is concerned
with the explanation of the following:

(1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?

(2) How did one formulate a research problem?
(3) What types of data were collected?
(4) What particular method has been used?
(5) Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used?

The study of research methods gives training to apply them to a problem. The
study of research methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing
research methods, materials, scientific tools and training in techniques relevant
for the problem chosen.

1. Types of Research Methodologies

Traditionally, research methodologies are broadly classified into qualitative and
quantitative thereby creating a huge divide amongst researchers. The difference
between these two methods has been prominent in many research methods
publications (Howe, 1988; Neuman, 1997).

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodology

The above description of the types of research methodologies brings to light the
fact that there are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach
and the qualitative approach. The former involves the generation of data in
quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a
formal and rigid fashion. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or
what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research.

Qualitative Research - Key Characteristics

Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore,
a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the setting.

The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined
or taken for granted.

Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to
provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative
research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the
researcher about their lives.
Qualitative researchers attend to the experience as a whole, not as separate
variables. The aim of qualitative research is to understand experience as unified.

Qualitative methods are appropriate to the above statements. There is no one

general method.

For many qualitative researchers, the process entails appraisal about what was
studied.

Ely et al add the following from Sherman and Webb (1988) to their definition:
Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is `lived' or `felt' or
`undergone' ... Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understanding
experience as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or live it.

Qualitative Research - Strengths and Limitations

Strengths
• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider's
view of the field.
 This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as
subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic enquiries.
 Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible
relationships, causes, effects and dynamic processes.
• Because statistics are not used, but rather qualitative research uses a more
descriptive, narrative
 style, this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she
or he could turn to qualitative reports in order to examine forms of
knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new
insight.

• Qualitative research adds flesh and blood to social analysis.

Limitations
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism.
Because of the subjective
 nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to
apply conventional standards of reliability and validity.

• Contexts, situations, events, conditions and interactions cannot be replicated

to any extent nor
 can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with any
confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation is
 lengthy.
• Researcher's presence has a profound effect on the subjects of study.

• The viewpoints of both

researcher and
participants have to be
identified and elucidated
because
Researcher's presence has a
profound effect on the subjects
of study.
 Issues of anonymity and confidentiality present problems when selecting
findings.
The viewpoints of both researcher and participants have to be identified and
elucidated because
 The viewpoints of both researcher and participants have to be identified
and elucidated because of issues of bias.

• Issues of anonymity and

confidentiality present problems
when selecting findings.
Quantitative Research - Key Characteristics
Control: This is the most important element because it enables the scientist to
identify the causes of his or her observations. Experiments are conducted in an
attempt to answer certain questions.
They represent attempts to identify why something happens, what causes some
event, or under what conditions an event does occur. Control is necessary in
order to provide unambiguous answers to such questions. To answer questions
in education and social science we have to eliminate the simultaneous influence
of many variables to isolate the cause of an effect. Controlled inquiry is
absolutely essential to this because without it the cause of an effect could not be
isolated.

Operational Definition: This means that terms must be defined by the steps or
operations used to measure them. Such a procedure is necessary to eliminate
any confusion in meaning and communication. Consider the statement `Anxiety
causes students to score poorly in tests'. One might ask, `What is meant by
anxiety?' Stating that anxiety refers to being tense or some other such term only
adds to the confusion. However, stating that anxiety refers to a score over a
criterion level on an anxiety scale enables others to realise what you mean by
anxiety. Stating an operational definition forces one to identify the empirical
referents, or terms. In this manner, ambiguity is minimised. Again, introversion
may be defined as a score on a particular personality scale, hunger as so many
hours since last fed, and social class as defined by occupation.

Replication: To be replicable, the data obtained in an experiment must be

reliable; that is, the same result must be found if the study is repeated. If
observations are not repeatable, our descriptions and explanations are thought
to be unreliable.

Hypothesis Testing: The systematic creation of a hypothesis and subjecting it to

an empirical test.

Quantitative Research - Strengths and Limitations

Strengths

• Precision - through quantitative and reliable measurement

• Control - through sampling and design

recision - through quantitative

and reliable measurement
• Control - through sampling
and design
Precision - through quantitative and reliable measurement
Control - through sampling and design
Ability to produce causality statements, through the use of controlled
experiments
Statistical techniques allow for sophisticated analyses
Replicable

Limitations

• Because of the complexity of human experience it is difficult to rule out or

control all the
 Because of the complexity of human experience it is difficult to rule out or
control all the variables;
• Because of human agency people do not all respond in the same ways as
inert matter in the
 Its mechanistic ethos tends to exclude notions of freedom, choice and
moral responsibility;
 Quantification can become an end in itself.
 It fails to take account of people's unique ability to interpret their
experiences, construct their own meanings and act on these.
 It leads to the assumption that facts are true and the same for all people
all of the time.
Quantitative research often produces banal and trivial findings of little
consequence due to the
 it often produces banal and trivial findings of little consequence due to the
restriction on and the controlling of variables.
 It is not totally objective because the researcher is subjectively involved in
the very choice of a problem as worthy of investigation and in the
interpretation of the results.
 The type of research and the format of research findings are limitations as
well.

The most important component of any research is the research methodology and
the resulting research method that is systematically applied to conduct the
research, analyze and report the findings and draw a conclusion to answer the
research question thus solving the research problem.

To decide on the research methodology to use in a research, factors to consider

include:
Type of data going to be collected for the research

The format in which the research findings are going to be analyzed and reported

• Research Questions: What exactly are you trying to find out? Focus on the
`exactly' as this
Research Questions: What exactly are you trying to find out? Focus on the
`exactly' as this can lead you either into the quantitative or qualitative direction.

• Are we interested in making standardized and systematic comparisons or do

we really
Are we interested in making standardized and systematic comparisons or
do we really want to study this phenomenon or situation in detail?

• The Literature: How have other researchers dealt with this topic? To what
extent do you wish
The Literature: How have other researchers dealt with this topic? To what
extent do you wish to align your own research with standard approaches to the
topic?

• Practical Considerations: Issues of time, money, availability of samples

and data, familiarity
Practical Considerations: Issues of time, money, availability of samples and

data, familiarity with the subject under study, access to situations, gaining co-
operation.

• Knowledge payoff: Will we learn more about this topic using quantitative
or qualitative
Knowledge payoff: Will we learn more about this topic using quantitative or
qualitative approaches? Which approach will produce more useful knowledge?
Which will do more good?

• Style: Some people prefer one to the other. This may involve paradigm
and philosophical
Style: Some people prefer one to the other. This may involve paradigm and
philosophical issues or different images about what a good piece of research
looks like.

With this point about the what and the purpose of research methodology now
let’s proceed to the other issue, core process in a research process- data
collection method.
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and
honest collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is to capture
quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and allows the
building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been posed.
Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative,
qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of
research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments
(existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly explained instructions for
their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research.
You can have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the
required data you will be not be able to complete your project. Data collection is
a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard work, patience,
perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully. Data
collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed by the
selection of a sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a
certain instrument to collect the data from the selected sample.
Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal
in nature. Qualitative methods include focus groups, group discussions and
interviews. Qualitative approaches are good for further exploring the effects and
unintended consequences of a program. They are, however, expensive and time
consuming to implement. The qualitative methods most commonly used in
evaluation can be classified in three broad categories – In-depth interview, 
Observation methods &  Document review. Whereas, Quantitative data is
numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed.

On the other hand we can apply Mixed Methods: approach as design,

combining both qualitative and quantitative research data, techniques and
methods within a single research framework.
There are many ways of classifying data. A common classification is based upon
who collected the data.

4.4.1. Primary Data Collection

Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is primary data.
Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and
objective. Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings;
therefore its validity is greater than secondary data.
Advantages of Using Primary Data
 The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.
 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
 If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study

period.

Disadvantages of Using Primary Data

1. The investigator has to contend with all the annoyances of data collection-
 deciding why, what, how, when to collect;
 getting the data collected (personally or through others);
 getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;
 ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).
2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-
 all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required
in;
 there is no fake/ cooked up data;
 unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.
3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.

4.4.1.1. METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

In primary data collection, the researcher collects the data himself/herself

using qualitative and quantitative methods. The key point here is that the data
she/he collects is unique to him/her and the research and, until s/he
publishes, no one else has access to it. There are many methods of collecting
primary data.

The main methods include –

 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Focus Group Interviews
 Observation
 Survey
 Case-studies
 Diaries
 Activity Sampling Technique
 Memo Motion Study
 Process Analysis
 Link Analysis
 Time and Motion Study
 Experimental Method
 Statistical Method etc.

Here below is a brief about few of these methods for further understanding.

a. Questionnaire Method

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and

other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction:
The basic rules are -
 Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of
different subpopulations of the population of interest.
 Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give
different answers.
 Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers.
 Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
 Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
 Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
 Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all
educational levels.
 Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
 Avoid items that contain more than one question per item .
 Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an
answer.

Advantages of Questionnaires
 Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people
in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.
 Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited
affect to its validity and reliability.
 The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified
by either a researcher or through the use of a software package.
 Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of
research.
 When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other
research and may be used to measure change.
 Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories
and / or test existing hypotheses.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires:
 To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of
emotions, behavior, feelings etc.
 Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial
creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information
without explanation.
 There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
 There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
 The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the
situation.
 People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on
their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be
‘poor’ to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not
acknowledged.

b. Interviews Method

Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants in

a study. it has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face interviews
and face-to-face group interviewing. The asking and answering of questions can
be mediated by the telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers).
Interviews can also be –
A. Structured,
B. Semi-structure or
C. Unstructured.

Advantages of interviews
Possibly the greatest advantage of interviewing is the depth of detail from the
interviewee. Social cues, such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the
interviewee can give the interviewer a lot of extra information that can be added
to the verbal answer of the interviewee on a question.
In addition, interviewing has a unique advantage in its specific form.
Researchers can tailor the questions they ask to the respondent in
order to get rich, full stories and the information they need for their project.

Disadvantages of interviews
It is not a perfect method for all types of research. It does have its
disadvantages.
First, there can be complications with the planning of the interview. recruiting
people for interviews hard, planning where to meet them and when can be
difficult. Participants can cancel or change the meeting place at the last minute.

During the actual interview, missing some information may arise from the vast
multitasking that the interviewer must do.
After the interview, the process of coding begins and with this comes its own set
of disadvantages.
Second, coding can be extremely time consuming.
Third, the nature of qualitative research itself, doesn’t lend itself very well to
quantitative analysis.

c. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

A focus group discussion (FGD) is an in-depth field method that brings together
a small homogeneous group (usually six to twelve persons) to discuss topics on
a study agenda. The purpose of this discussion is to use the social dynamics of
the group, with the help of a moderator/facilitator, to stimulate participants to
reveal underlying opinions, attitudes, and reasons for their behavior. In short, a
well facilitated group can be helpful in finding out the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of human
behavior.
Advantages and Disadvantages of FGD
Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they -
 Are useful when exploring cultural values and health beliefs;
 Can be used to examine how and why people think in a particular way and
how is influences their beliefs and values;
 Can be used to explore complex issues;
 Can be used to develop hypothesis for further research;
 Do not require participants to be literate.
Disadvantages of focus groups include -
 Lack of privacy/anonymity;
 Having to carefully balance the group to ensure they are culturally and gender
appropriate (i.e. gender may be an issue);
 Potential for the risk of ‘group think’ (not allowing for other attitudes, beliefs
etc.);
 Potential for group to be dominated by one or two people;
 Group leader needs to be skilled at conducting focus groups, dealing with
conflict, drawing out passive participants and creating a relaxed, welcoming
environment;
 Are time consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time consuming to
analyze.
d. Observational Method
It is a fundamental way of finding out about the world around us. There are a
variety of reasons for collecting observational data. Some of the observation
types with their possible advantages and disadvantages is summarized in the
following chart.
 d. Survey Method
Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings. It can
be specific and limited, or it can have more global, widespread goals.

4.4.2. Secondary Data collection

Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is
called as secondary data.

Advantages of Using Secondary Data

 No hassles of data collection.
 It is less expensive.
 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t
do it’).

Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data

 The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the
reliability and accuracy of data go down.
 Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due
variable environmental factor.
 With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using
secondary data a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.

Keeping in view the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data

requirement of the research study and time factor, both sources of data i.e.
primary and secondary data have been selected. These are used in combination
to give proper coverage to the topic.

METHODS OF SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION

Secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands –

 Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics
and other related databases.
 Qualitative: Semi-structured and structured interviews, focus groups
transcripts, field notes, observation records and other personal, research-
related documents.

Sources of Secondary Data:

Secondary data is often readily available. After the expense of electronic media
and internet the availability of secondary data has become much easier.
Published Printed Sources:
The following are some ways of collecting secondary data –

Books: are most authentic one in secondary sources.

Journals/periodicals
Magazines/Newspapers
Published Electronic Sources
e-journals: e-journals are more commonly available than printed journals.
General Websites
Weblogs: They are actually diaries written by different people. These
diaries are as reliable to use as personal written diaries.
Unpublished Personal Records
Diaries
Letters
Government Records: are very important for marketing, management,
 humanities and social science research.
Census Data/population statistics: Health records; Educational institutes’
records etc.
Public Sector Records: NGOs’ survey data; Other private companies
records.
4.5. Sampling

4.5.1. The what of sampling

The sample is to be cautiously selected by strict random probability methods.

Quota sampling is not allowed in any part of the sampling process, nor is
exchange of non-responding, non-contactable or non-accessible sampling units,
be it households, individuals, or even whole apartment buildings. For instance if
the selected respondent in a household refuses to participate and another family
member volunteers to do the interview instead, this is reflected ’substitution’.
Random route techniques: beginning from a randomly selected division fieldwork
persons select, using a specific routing (algorithm), a number of sampling units
which are being communicated/visited by the interviewer.
Random route techniques can in principle estimated a strict random probability
design, but we do not encourage their use. The purpose for this is that it is
barely ever probable to calculate the particular presence probabilities of the
persons selected. Random route selection should only be used as a last resort.
Either if no sampling structure is offered at all, or if the structure is so
inconsistent that not knowing the exact insertion possibilities can be reflected a
reduced source of faults than the potential analysis fault or inaccuracy.
The task of choosing the sampling units, that is, doing the random walk, and
communicating target respondents should be done by different persons. For
instance, person A selects the addresses by a random walk, records the
addresses and transfers them to the survey agency. Person B will use the
resulting addresses from person A’s random walk to contact, select and do the
interview of persons living at the selected addresses.

4.5.2. Purposes of sampling

The main purpose for studying samples is that the entire group is so large
that studying it is not possible. Example-college students in CA. If we can study
the whole population, we do not need to go through the sampling procedures.
Much research is based on samples of people.
 4.5.3. Principles of sampling
Merely probability samples offers the essential outline to create interpretations
from the sample concerning the target population. Each participant of the target
population should have a larger than zero probability of being involved into the
sample. To accomplish this, the sampling structure(s) should at last contain all
participants of the target population. It is of great prominence to use the finest
likely administrative sources existing to build the most far-reaching sampling
structure for the target population.

4.5.4. Types of sampling

Sampling methods
Two main types of sampling:
 Probability sampling
 Non probability sampling

4.5.4.1. Probability sampling

It is commonly is reflected to be the most accurate type of sampling, but it is
largely inappropriate for qualitative research. Probability sampling is classified
as:
Simple random sampling:-applies accidental selection which is mostly expected
in all probability. It is easy to achieve but it is impractical particularly not
statistically effective when allocating with scale projects.
Systematic sampling:-the information here is systematically analysed which is
the best approach to solve any kind of problem that is mentioned on a particular
study.
Stratified sampling:-we practice it for even more accuracy, and to guarantee
suitable statistics of minor subdivisions, for instance, tribal minority groups in
the sample so that you will be capable of representing not only overall
population, but also key sub groups of population, especially small minority
group like age gender etc.
Cluster sampling:-you have to sample a population that is spread across a wide
geographic region. Applied generally along geographic boundaries or some
populations are already grouped into clusters like churches, schools etc.

4.5.4.1. Non probability sampling

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD
Non-probability sampling is mostly used in experimental or trial research and
does not signify the target population. Non-probability sampling uses personal
judgement and exploits suitable selection of parts from the population. Non-
probability sampling methods produce cost savings for personal interview
surveys; the resulting samples often look rather similar to probability sample
data (Fowler, 2002). There are several non-probability selection methods which
are used in practice. In qualitative research non probability research is used for
pick out the population to study because qualitative research is generally
concentrates on a lesser numeral but the choice of participant and research
location or place is crucial to the overall effectiveness of the research findings.
1. CONVENIENCE (HAPHAZARD) SAMPLING
The sample is collected of suitably available or reachable persons who will
contribute to the survey. Samples of volunteer subjects should be involved here.
It is used in numerous sciences which show slight attention about the
representativeness of their samplings (Kish, 1995).
2. PURPOSIVE (JUDGEMENT) SAMPLING
In purposive sampling, the participants are carefully chosen by the researcher
personally. The choice is grounded on the judgement of the researcher.
Respondents are not selected accidentally but by means of the judgement of
interviewers. So, there is mysterious probability of insertion for any carefully
chosen sample part.
3. EXPERT CHOICE
Expert choice is a method of purposive or judgment sampling which is
used by specialists to pick “typical” or “representative” specimens, units,
or portions. Experts often hold differing views on the best way to choose
representative specimens or to decide which the most representative units
are. Occasionally the researcher enquires that, instead of a real
population, a hypothetical world be hypothesised as the parent of the
sample (Kish, 1995).
4. SNOWBALL SAMPLING
An extra dedicated type of purposive sample is a snowball sample, in which
respondents are questioned to suggest additional respondents. Snowball
samples are nonprobability samples, since it is unbearable to identify the
probability with which any person in the larger population the sample (Weisberg,
2005). When unfinished list of a distinctive population is accessible,
enumerators calculate these parts. Later, the enumerator asks about the likely
close address which has the similar or identical trait as the respondent. Then
this address is also visited and counted as a sample division. Gathering of the
supplementary addresses to the current obtainable list which bear a
resemblance to the expansion of a snowball, which is gently sloping downhill.
5. QUOTA SAMPLING
Quota sampling is an arrangement of purposive sampling, where the
enumerators are inculcated to acquire specific shares or proportions from which
to construct a sample roughly relative to the population on a few demographic
variables (Kalton, 1983; Kish, 1995). Quota sampling is a method of stratified
sampling in which the choice within strata is non-random. The sample selection
method engages with controls (independent or interrelated) and fixed quotas as
options. The mathematicians have complained the method for its theoretical
weakness, while market and attitude researchers have fortified it for its
cheapness and administrative suitability ( Moser and Kalton, 1979).
6. MOBILE POPULATION SAMPLING
Movable population sampling is one of the actual precise areas, which special
non-probability sampling techniques are extensively used. One of the main
reasons for this is, it is not probable to get a list of the mobile target population,
for probability sampling. Second significant purpose is the mobility of the
population elements, which creates challenging to access as a sample unit. The
use of list sampling is not a probability, while the use of identified space
sampling is also hard for some types of mobile units (e.g., birds, fishes, etc.) due
to unrecognized boundary concept of the defined population areas. The mobile
population sampling can be studied for a number of diverse types of populations.
Basically, we can condense these as mobile animal populations and mobile
human population.
7. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING FROM INTERNET USERS
Couper (2000) distinguishes three types of non-probability Web surveys that
are principally accessibility samples: Web surveys as entertainment, self-
selected Web surveys, and volunteer panels of internet users. In addition,
Ayhan (2005) had projected a sample weighting adjustment methodology for
the non-probability sample which is carefully chosen from voluntary
participation Web surveys. The upcoming of Web surveys are heading towards
voluntary sections of Internet surveys, which needs simplifications from the
selected non-probability samples.

The use of non-probability sampling methods in practice has also been studied
by Weisberg (2005), and the subsequent points have been highlighted. Firstly,
the common numerical guidance is to avoid non-probability samples. Secondly,
several surveys either explicitly (clearly) use non-probability sampling or do so
implicitly (covertly). Thirdly, the balancing of survey faults and survey costs can
at times substantiate non-probability sampling, irrespective of the common
textbook restrictions contrary to it.
Sample Size
For determining the required net and gross sample sizes (n net and ngross,
respectively), design effects have to be considered to ensure the comparability of
estimates. The design effect is a measure for the relative efficiency of an
estimator under a studied sampling design. It can tell you how your estimator in
combination with your sampling design compares, in terms of accuracy, to same
type of estimator under a simple random sample. Its formal definition is the ratio
of the variance of an estimator under the studied sample design to the variance
of the same estimator computed under the assumption of simple random
sampling. The problem is that design effects do not only vary from survey to
survey because of different designs but also within one survey from item to item.
In general, for a well-designed study, the design effect usually ranges from 1 to 3
(see Shackman, 2001). The driving factor of the design effect is the selection of
clusters, instead of directly sampling individual units. For instance, at first
municipalities are selected as PSUs, then persons are selected from within the
sampled municipalities. The selection of municipalities represents a clustering of
the selected persons. Persons within the same municipalities are assumed to be
more similar, regarding the surveyed characteristics, as persons across
municipalities. A measure for this homogeneity of survey data within clusters is
the so-called intraclass-correlation coefficient(ρ
It should be noted that homogeneity within clusters might not only be caused by
the similarity of the elements in the population clusters but also by interviewer
effects, for example one interviewer conducts all in one cluster.
Another important source which has an effect on the design effect is any
departure from equal probability sampling designs, were every person has the
same probability of being included into the sample. Samples selected under such
designs require weighting of observations to account for different inclusion
probability.

Sampling design
The technical details of sampling design are described here. Each sampling
design is structured into one or more sampling domains. Sampling domains are
areas or subgroups of the target population to which different sampling designs
are applied. For instance for metropolitan areas, with their high population
density, cluster sampling is not necessary, because distances between sampled
persons are small. Therefore, two sampling domains are used: One for the urban
centres of the country and the other for the rural areas, i.e. the rest of the
population. Within each sampling domain all sampling stages are described by
defining the sampling unit (e.g. addresses or municipalities), the sampling frame
of the units (address register or list of municipalities), the number of sampling
units selected at that stage, the stratification of sampling frame [if applicable],
the allocation of the sample size to the strata [if applicable] at that stage, and
final the sampling method used to select the units [within the strata] (e.g. simple
random sampling without replacement). If the sampling domain has more than
one sampling stage, then for every sampling stage after the first stage it must
also be clear how the sample size of that stage is allocated to the selected
sampling units of the previous stage.
Note that:-The Sampling Design Data File (SDDF) is a dataset containing
information on the sampling design itself. The file consists of the units of the
gross sample, including those of a possible reserve sample.

Conclusion
To summarize it, each and every sampling techniques are useful in their own
ways. The researcher can use either the probability sampling to work the
accurate qualitative research or he/she might use the nonprobability to focus on
experimental or trial research.