Chapter 4Data Models for GIS

In order to visualize natural phenomena, one must first determine how to best represent
geographic space. Data models are a set of rules and/or constructs used to describe and
represent aspects of the real world in a computer. Two primary data models are
available to complete this task: raster data models and vector data models.

4.1 Raster Data Models

LEA RN IN G OBJ ECTIV E

1. The objective of this section is to understand how raster data models are
implemented in GIS applications.

The raster data model is widely used in applications ranging far beyond geographic
information systems (GISs). Most likely, you are already very familiar with this data
model if you have any experience with digital photographs. The ubiquitous JPEG, BMP,
and TIFF file formats (among others) are based on the raster data model (see Chapter 5
"Geospatial Data Management", Section 5.3 "File Formats"). Take a moment to view
your favorite digital image. If you zoom deeply into the image, you will notice that it is
composed of an array of tiny square pixels (or picture elements). Each of these uniquely
colored pixels, when viewed as a whole, combines to form a coherent image (Figure 4.1
"Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing Pixilation of Raster Image").

Figure 4.1 Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing Pixilation of Raster Image

Furthermore, all liquid crystal display (LCD) computer monitors are based on raster
technology as they are composed of a set number of rows and columns of pixels.
Notably, the foundation of this technology predates computers and digital cameras by
nearly a century. The neoimpressionist artist, Georges Seurat, developed a painting
technique referred to as “pointillism” in the 1880s, which similarly relies on the
amassing of small, monochromatic “dots” of ink that combine to form a larger image
(Figure 4.2 "Pointillist Artwork"). If you are as generous as the author, you may indeed
think of your raster dataset creations as sublime works of art.

Figure 4.2 Pointillist Artwork

The raster data model consists of rows and columns of equally sized pixels
interconnected to form a planar surface. These pixels are used as building blocks for
creating points, lines, areas, networks, and surfaces (Chapter 2 "Map Anatomy", Figure
2.6 "Map Overlay Process" illustrates how a land parcel can be converted to a raster
representation). Although pixels may be triangles, hexagons, or even octagons, square
pixels represent the simplest geometric form with which to work. Accordingly, the vast
majority of available raster GIS data are built on the square pixel (Figure 4.3 "Common
Raster Graphics Used in GIS Applications: Aerial Photograph (left) and USGS DEM
(right)"). These squares are typically reformed into rectangles of various dimensions if
the data model is transformed from one projection to another (e.g., from State Plane
coordinates to UTM [Universal Transverse Mercator] coordinates).

Figure 4.3 Common Raster Graphics Used in GIS Applications: Aerial Photograph (left) and
USGS DEM (right)

Source: Data available from U.S. Geological Survey, Earth Resources Observation and Science

(EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, SD.

Because of the reliance on a uniform series of square pixels, the raster data model is
referred to as a grid-based system. Typically, a single data value will be assigned to each
grid locale. Each cell in a raster carries a single value, which represents the
characteristic of the spatial phenomenon at a location denoted by its row and column.
The data type for that cell value can be either integer or floating-point

(Chapter 5 "Geospatial Data Management", Section 5.1 "Geographic Data Acquisition").

Alternatively, the raster graphic can reference a database management system wherein
open-ended attribute tables can be used to associate multiple data values to each pixel.
The advance of computer technology has made this second methodology increasingly
feasible as large datasets are no longer constrained by computer storage issues as they
were previously.

The raster model will average all values within a given pixel to yield a single value.
Therefore, the more area covered per pixel, the less accurate the associated data values.
The area covered by each pixel determines the spatial resolution of the raster model
from which it is derived. Specifically, resolution is determined by measuring one side of
the square pixel. A raster model with pixels representing 10 m by 10 m (or 100 square
meters) in the real world would be said to have a spatial resolution of 10 m; a raster
model with pixels measuring 1 km by 1 km (1 square kilometer) in the real world would
be said to have a spatial resolution of 1 km; and so forth.

Care must be taken when determining the resolution of a raster because using an overly
coarse pixel resolution will cause a loss of information, whereas using overly fine pixel
resolution will result in significant increases in file size and computer processing
requirements during display and/or analysis. An effective pixel resolution will take both
the map scale and the minimum mapping unit of the other GIS data into consideration.
In the case of raster graphics with coarse spatial resolution, the data values associated
with specific locations are not necessarily explicit in the raster data model. For example,
if the location of telephone poles were mapped on a coarse raster graphic, it would be
clear that the entire cell would not be filled by the pole. Rather, the pole would be
assumed to be located somewhere within that cell (typically at the center).

Imagery employing the raster data model must exhibit several properties. First, each
pixel must hold at least one value, even if that data value is zero. Furthermore, if no data
are present for a given pixel, a data value placeholder must be assigned to this grid cell.
Often, an arbitrary, readily identifiable value (e.g., −9999) will be assigned to pixels for
which there is no data value. Second, a cell can hold any alphanumeric index that
represents an attribute. In the case of quantitative datasets, attribute assignation is
fairly straightforward. For example, if a raster image denotes elevation, the data values
for each pixel would be some indication of elevation, usually in feet or meters. In the
case of qualitative datasets, data values are indices that necessarily refer to some
predetermined translational rule. In the case of a land-use/land-cover raster graphic,
the following rule may be applied: 1 = grassland, 2 = agricultural, 3 = disturbed, and so
forth (Figure 4.4 "Land-Use/Land-Cover Raster Image"). The third property of the
raster data model is that points and lines “move” to the center of the cell. As one might
expect, if a 1 km resolution raster image contains a river or stream, the location of the
actual waterway within the “river” pixel will be unclear. Therefore, there is a general
assumption that all zero-dimensional (point) and one-dimensional (line) features will be
located toward the center of the cell. As a corollary, the minimum width for any line
feature must necessarily be one cell regardless of the actual width of the feature. If it is
not, the feature will not be represented in the image and will therefore be assumed to be
absent.

Figure 4.4 Land-Use/Land-Cover Raster Image

Source: Data available from U.S. Geological Survey, Earth Resources Observation and Science
(EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, SD.
Several methods exist for encoding raster data from scratch. Three of these
models are as follows:

1. Cell-by-cell raster encoding. This minimally intensive method encodes a raster

by creating records for each cell value by row and column (Figure 4.5 "Cell-by-Cell
Encoding of Raster Data"). This method could be thought of as a large spreadsheet
wherein each cell of the spreadsheet represents a pixel in the raster image. This
method is also referred to as “exhaustive enumeration.”
2. Run-length raster encoding. This method encodes cell values in runs of similarly

valued pixels and can result in a highly compressed image file (Figure 4.6 "Run-
Length Encoding of Raster Data"). The run-length encoding method is useful in
situations where large groups of neighboring pixels have similar values (e.g., discrete
datasets such as land use/land cover or habitat suitability) and is less useful where
neighboring pixel values vary widely (e.g., continuous datasets such as elevation or
sea-surface temperatures).
3. Quad-tree raster encoding. This method divides a raster into a hierarchy of

quadrants that are subdivided based on similarly valued pixels (Figure 4.7 "Quad-
Tree Encoding of Raster Data"). The division of the raster stops when a quadrant is
made entirely from cells of the same value. A quadrant that cannot be subdivided is
called a “leaf node.”

Figure 4.5 Cell-by-Cell Encoding of Raster Data

Figure 4.6 Run-Length Encoding of Raster Data

Figure 4.7 Quad-Tree Encoding of Raster Data

Advantages/Disadvantages of the Raster Model

The use of a raster data model confers many advantages. First, the technology required
to create raster graphics is inexpensive and ubiquitous. Nearly everyone currently owns
some sort of raster image generator, namely a digital camera, and few cellular phones
are sold today that don’t include such functionality. Similarly, a plethora of satellites are
constantly beaming up-to-the-minute raster graphics to scientific facilities across the
globe (Chapter 5 "Geospatial Data Management", Section 5.3 "File Formats"). These
graphics are often posted online for private and/or public use, occasionally at no cost to
the user.

Additional advantages of raster graphics are the relative simplicity of the underlying
data structure. Each grid location represented in the raster image correlates to a single
value (or series of values if attributes tables are included). This simple data structure
may also help explain why it is relatively easy to perform overlay analyses on raster data
(for more on overlay analyses, see Chapter 7 "Geospatial Analysis I: Vector
Operations", Section 7.1 "Single Layer Analysis"). This simplicity also lends itself to easy
interpretation and maintenance of the graphics, relative to its vector counterpart.

Despite the advantages, there are also several disadvantages to using the raster data
model. The first disadvantage is that raster files are typically very large. Particularly in
the case of raster images built from the cell-by-cell encoding methodology, the sheer
number of values stored for a given dataset result in potentially enormous files. Any
raster file that covers a large area and has somewhat finely resolved pixels will quickly
reach hundreds of megabytes in size or more. These large files are only getting larger as
the quantity and quality of raster datasets continues to keep pace with quantity and
quality of computer resources and raster data collectors (e.g., digital cameras, satellites).
A second disadvantage of the raster model is that the output images are less “pretty”
than their vector counterparts. This is particularly noticeable when the raster images are
enlarged or zoomed (refer to Figure 4.1 "Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing
Pixilation of Raster Image"). Depending on how far one zooms into a raster image, the
details and coherence of that image will quickly be lost amid a pixilated sea of seemingly
randomly colored grid cells.

The geometric transformations that arise during map reprojection efforts can cause
problems for raster graphics and represent a third disadvantage to using the raster data
model. As described in Chapter 2 "Map Anatomy", Section 2.2 "Map Scale, Coordinate
Systems, and Map Projections", changing map projections will alter the size and shape
of the original input layer and frequently result in the loss or addition of pixels (White
2006).White, D. 2006. “Display of Pixel Loss and Replication in Reprojecting Raster
Data from the Sinusoidal Projection.” Geocarto International 21 (2): 19–22. These
alterations will result in the perfect square pixels of the input layer taking on some
alternate rhomboidal dimensions. However, the problem is larger than a simple
reformation of the square pixel. Indeed, the reprojection of a raster image dataset from
one projection to another brings change to pixel values that may, in turn, significantly
alter the output information (Seong 2003).Seong, J. C. 2003. “Modeling the Accuracy of
Image Data Reprojection.” International Journal of Remote Sensing 24 (11): 2309–21.

The final disadvantage of using the raster data model is that it is not suitable for some
types of spatial analyses. For example, difficulties arise when attempting to overlay and
analyze multiple raster graphics produced at differing scales and pixel resolutions.
Combining information from a raster image with 10 m spatial resolution with a raster
image with 1 km spatial resolution will most likely produce nonsensical output
information as the scales of analysis are far too disparate to result in meaningful and/or
interpretable conclusions. In addition, some network and spatial analyses (i.e.,
determining directionality or geocoding) can be problematic to perform on raster data.
KEY TA KEA WA YS

 Raster data are derived from a grid-based system of contiguous cells containing
specific attribute information.
 The spatial resolution of a raster dataset represents a measure of the accuracy or
detail of the displayed information.
 The raster data model is widely used by non-GIS technologies such as digital
cameras/pictures and LCD monitors.
 Care should be taken to determine whether the raster or vector data model is best
suited for your data and/or analytical needs.

EX ERCISES

1. Examine a digital photo you have taken recently. Can you estimate its spatial
resolution?
2. If you were to create a raster data file showing the major land-use types in your
county, which encoding method would you use? What method would you use if you
were to encode a map of the major waterways in your county? Why?

4.2 Vector Data Models

LEA RN IN G OBJ ECTIV E

1. The objective of this section is to understand how vector data models are
implemented in GIS applications.

In contrast to the raster data model is the vector data model. In this model, space is not
quantized into discrete grid cells like the raster model. Vector data models use points
and their associated X, Y coordinate pairs to represent the vertices of spatial features,
much as if they were being drawn on a map by hand (Aronoff 1989).Aronoff, S.
1989. Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective. Ottawa, Canada:
WDL Publications. The data attributes of these features are then stored in a separate
database management system. The spatial information and the attribute information for
these models are linked via a simple identification number that is given to each feature
in a map.

Three fundamental vector types exist in geographic information systems (GISs): points,
lines, and polygons (Figure 4.8 "Points, Lines, and Polygons"). Points are zero-
dimensional objects that contain only a single coordinate pair. Points are typically used
to model singular, discrete features such as buildings, wells, power poles, sample
locations, and so forth. Points have only the property of location. Other types of point
features include the node and the vertex. Specifically, a point is a stand-alone feature,
while a node is a topological junction representing a common X, Y coordinate pair
between intersecting lines and/or polygons. Vertices are defined as each bend along a
line or polygon feature that is not the intersection of lines or polygons.

Figure 4.8 Points, Lines, and Polygons

Points can be spatially linked to form more complex features. Lines are one-dimensional

features composed of multiple, explicitly connected points. Lines are used to represent
linear features such as roads, streams, faults, boundaries, and so forth. Lines have the
property of length. Lines that directly connect two nodes are sometimes referred to as
chains, edges, segments, or arcs.

Polygons are two-dimensional features created by multiple lines that loop back to create
a “closed” feature. In the case of polygons, the first coordinate pair (point) on the first
line segment is the same as the last coordinate pair on the last line segment. Polygons
are used to represent features such as city boundaries, geologic formations, lakes, soil
associations, vegetation communities, and so forth. Polygons have the properties of area
and perimeter. Polygons are also called areas.
Vector Data Models Structures

Vector data models can be structured many different ways. We will examine two of the
more common data structures here. The simplest vector data structure is called
the spaghetti data model (Dangermond 1982).Dangermond, J. 1982. “A Classification of
Software Components Commonly Used in Geographic Information Systems.”
In Proceedings of the U.S.-Australia Workshop on the Design and Implementation of
Computer-Based Geographic Information Systems, 70–91. Honolulu, HI. In the
spaghetti model, each point, line, and/or polygon feature is represented as a string of X,
Y coordinate pairs (or as a single X, Y coordinate pair in the case of a vector image with a
single point) with no inherent structure (Figure 4.9 "Spaghetti Data Model"). One could
envision each line in this model to be a single strand of spaghetti that is formed into
complex shapes by the addition of more and more strands of spaghetti. It is notable that
in this model, any polygons that lie adjacent to each other must be made up of their own
lines, or stands of spaghetti. In other words, each polygon must be uniquely defined by
its own set of X, Y coordinate pairs, even if the adjacent polygons share the exact same
boundary information. This creates some redundancies within the data model and
therefore reduces efficiency.

Figure 4.9 Spaghetti Data Model

Despite the location designations associated with each line, or strand of spaghetti,
spatial relationships are not explicitly encoded within the spaghetti model; rather, they
are implied by their location. This results in a lack of topological information, which is
problematic if the user attempts to make measurements or analysis. The computational
requirements, therefore, are very steep if any advanced analytical techniques are
employed on vector files structured thusly. Nevertheless, the simple structure of the
spaghetti data model allows for efficient reproduction of maps and graphics as this
topological information is unnecessary for plotting and printing.

In contrast to the spaghetti data model, the topological data model is characterized by

the inclusion of topological information within the dataset, as the name
implies. Topology is a set of rules that model the relationships between neighboring
points, lines, and polygons and determines how they share geometry. For example,
consider two adjacent polygons. In the spaghetti model, the shared boundary of two
neighboring polygons is defined as two separate, identical lines. The inclusion of
topology into the data model allows for a single line to represent this shared boundary
with an explicit reference to denote which side of the line belongs with which polygon.
Topology is also concerned with preserving spatial properties when the forms are bent,
stretched, or placed under similar geometric transformations, which allows for more
efficient projection and reprojection of map files.

Three basic topological precepts that are necessary to understand the topological data
model are outlined here. First, connectivity describes the arc-node topology for the
feature dataset. As discussed previously, nodes are more than simple points. In the
topological data model, nodes are the intersection points where two or more arcs meet.
In the case of arc-node topology, arcs have both a from-node (i.e., starting node)
indicating where the arc begins and a to-node (i.e., ending node) indicating where the
arc ends (Figure 4.10 "Arc-Node Topology"). In addition, between each node pair is a
line segment, sometimes called a link, which has its own identification number and
references both its from-node and to-node. In Figure 4.10 "Arc-Node Topology", arcs 1,
2, and 3 all intersect because they share node 11. Therefore, the computer can determine
that it is possible to move along arc 1 and turn onto arc 3, while it is not possible to move
from arc 1 to arc 5, as they do not share a common node.

Figure 4.10 Arc-Node Topology

The second basic topological precept is area definition. Area definition states that an arc
that connects to surround an area defines a polygon, also called polygon-arc topology. In
the case of polygon-arc topology, arcs are used to construct polygons, and each arc is
stored only once (Figure 4.11 "Polygon-Arc Topology"). This results in a reduction in the
amount of data stored and ensures that adjacent polygon boundaries do not overlap. In
the Figure 4.11 "Polygon-Arc Topology", the polygon-arc topology makes it clear that
polygon F is made up of arcs 8, 9, and 10.

Figure 4.11 Polygon-Arc Topology

Contiguity, the third topological precept, is based on the concept that polygons that
share a boundary are deemed adjacent. Specifically, polygon topology requires that all
arcs in a polygon have a direction (a from-node and a to-node), which allows adjacency
information to be determined (Figure 4.12 "Polygon Topology"). Polygons that share an
arc are deemed adjacent, or contiguous, and therefore the “left” and “right” side of each
arc can be defined. This left and right polygon information is stored explicitly within the
attribute information of the topological data model. The “universe polygon” is an
essential component of polygon topology that represents the external area located
outside of the study area. Figure 4.12 "Polygon Topology" shows that arc 6 is bound on
the left by polygon B and to the right by polygon C. Polygon A, the universe polygon, is
to the left of arcs 1, 2, and 3.

Figure 4.12 Polygon Topology

Topology allows the computer to rapidly determine and analyze the spatial relationships
of all its included features. In addition, topological information is important because it
allows for efficient error detection within a vector dataset. In the case of polygon
features, open or unclosed polygons, which occur when an arc does not completely loop
back upon itself, and unlabeled polygons, which occur when an area does not contain
any attribute information, violate polygon-arc topology rules. Another topological error
found with polygon features is the sliver. Slivers occur when the shared boundary of two
polygons do not meet exactly (Figure 4.13 "Common Topological Errors").

In the case of line features, topological errors occur when two lines do not meet perfectly
at a node. This error is called an “undershoot” when the lines do not extend far enough
to meet each other and an “overshoot” when the line extends beyond the feature it
should connect to (Figure 4.13 "Common Topological Errors"). The result of overshoots
and undershoots is a “dangling node” at the end of the line. Dangling nodes aren’t
always an error, however, as they occur in the case of dead-end streets on a road map.

Figure 4.13 Common Topological Errors

Many types of spatial analysis require the degree of organization offered by topologically
explicit data models. In particular, network analysis (e.g., finding the best route from
one location to another) and measurement (e.g., finding the length of a river segment)
relies heavily on the concept of to- and from-nodes and uses this information, along
with attribute information, to calculate distances, shortest routes, quickest routes, and
so forth. Topology also allows for sophisticated neighborhood analysis such as
determining adjacency, clustering, nearest neighbors, and so forth.

Now that the basics of the concepts of topology have been outlined, we can begin to
better understand the topological data model. In this model, the node acts as more than
just a simple point along a line or polygon. The node represents the point of intersection
for two or more arcs. Arcs may or may not be looped into polygons. Regardless, all
nodes, arcs, and polygons are individually numbered. This numbering allows for quick
and easy reference within the data model.

Advantages/Disadvantages of the Vector Model

In comparison with the raster data model, vector data models tend to be better
representations of reality due to the accuracy and precision of points, lines, and
polygons over the regularly spaced grid cells of the raster model. This results in vector
data tending to be more aesthetically pleasing than raster data.

Vector data also provides an increased ability to alter the scale of observation and
analysis. As each coordinate pair associated with a point, line, and polygon represents
an infinitesimally exact location (albeit limited by the number of significant digits
and/or data acquisition methodologies), zooming deep into a vector image does not
change the view of a vector graphic in the way that it does a raster graphic (see Figure
4.1 "Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing Pixilation of Raster Image").

Vector data tend to be more compact in data structure, so file sizes are typically much
smaller than their raster counterparts. Although the ability of modern computers has
minimized the importance of maintaining small file sizes, vector data often require a
fraction the computer storage space when compared to raster data.

The final advantage of vector data is that topology is inherent in the vector model. This
topological information results in simplified spatial analysis (e.g., error detection,
network analysis, proximity analysis, and spatial transformation) when using a vector
model.

Alternatively, there are two primary disadvantages of the vector data model. First, the
data structure tends to be much more complex than the simple raster data model. As the
location of each vertex must be stored explicitly in the model, there are no shortcuts for
storing data like there are for raster models (e.g., the run-length and quad-tree encoding
methodologies).

Second, the implementation of spatial analysis can also be relatively complicated due to
minor differences in accuracy and precision between the input datasets. Similarly, the
algorithms for manipulating and analyzing vector data are complex and can lead to
intensive processing requirements, particularly when dealing with large datasets.

KEY TA KEA WA YS

 Vector data utilizes points, lines, and polygons to represent the spatial features in a
map.
 Topology is an informative geospatial property that describes the connectivity, area
definition, and contiguity of interrelated points, lines, and polygon.
 Vector data may or may not be topologically explicit, depending on the file’s data
structure.
 Care should be taken to determine whether the raster or vector data model is best
suited for your data and/or analytical needs.

EX ERCISES

1. What vector type (point, line, or polygon) best represents the following features:
state boundaries, telephone poles, buildings, cities, stream networks, mountain peaks,
soil types, flight tracks? Which of these features can be represented by multiple vector
types? What conditions might lead you choose one vector type over another?
2. Draw a point, line, and polygon feature on a simple Cartesian coordinate system.
From this drawing, create a spaghetti data model that approximates the shapes shown
therein.
3. Draw three adjacent polygons on a simple Cartesian coordinate system. From this
drawing, create a topological data model that incorporates arc-node, polygon-arc, and
polygon topology.
4.3 Satellite Imagery and Aerial Photography
LEA RN IN G OBJ ECTIV E

1. The objective of this section is to understand how satellite imagery and aerial
photography are implemented in GIS applications.

A wide variety of satellite imagery and aerial photography is available for use in
geographic information systems (GISs). Although these products are basically raster
graphics, they are substantively different in their usage within a GIS. Satellite imagery
and aerial photography provide important contextual information for a GIS and are
often used to conduct heads-up digitizing (Chapter 5 "Geospatial Data
Management", Section 5.1.4 "Secondary Data Capture") whereby features from the
image are converted into vector datasets.

Satellite Imagery

Remotely sensed satellite imagery is becoming increasingly common as satellites

equipped with technologically advanced sensors are continually being sent into space by
public agencies and private companies around the globe. Satellites are used for
applications such as military and civilian earth observation, communication, navigation,
weather, research, and more. Currently, more than 3,000 satellites have been sent to
space, with over 2,500 of them originating from Russia and the United States. These
satellites maintain different altitudes, inclinations, eccentricities, synchronies, and
orbital centers, allowing them to image a wide variety of surface features and processes
(Figure 4.14 "Satellites Orbiting the Earth").
Figure 4.14 Satellites Orbiting the Earth

Satellites can be active or passive. Active satellites make use of remote sensors that

detect reflected responses from objects that are irradiated from artificially generated
energy sources. For example, active sensors such as radars emit radio waves, laser
sensors emit light waves, and sonar sensors emit sound waves. In all cases, the sensor
emits the signal and then calculates the time it takes for the returned signal to “bounce”
back from some remote feature. Knowing the speed of the emitted signal, the time delay
from the original emission to the return can be used to calculate the distance to the
feature.

Passive satellites, alternatively, make use of sensors that detect the reflected or emitted
electromagnetic radiation from natural sources. This natural source is typically the
energy from the sun, but other sources can be imaged as well, such as magnetism and
geothermal activity. Using an example we’ve all experienced, taking a picture with a
flash-enabled camera would be active remote sensing, while using a camera without a
flash (i.e., relying on ambient light to illuminate the scene) would be passive remote
sensing.

The quality and quantity of satellite imagery is largely determined by their resolution.
There are four types of resolution that characterize any particular remote sensor
(Campbell 2002).Campbell, J. B. 2002. Introduction to Remote Sensing. New York:
Guilford Press. The spatial resolution of a satellite image, as described previously in the
raster data model section (Section 4.1 "Raster Data Models"), is a direct representation
of the ground coverage for each pixel shown in the image. If a satellite produces imagery
with a 10 m resolution, the corresponding ground coverage for each of those pixels is 10
m by 10 m, or 100 square meters on the ground. Spatial resolution is determined by the
sensors’ instantaneous field of view (IFOV). The IFOV is essentially the ground area
through which the sensor is receiving the electromagnetic radiation signal and is
determined by height and angle of the imaging platform.

Spectral resolution denotes the ability of the sensor to resolve wavelength intervals, also
called bands, within the electromagnetic spectrum. The spectral resolution is
determined by the interval size of the wavelengths and the number of intervals being
scanned. Multispectral and hyperspectral sensors are those sensors that can resolve a
multitude of wavelengths intervals within the spectrum. For example, the IKONOS
satellite resolves images for bands at the blue (445–516 nm), green (506–95 nm), red
(632–98 nm), and near-infrared (757–853 nm) wavelength intervals on its 4-meter
multispectral sensor.

Temporal resolution is the amount of time between each image collection period and is
determined by the repeat cycle of the satellite’s orbit. Temporal resolution can be
thought of as true-nadir or off-nadir. Areas considered true-nadir are those located
directly beneath the sensor while off-nadir areas are those that are imaged obliquely. In
the case of the IKONOS satellite, the temporal resolution is 3 to 5 days for off-nadir
imaging and 144 days for true-nadir imaging.

The fourth and final type of resolution, radiometric resolution, refers to the sensitivity of
the sensor to variations in brightness and specifically denotes the number of grayscale
levels that can be imaged by the sensor. Typically, the available radiometric values for a
sensor are 8-bit (yielding values that range from 0–255 as 256 unique values or as
28 values); 11-bit (0–2,047); 12-bit (0–4,095); or 16-bit (0–63,535) (see Chapter 5
"Geospatial Data Management", Section 5.1.1 "Data Types" for more on bits). Landsat-7,
for example, maintains 8-bit resolution for its bands and can therefore record values for
each pixel that range from 0 to 255.

Because of the technical constraints associated with satellite remote sensing systems,
there is a trade-off between these different types of resolution. Improving one type of
resolution often necessitates a reduction in one of the other types of resolution. For
example, an increase in spatial resolution is typically associated with a decrease in
spectral resolution, and vice versa. Similarly, geostationary satellites (those that circle
the earth proximal to the equator once each day) yield high temporal resolution but low
spatial resolution, while sun-synchronous satellites (those that synchronize a near-polar
orbit of the sensor with the sun’s illumination) yield low temporal resolution while
providing high spatial resolution. Although technological advances can generally
improve the various resolutions of an image, care must always be taken to ensure that
the imagery you have chosen is adequate to the represent or model the geospatial
features that are most important to your study.

Aerial Photography

Aerial photography, like satellite imagery, represents a vast source of information for
use in any GIS. Platforms for the hardware used to take aerial photographs include
airplanes, helicopters, balloons, rockets, and so forth. While aerial photography
connotes images taken of the visible spectrum, sensors to measure bands within the
nonvisible spectrum (e.g., ultraviolet, infrared, near-infrared) can also be fixed to aerial
sources. Similarly, aerial photography can be active or passive and can be taken from
vertical or oblique angles. Care must be taken with aerial photographs as the sensors
used to take the images are similar to cameras in their use of lenses. These lenses add a
curvature to the images, which becomes more pronounced as one moves away from the
center of the photo (Figure 4.15 "Curvature Error Due to Lenticular Properties of
Camera").

Figure 4.15 Curvature Error Due to Lenticular Properties of Camera

Another source of potential error in an aerial photograph is relief displacement. This

error arises from the three-dimensional aspect of terrain features and is seen as
apparent leaning away of vertical objects from the center point of an aerial photograph.
To imagine this type of error, consider that a smokestack would look like a doughnut if
the viewing camera was directly above the feature. However, if this same smokestack
was observed near the edge of the camera’s view, one could observe the sides of the
smokestack. This error is frequently seen with trees and multistory buildings and
worsens with increasingly taller features.

Orthophotos are vertical photographs that have been geometrically “corrected” to

remove the curvature and terrain-induced error from images (Figure 4.16
"Orthophoto"). The most common orthophoto product is the digital ortho quarter
quadrangle (DOQQ). DOQQs are available through the US Geological Survey (USGS),
who began producing these images from their library of 1:40,000-scale National Aerial
Photography Program photos. These images can be obtained in either grayscale or color
with 1-meter spatial resolution and 8-bit radiometric resolution. As the name suggests,
these images cover a quarter of a USGS 7.5 minute quadrangle, which equals an
approximately 25 square mile area. Included with these photos is an additional 50 to
300-meter edge around the photo that allows users to mosaic many DOQQs into a
single, continuous image. These DOQQs are ideal for use in a GIS as background display
information, for data editing, and for heads-up digitizing.

Figure 4.16 Orthophoto

Source: Data available from U.S. Geological Survey, Earth Resources Observation and Science
(EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, SD.