Name: ___________________________________________________________

SUBJECT AREA STATISTICS

MODULE NUMBER 1

TOPIC Introduction to Statistics

OBJECTIVES The learner is expected to:
 Enumerate some facts relating to the
development or history of statistics;
 Identify basic concepts, meaning, nature and
importance of statistics;
 Distinguish types of data;
 Decide when and how to use the sampling
technique;
 Explain how data are collected.

Directions: Choose the correct answer by underlining the letter of your choice on the
module.

1. A study that refers to the methods in collection, presentation, analysis and

interpretation of data.
a. Algebra b. Geometry c. Probability d. Statistics

2. The measurement that are collected from the original information are called:
a. Analysis of Data c. Presentation of Data
b. Interpretation of Data d. Raw Data

3. It refers to the large set of data.

a. Descriptive b. Inferential c. Population d. Sample

4. Which of the following is an example of inferential statistics?

a. Average return of investment.
b. Class average of examination.
c. Range of students’ scores.
d. Significant relationship between job satisfaction and performance of
employees.

5. The process of assigning the value or label of a particular experiment unit is;
a. Measurement b. Parameter c. Population d. Variable

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6. It is a characteristic or attribute of persons or objects, which assumes different
values (numerical) or labels (quantitative).
a. measurement b. Parameter c. Population d. Variables

7. It is a method of selecting a sample size (n) from a universe (N) such that each
member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
a. Analysis of Data c. Level of Measurement
b. Data Gathering d. Random Sampling

8. The following are the advantages of questionnaire method in data collection

EXCEPT:
a. It is less expensive.
b. It is less time-consuming.
c. It has a high proportion of nonresponse or nonreturn.
d. It can give confidential response.

9. It is a subset or a representative group of a population.

a. Data b. measurement c. Sample d.
Variable

10. A type of statistics that summarizes data about the population or the group.
a. Descriptive b. Inferential c. measurement d.
Variable

Question: Why do we have to be statistic-friendly?

Answer:

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Brief History of Statistics

Statistics started with the beginning of man’s existence. As early as 3000

B.C., the population was recorded in Babylonia and in China. Two thousand years
ago, each male in the Roman Empire had to return to the city of his birth to be
counted as Joseph and Mary went to Bethlehem for such purpose.

The man noted to be the first to introduce the word “STATISTIKS” was
Achenwall (1719-1772). Zimmerman and Sinclair introduced and popularized the
name “STATISTICS” in their book.
In 18th century, statistics was used in the study entitled “Political
Arrangement of the Modern States of the Known World”. The description of the work
was at first verbal. Gradually, an increasing proportion of numerical data was used in
the description of the work.

Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911),become deeply interested in the problem of

heredity to which he had also applied statistical an English scientist, developed the
use of percentiles and correlation method and was an early proponent of statistical
analysis as applied to mental and behavioral phenomena. As a cousin of Charles
Darwin (1809-1882), Galton became deeply interested in the problem of heredity to
which he had also applied statistical tools. Karl Pearson (1857-1936), a British
applied mathematician and philosopher of science, was one of the major developers
of the science of statistics. He originated the basic statistical concepts and
procedures as standard deviation, the random walk and the chi-square test. Both
Galton and Pearson contributed greatly to the development of the correlation theory
and made many statistical discoveries.

Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher (1890 – 1962), a British statistician, was the most
prominent figure in the field in the 20 th century. Fisher made many contributions from
1912 to 1962 and has a great impact on contemporary statistical procedure. One of
these is the Fisher test (F-test) used in the analysis of variance (ANOVA) in
inferential statistics. He started investigations on experimental design, randomization
and mathematical statistics.

Today, students, housewives, policy-makers, businessmen and workers in

other fields of human behavior are expected to have at least a basic knowledge of
Statistics. Statistics literacy has become a necessity in today’s modern world.

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The History of Statistics in the Philippines

During the Spanish period, several estimates of the population in the

Philippines were made, the earlier dating back to about 1570 when Legaspi
conquered the islands.

During the American regime, data collection became more systematized. This
was marked by the creation of a statistical unit in the Bureau of Customs to collect,
tabulate and disseminate statistics on imports and exports. Although no statistical
units were formally created in other government offices during that time, informal
data were collected and compiled for administrative purposes.

On May 6, 1970, The Bureau of Census and Statistics undertook a census on

population and housing.

The Nature of Statistics

STATISTICS as a study refers to the methods in collection, presentation,

analysis and interpretation of data.

 Data gathering or collection may be done through interview,

questionnaires, tests, observation, registration and experiments.
 Presentation of data refers to the organization of data into tables,
graphs, charts or paragraphs. Hence, it may be tabular, graphical or
textual.
 Analysis of data pertains to the process of extracting from the given
data relevant and noteworthy information and this uses statistical tools
or techniques.
 Interpretation of data refers to the drawing of conclusions or inferences
from the analyzed data.

2 Categories of Statistics:

 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - is concerned with the gathering, classification

and presentation of data and the collection of summarizing values to describe
group characteristics of data. The most commonly used summarizing values
to describe group characteristics of data are percentage, measures of
central tendency and location; of variability; of skewness and kurtosis.

 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS – pertains to the methods dealing with making

inference, estimates or prediction about a large set of data using the
information gathered. It is not merely to provide a description of a particular
data set but also to make predictions and inferences based on the available
information gathered. In this category, the conclusions on the important
characteristics apply to a large set of data called population. On the other
hand, the subset or a representative group of the population is called the
sample. Commonly used inferential statistical tools or techniques are testing

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 hypothesis using z-test, t-test, simple linear correlation, analysis of
variance (ANOVA), chi-squares (x2) regression and time series analysis.

IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS

Some of the uses of statistics as a science are evident in empirical studies.

Among the contributions of statistics are:

 It aids in decision making.

 Summarizes or describes data.
 Helps to forecast or predict future outcomes.
 Aids in making inferences.
 Helps in comparisons and establishing relationships.

Answer the following questions.

1. Who are responsible for the development of statistics?

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2. Do you think we can find similar individuals who are statistics-oriented in

this new millennium? Support your answer.
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3. How are statistics classified? Give some examples of each classification.

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 4. Justify the usefulness and the advantages of statistics in each of the
following:

a. Business
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b. Education
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c. Economics
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d. Social Sciences
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TYPES OF DATA

 Raw Data are in their original form and structure.

 Grouped data are placed in tabular form characterized by class intervals with
the corresponding frequency.

 Primary data are measured and gathered by the researcher that published it.

 Secondary data are republished by another researcher or agency.

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VARIABLES AND MEASUREMENT:

 Variable – a characteristic or attribute of persons or objects, which assumes

different values (numerical) or labels (quantitative).

 Measurement – the process of assigning the value or label of a particular

experiment unit.

 Experimental unit – is the person or the subject by which the variable is

measured.

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES:

 Qualitative Variable yields categorical or qualitative responses. It refers to

the attributes on characteristics of the samples.

Example 1:
Civil Status (Single, Marred, Widow, etc.)
Religious Affiliation (Roman Catholic, Protestant, etc.)

 Quantitative Variables yield numerical responses representing an amount or

quantity.

Example 2:
height, weight, number of children

Discrete Quantitative Variables assume finite or countable

infinite values such as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …

Examples:
Number of children (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

Number of student-dropouts (2, 3, 4)

Continuous Quantitative Variables cannot take on finite

values but the values are related/associated with points on an
interval of the real line.

Examples:
Height (5’4”;157 cm; 1.5 m)

Weight (130.42 kg; 210 lbs; 432 grams)

Temperature (32.5 0C; 112 0F)

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LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

 Nominal Level – is the crudest form of measurement. The numbers or

symbols are used for the purpose of categorizing forms into groups. The
categories are mutually exclusive, that is, being in one category automatically
exclude another.

Example 3:

Sex: M – Male F – Female

Faculty Tenure: 1- Tenured 0 – Non-tenured

 Ordinal Level – is a sort of improvement of nominal level. Data are ranked

from “bottom to top” or “low to high” manner. Statements of the kind ”greater
than” or ”less than” may be made here.

Example 4:

Class Standing (Excellent, Good, Poor)

Teachers’ Evaluation 1 – Poor

2 – Fair
3 – Good
4 – Very Good

 Interval Level – possesses the properties of the nominal and ordinal levels.
The distance between any two numbers on the scale are known and it does
not have a stable starting point (an absolute value).

Example 5:

Consider the IQ scores of four students 90, 150, 85, and 145.
Here we can that the difference between 90 and 150 is the same as
the difference between 85 and 145 but we cannot claim that the
second student is twice as intelligent as the first.

 Ratio Level – possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal and interval
levels. In addition, this has an absolute zero point. Data can be classified and
be placed in order. We can compare the magnitudes of these data.

Example 6:

Age, income, exam scores, performance ratings, grades of students

and tuition fees

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 Table 1.1
Summary Characteristics of the Levels of Measurement

Levels of Classify Order Equal Absolute

Measurement Limits Zero
NOMINAL Yes No No No
ORDINAL Yes Yes No No
INTERVAL Yes Yes Yes No
RATIO Yes Yes Yes Yes

A. Classify the type of data whether nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio.

1. type of blood = _________________________

2. height of babies = ________________________

3. Breed of cattle = _________________________

4. Consumers’ expenditure = _______________________

5. Standard of living = ________________________

B. Identify whether the number obtained in the following is discrete or continuous.

1. Volume of a pail of water = _________________________

2. Passing rate of LET results = _______________________

3. Weight of grapes purchased = _______________________

4. Number of pigs sold = __________________________

5. Frequency of training programs attended = _______________________

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C. Question: How are data classified? Give 2 examples for each type or
classification.

Answer:
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SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Random Sampling – is the method of selecting a sample size (n) from a

universe (N0 such that each member of the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample and all possible combinations of
size (n) have an equal chance of being selected as the sample.

There are several ways of drawing sample units at random:

1. Lottery sampling - Assigning numbers to each member of the

population usually carries out the lottery sampling method.

2. Table of random numbers – another technique of random

sampling wherein the selection of each member of the population is left
adequately to chance. Every member of the population has an equal
chance of being chosen.

Systematic Sampling – this method involves selecting every n th element

of a series representing the population.

Types of Systematic Sampling

1. Stratified Sampling. This is a random sampling technique in

which the population is divided into non-overlapping subpopulation
called strata.

2. Cluster or Area Sampling. This involves dividing the

population into non-overlapping clusters.

3. Multi-Stage Sampling. This considers different stages or

phases.

To determine the appropriate sample size without resorting to

your subjective decision, you may use the Slovin’s Formula.

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 Example 7:
At a certain high school, the students may be classified according to
the following scheme:

Classification Population
Grade 10 119
Grade 9 210
Grade 8 325
Grade 7 346
TOTAL 1000

Identify the samples of each classification.

Solution:

Using the proportional allocation to select an appropriate sample of

size,

So, sample size for grade 10 is 34, grade 9 is 60, grade 8 is 93, grade 7 is 99 and

the total sample size is 286.

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 Example 8:
Suppose we select n = 12 students from a population o size N = 50. To
employ systematic sampling, divide N by n to get K, that is:

Choose every 5th unit. Thus, if the random start r = 9th unit, then the sample
comprises of student numbers 9, 14, 19, 24, 29, 34, 39, 44, 49 and 4.

Complete the table below by identifying the samples of the given population
using the Slovin’s Formula.

Classification Population Sample

Freshmen 568
Sophomore 503
Junior 498
Senior 621
TOTAL 2190

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DATA COLLECTION

Methods of Collecting Data

1. Direct or Interview Method. This is one of the most effective

methods o collecting original data. To obtain accurate responses, well-trained
interviewers may do the interview. The interviewers can be of great help to the
respondents in answering questions that the respondents could not
understand.

2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method. This is one of the easiest

methods of data gathering. It takes time to prepare because questionnaires
need to be attractive. It can include illustrations, pictures and sketches. Its
contents, especially the directions, must be precise, clear and self-
explanatory.

3. Registration Method. Through this method, the respondents

provide information in compliance with certain laws, policies, rules,
regulations, decrees or standard practices. Data which can be collected the
registration method are as follows: marriage contracts, birth certificates, motor
registrations, etc.

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 4. Other Methods.

4.1. Observation. This method is utilized to gather data

regarding attitudes, behavior, values and cultural patterns of the
samples under investigation.

4.2. Telephone Interview. This method is employed if the

questions to be asked are brief and few. An example is the check
made on listeners to a certain radio programs like asking what program
his radio is turned on to.
4.3. Experiments. This method is applied to collect or gather
data if the investigator wants to control the factors affecting the variable
being studied. An example is when the researcher aims to determine
the different factors affecting the academic performance of the students
such as methods or approaches

Answer the following:

1. How are data collected?

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2. What are some advantages and limitations of each method of collecting

data? Support your answers with examples.

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3. Can you utilize combination of the methods in gathering data? Justify your
answer.

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4. Identify the appropriate method to be utilized in gathering each of the

following.

4.1. attitude of students towards Statistics instruction

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4.2. population growth of a certain province

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4.3. new ways of rice production with greater yield

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Directions: Answer the following questions.

1. Classify the following variables according to whether they are nominal,

ordinal, interval or ratio data.

a. Brand of soft drinks = ___________________________

b. Birth order of children in a family = _____________________

c. Place in a beauty contest = ______________________

d. Scores in an aptitude test = ______________________

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 e. Weight of children = __________________________

2. What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

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3. Give an example of a study that makes use only of descriptive statistics.

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4. Give an example of a study that makes use only of descriptive statistics.

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5. Write specific example of data that can be gathered from each of the
following discipline;

a. Education

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b. Economics

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In five Statistics tests, a student received the following grades of 75, 77, 79,
88 and 90. What conclusion can be obtained from these figures? Explain your
answer.

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My learnings:

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