INDOCOR

OIL REFINERY
CORROSION DAMAGE
MECHANISMS (API 571)
Case study
Training & Certification
ITS, 24 Agustus 2017

Dr. Ir. Triwibowo M.Sc

 Table 5-3 – Key to Damage Mechanisms
DM# Damage Mechanism DM# Damage Mechanism
1 Sulfidation 33 885oF (475oC) Embrittlement
2 Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC) 34 Softening (Spheroidization)
3 Creep / Stress Rupture 35 Reheat Cracking
4 High temp H2/H2S Corrosion 36 Sulfuric Acid Corrosion
5 Polythionic Acid Cracking 37 Hydrofluoric Acid Corrosion
6 Naphthenic Acid Corrosion 38 Flue Gas Dew Point Corrosion
7 Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion 39 Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Cracking
8 Ammonium Chloride Corrosion 40 Hydrogen Stress Cracking in HF
9 HCl Corrosion 41 Dealloying (Dezincification/ Denickelification)
10 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack 42 CO2 Corrosion
11 Oxidation 43 Corrosion Fatigue
12 Thermal Fatigue 44 Fuel Ash Corrosion
13 Sour Water Corrosion (acidic) 45 Amine Corrosion
14 Refractory Degradation 46 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
15 Graphitization 47 Atmospheric Corrosion
16 Temper Embrittlement 48 Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking
17 Decarburization 49 Cooling Water Corrosion
18 Caustic Cracking 50 Boiler Water / Condensate Corrosion
19 Caustic Corrosion 51 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)
20 Erosion / Erosion-Corrosion 52 Liquid Metal Embrittlement
21 Carbonate SCC 53 Galvanic Corrosion
22 Amine Cracking 54 Mechanical Fatigue
23 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking 55 Nitriding
24 Carburization 56 Vibration-Induced Fatigue
25 Hydrogen Embrittlement 57 Titanium Hydriding
27 Thermal Shock 58 Soil Corrosion
28 Cavitation 59 Metal Dusting
29 Graphitic Corrosion (see Dealloying) 60 Strain Aging
30 Short term Overheating – Stress Rupture 61 Steam Blanketing
31 Brittle Fracture 62 Phosphoric Acid Corrosion
32 Sigma Phase/ Chi Embrittlement 63 Phenol (carbolic acid) Corrosion
33 885oF (475oC) Embrittlement
Figure 5-42 – Crude Unit / Vacuum
 4-4 API Recommended Practice 571 December 2003

Figure 4-1 – High magnification photomicrograph of metallographic sample

showing graphitenodules. Compare to normal microstructure shown in Figure 4-2.
Figure 4-2 – High magnification photomicrograph of metallographic
sample showing typical ferritepearlite structure of carbon steel.
Figure 4-3 – High magnification photomicrograph of metallographic sample
showing typical ferritepearlite structure of carbon steel.
Figure 4-4 – High magnification photomicrograph of metallographic sample
showing spheroidized carbides.
Figure 4-5 – Plot of CVN toughness as a function of temperature showing a shift
in the 40-ft-lb transition temperature.
Table 4-1 – Data for Property Trends of Toughness Vs. Temperature
Figure 4-6 – 20-inch carbon steel pipeline that failed during hydrotest at gouges on
the O.D.
Figure 4-7 – Close-up photograph showing the gouges and the fracture origin
(arrow) in one of the gouges.
Figure 4-8 – Classic example of brittle fracture that occurred
during hydrotest.
Table 4-2 – Threshold Temperatures for Creep

Material Threshold Temperature

Carbon Steel 700 ºF (370ºC)
C-1/2 Mo 750 ºF (400ºC)
1 1/4Cr-1/2Mo 800 ºF (425ºC)
2 1/4Cr-1Mo 800 ºF (425ºC)
5Cr-1/2Mo 800 ºF (425ºC)
9Cr-1Mo 800 ºF (425ºC)
304H SS 900 ºF (480ºC)
347H SS 1000 ºF (540ºC)
Figure 4-9 – Short term overheating of a fired heater tube.
Figure 4-10 – Creep rupture of an HK40 heater tube.
Figure 4-11 – Thermal fatigue cracks on the inside of a heavy wall SS pipe
downstream of a cooler H2 injection into a hot hydrocarbon line.
Figure 4-12 – Bulging in a skirt of a Coke Drum.
Figure 4-13 – Thermal fatigue cracking associated with bulged skirt
shown in Figure 4-12.
 Figure 4-14 – In a carbon steel sample, metallographic section through thermal
fatigue crack indicates origin (here at the toe of an attachment weld) and shape.
Mag. 50x, etched.
Figure 4-15 – Older cracks fill with oxide, may stop and restart (note jog part way
along the crack), and do not necessarily require a change in section thickness to
initiate the crack. Mag. 100x, etched.
Figure 4-16 – 1Cr-0.5Mo boiler superheater tube in 700 psig steam service
that failed due to overheating.
 Figure 4-17 – The fracture-edge microstructure displays severely elongated ferrite
grains, proof of the ductility of the rupture. The thickness at the edge here is about
0.01 in. for a reduction in the wall thickness of more than 95%. 50x, etched.
Figure 4-18 – Short-term high-temperature failures from DNB are wide-open
bursts with the failure lips drawn to a near knife edge. They are ductile
ruptures. Mag. 25x
Figure 4-19 – The creep cracks (black specks) are in the ferritic alloy (SA213 T-22
in this case) heat affected zones. Mag. 50x, etched.
 Figure 4-20 – When both liquid phase coal ash corrosion and a DMW exists,
stress assisted corrosion of the 2.25Cr-1Mo heat affected zone may occur. That
this is corrosion and not the normal DMW failure in progress is shown by the
lack of creep damage at the crack tip. Mag. 25x, etched.
Figure 4-21 – Dissimilar metal weld fracture follows the toe of the butt weld.
Mag. 1.8x
Figure 4-22 – The metallographic cross-section shows the crack follows the
weld metal. Mag. 4x
Table 4-3 – Typical erosion-corrosion rates in seawater, mpy. (Ref. 2)
4 fps
1 fps 27 fps
(Immersed in
Material
seawater
(tidal current) (rotating disk)
flume)
Carbon steel 6 13 47
Cast iron 9 - 54
Silicon bronze 0.2 0.3 57
Admiralty brass 0.3 3 29
Hydraulic bronze 1 0.2 55
G bronze 1 0.3 46
Al bronze 1 - 44
Aluminum brass 0.4 - 19
90-10 CuNi 1 - 16
70-30 CuNi (0.05%Fe) 0.3 - 32
70-30 CuNi (0.5% Fe) < 0.2 < 0.2 6
Monel < 0.2 < 0.2 1
316 SS 0.2 0 < 0.2
Hastelloy C < 0.2 - 0.05
Titanium 0 - 0
Figure 4-23 – Erosion of a 9Cr coker heater return bend.
Figure 4-24 – Cast iron impeller in untreated cooling water after four years
of service.
Figure 4-25 – Close-up of Figure 4-24 showing both erosion-corrosion at the
vane tips and pitting on the pressure side of the vanes.
 Figure 4-26a. – Cutaway of a CS butterfly valve with cavitation damage after two
years of service due to a high pressure drop across the valve in a hydrocarbon drain
line off a Cold Low Pressure Separator in an Atmospheric Resid Desulfurizing Unit.
Figure 4-26b – Closer view of damaged surface
Figure 4-27 – Cavitation pitting on the low-pressure side of a stainless steel
pump impeller.
Figure 4-28 – Cavitation pitting on the water side of a cast iron cylinder liner
in a large engine.
Figure 4-29 – Schematic of a fatigue fracture surface showing “beach marks”.
Figure 4-30 – Fatigue fracture surface of a carbon steel pipe.
Figure 4-31 – Fatigue crack in a 16-inch pipe-to-elbow weld in the fill
line of crude oil storage tank after 50 years in service.
Figure 4-32 – A cross-section through the weld showing the crack location.
Figure 4-33 – The surface of the fracture faces of the crack shown in Figure
4-31 and Figure 4-32.
Figure 4-34 – Vibration induced fatigue of a 1-inch socket weld flange in a
thermal relief system shortly after startup.
Figure 4-35 – Cross-sectional view of the crack in the socket weld in Figure 4-34.
Table 4-4 – Galvanic Series in Seawater. (Ref. 1)
Corroded End Anodic—More Active
Magnesium
Magnesium alloys
Zinc
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys
Steel
Cast iron
Type 410 SS
(active state)
Ni-Resist
Type 304 SS
(active state)
Type 316SS
(active state)
Lead
Tin
Nickel
Brass
Copper
Bronze
Copper-Nickel
Monel
Nickel (passive state)
Type 410 SS
(passive state)
Type 304 SS
(passive state)
Type 316 SS
(passive state)
Titanium
Graphite
Gold
Platinum
Protected End—Cathode - More Noble
Figure 4-36 – Preferential galvanic corrosion of the more active component
of the two materials.
Figure 4-37 – Galvanic corrosion of a carbon steel nipple in a SS vessel in
warm water service.
Figure 4-38 – CUI of CS level bridle
Figure 4-39 – Profile RT of level bridle in Figure 4-38.
Figure 4-40 – Cooling water corrosion on the I.D. of a CS heat exchanger tube
operating at 86oF (30oC).
Figure 4-41 – CO2 corrosion of a carbon steel oil and gas production flow line.
Figure 4-42 – Higher magnification view of the corrosion pits in Figure 4-41.
Figure 4-43 – CO2 corrosion of CS pipe nipple in CO2 contaminated water.
Figure 4-44 – A view inside the nipple in Figure 4-43.
Figure 4-45 – Pitting corrosion on the I.D. of a 6-inch CS sour crude line after 2.5 years of service.
Pits are approximately 1-inch to 2-inch wide. Note the halo effect in Figure 4-46.
Figure 4-46 – Same pipe as Figure 4-45. Note the halo effect.
Figure 4-47 –Oil line with MIC damage beneath tubercles.
Figure 4-48 – Same oil line as Figure 4-47. Hemispherical pitting typical of
MIC can be seen after grit blasting to remove the scale.
Figure 4-49 – Type 304 stainless steel exchanger tubes failed from pitting corrosion on
the shell side in cooling water service after 2.5 years without biocide treatment.
Figure 4-50 – A cross section of the tube (Figure 4-49) revealing severe subsurface
tunneling, typical of MIC.
Figure 4-51 – Corrosion of carbon steel pipe at the soil-air interface where the
pipe emerges from underground.
 Figure 4-52 – Coupons removed from the bottom of an unprotected steel
condensate storage tank after 3 years of service. The external surface is shown.
Figure 4-53 – Cross section through location (A) showing severe corrosion.
The arrows point to a location that was at the original thickness.
Figure 4-54 – I.D. deposits on CS boiler tube with damage due to caustic corrosion.
Figure 4-55 – Cross-section of tube in Figure 4-53 showing localized attack due to
caustic corrosion.
Table 4-5 – Combinations of Alloys and Environment Subject to Dealloying. (Ref. 1)

Alloy Environment Element Removed

Brasses (>15% Zn) * Many waters, especially stagnant conds. Zinc (dezincification)
Gray Cast Iron Soils, many waters Iron (graphitic corrosion)
Aluminum bronze HF acid, acids w/chloride ions, Aluminum (dealuminification)
(primarily w/> 8% Al) seawater Silicon (desiliconification)
Silicon bronzes High-temp steam and acidic species Tin (destannification)

Tin bronzes Hot brine or steam Nickel (denickelification)

Copper nickels (70-30) High heat flux and low water velocity Nickel (denickelification)
Monel Hydrofluoric and other acids

* The extent of dezinification increases with increasing zinc content.

 Figure 4-56 – Cross section of a silicon-brass alloy C87500 pump impeller from
stagnant fire-water service. Layer-type dezincification depleted the zinc and left
this porous red color of the copper. Mag. 50x
Figure 4-57 – A zone of denickelification in a Monel valve plug (at the port), due
to oxygen contamination in hot hydrofluoric acid.
Figure 4-58 –Cross section of a gray cast iron drainpipe showing charcoal
colored thru-wall graphitic corrosion encroaching from both sides. Note
the through wall crack at the bottom.
Figure 4-59 – Cross section of a gray cast iron pipe with graphitic corrosion coming from O.D.
(Point B).
Figure 4-60 – Higher magnification view of unaffected area “A” shown in Figure 4-59.
Figure 4-61 – Higher magnification view of the damage from shown in 4-59 (area “B”).
 Table 4-6 Estimated Corrosion Rates for Oxidation. (Ref. 1)
Corrosion Rate (mpy)
Maximum Metal Temperature ºF (ºC)
Material of 900 -950 951-1000 1001-1050 1051 -1100 1101 -1150 1151 -1200 1201 -1250 1251 -1300 1301 -1350 1351 -1400 1401 -1450 1451 -1500
Construction (482-570ºC) (511-538ºC) (538-566ºC) (566-593ºC) (594-621º) (622-649ºC) (649-677ºC) (677-704ºC) (705-732ºC) (733-760ºC) (761-788ºC) (788-816ºC)
CS 2 4 6 9 14 22 33 48 - - - -
1¼ Cr 2 3 4 7 12 18 30 46 - - - -
2¼Cr 1 1 2 4 9 14 24 41 - - - -
5Cr 1 1 1 2 4 6 15 35 65 - - -
7Cr 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 6 17 37 60 -
9Cr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 5 11 23 40
12 Cr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 8 15 30
304SS 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 4
309SS 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3
310 SS/HK 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
800H/HP 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Corrosion Rate (mpy)

Maximum Metal Temperature ºF (ºC)
Material of 1501-1550 1551-1600 1661-1650 1651 -1700 1701 -1750 1751 -1800 1801 -1850 1851 -1900 1901 -1950 1951 -2000 2001 -2050 2051 -2100 2101 -2150
(816- (844- (872- (899- (927- (955- (983- (1011- (1038- (1067- (1094- 1122- (1149-
Construction
843ºC) 871ºC) 899ºC) 927ºC) 954Cº) 982ºC) 1010ºC) 1038ºC) 1066ºC) 1093ºC) 1121ºC) 1149ºC) 1177ºC)
CS - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1¼ Cr - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2¼Cr - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5Cr - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7Cr - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9Cr 60 - - - - - - - - - - - -
12 Cr 50 - - - - - - - - - - - -
304SS 6 9 13 18 25 35 - - - - - - -
309SS 4 6 8 10 13 16 20 30 40 50 - - -
310 SS/HK 1 3 4 5 8 10 13 15 19 23 27 31 37
800H/HP 3 4 6 8 10 13 17 21 27 33 41 50 60
 Corrosion Rate (mpy)
Maximum Metal Temperature ºF (ºC)
Material of 1501-1550 1551-1600 1661-1650 1651 -1700 1701 -1750 1751 -1800 1801 -1850 1851 -1900 1901 -1950 1951 -2000 2001 -2050 2051 -2100 2101 -2150
(816- (844- (872- (899- (927- (955- (983- (1011- (1038- (1067- (1094- 1122- (1149-
Construction
843ºC) 871ºC) 899ºC) 927ºC) 954Cº) 982ºC) 1010ºC) 1038ºC) 1066ºC) 1093ºC) 1121ºC) 1149ºC) 1177ºC)
CS - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1¼ Cr - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2¼Cr - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5Cr - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7Cr - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9Cr 60 - - - - - - - - - - - -
12 Cr 50 - - - - - - - - - - - -
304SS 6 9 13 18 25 35 - - - - - - -
309SS 4 6 8 10 13 16 20 30 40 50 - - -
310 SS/HK 1 3 4 5 8 10 13 15 19 23 27 31 37
800H/HP 3 4 6 8 10 13 17 21 27 33 41 50 60
Figure 4-62 – Oxidation of a carbon steel nut on a stainless steel stud at
1300oF (704oC).
Figure 4-63 – Oxidation of a carbon steel grid from a sulfur reactor.
Figure 4-64 – Oxidation of the O.D. of a carbon steel furnace transfer line.
Figure 4-65 – Modified McConomy curves showing typical effect of temperature on high temperature sulfidation of steels and stainless
steels. (Ref. 3)
Figure 4-66 – Multiplier for corrosion rates in Figure 4-65 based on differing sulfur
content of process fluid. (Ref. 3)
Figure 4-67 – Sulfidation failure of piping elbow.
Figure 4-68 – Carburization (dark areas) of an HP-modified tube from an
ethylene furnace after 3 years at 1900oF (1038oC).
Figure 4-69 – A photomicrograph of a cross-section of a 304H cyclone from a
fluid coker showing surface carburization after 24 years. Mag. 35x
Figure 4-70 – Metal dusting of a 304H stainless steel pipe.
Figure 4-71 – The “alligator hide” morphology of liquid coal-ash corrosion is
evident when the dense, glassy deposit is removed. Mag. 2.4x
figure 4-72 – In cross-section, the surface grooving is, in actuality, broad, V-shaped
corrosion-fatigue cracks. Mag. 100x, etched.
Figure 4-73 – On waterwall tubes, even with a corrosion-resistant weld-overly,
circumferential cracking will develop. Mag. 37½x, etched.
Figure 4-74 – A nitrided 5Cr-0.5Mo thermowell from an ammonia synthesis plant
with surface cracking.
Figure 4-75 –A photomicrograph of a cross-section though the tube showing the interface
between the shallow nitrided layer on the surface (gray) and the unaffected base metal
(white). Cracks initiate from the O.D. surface at the top. Mag. 50x.
 Figure 4-76 – A higher magnification photomicrograph showing the diamond-shaped
hardness indentations in the hard nitrided layer (540 BHN) versus the softer base metal
(210 BHN). Mag. 150x
Figure 4-77 – External cracking of Type 304SS instrument tubing under insulation.
Figure 4-78 – Cracking on the shell side of Type 316L SS tubes in steam service at
450°F (232oC), showing tubes after PT inspection. The cracks can be seen in the
center tube (arrow).
Figure 4-79 – Close-up of the tube in Figure 4-78 showing tight cracks with a spider web
appearance.
Figure 4-80 – Other fine branching cracks on the surface of SS that appear more
clearly after PT inspection.
Figure 4-81 – Photomicrograph of a cross-section of sample in Figure 4-79 showing
fine branching cracks. (Unetched, Mag. 50x)
Figure 4-82 – Another photomicrograph of a cross-section of a cracked tube
illustrating the transgranular mode of cracking initiating on the surface. (Etched)
Figure 4-83 – Photograph of a carbon steel boiler tube cut in half lengthwise.
Corrosion fatigue cracks initiate at the I.D. of a tube, opposite a buckstay
attachment on the O.D. (Mag. 1x)
Figure 4-84 – Photomicrograph showing the crack morphology that is rounded with
multiple lobes, and may branch to form “rabbit ears.” (Mag. 25x, etched.)
Figure 4-85 – Recommended operating limits for carbon steel in caustic service. (Ref. 1)
 Figure 4-86 – Cracking initiating on the inside surface of a non-stress relieved CS
heat exchanger bend after 8 years in 15% to 20% caustic service at 140oF to 240oF
(60oC to 115oC).
Figure 4-87 – Photomicrograph of a crack in the tube shown in Figure 4-86.
Figure 4-88 – Cracking at a boiler tubesheet due to caustic concentrating between the
tube and the tubesheet.
Figure 4-89 – Photomicrograph of a crack in the tubesheet shown in Figure 4-88
 Figure 4-90 – Photomicrograph of caustic cracking initiating on the I.D. of a carbon
steel socket weld in a non-PWHT’d piping in a suction drum downstream of a caustic
scrubber. Unetched.
Figure 4-91 – Figure 4-90, etched.
Figure 4-92 – Stainless steel expansion bellows from a steam-driven turbine previously
subjected to a caustic carryover upset condition.
Figure 4-93 – High magnification view of an cross-section of a brass exchanger tube
showing transgranular cracking.
Figure 4-94 – High magnification view of an cross-section of a brass exchanger tube
showing intergranular cracking.
Figure 4-95 – External stress corrosion cracking of brass heat exchanger tubes in a
crude tower overhead system.
Table 4-7 – Some LME Couples Susceptible to Embrittlement. (Ref. 1)

Susceptible Alloy Molten Metal

300 Series SS Zinc

Copper Alloys Mercury
Alloy 400 Mercury
Aluminum Alloys Mercury
High Strength Steels Cadmium, Lead
Figure 4-96 – Sketch of a stainless steel elbow that suffered liquid metal
embrittlement as a result of dripping molten zinc during a fire.
Figure 4-97 – Photomicrograph of a section of the elbow in Figure 4-96, illustrating
the intergranular nature of zinc-filled cracks in stainless steel.
Figure 4-98 – Liquid metal embrittlement of Monel caused by mercury in an FCC
gas plant overhead drum.
Figure 4-99 – Hydrogen embrittlement crack in a thick-wall 2.25Cr – 1Mo exchanger
channel circumferential weld. Hardness = 235 BHN
 Figure 5.1 – Localized amine corrosion at the weld found in piping from reboiler to
regenerator tower in an MEA unit. Many other similar cases found, some going as
deep as half thickness. They were originally found and mistaken as cracks with shear
wave UT inspection.
Figure 5-2 – 2-inch CS elbow and straight section in a sour water line off the cold HPS
on an HDT unit.
Table 5-1– Rate Factors vs. Chromium Content. (Ref. 2)

Alloy Rate Factor

CS, C-0.5Mo 1
1 Cr-0.5Mo 0.96
2.25Cr-0.5Mo 0.91
5Cr-0.5Mo 0.80
7Cr-1Mo 0.74
9Cr-1Mo 0.68
Figure 5-3 – Corrosion rate of carbon steel in H2/H2S service in a naphtha desulfurizer
from the modified Couper-Gorman curves. (Ref. 1)
Figure 5-4 – Corrosion rate curves for various alloys in H2/H2S service. (Ref. 1)
Figure 5-5 – Cross-section of a carbon steel pipe showing preferential corrosion of the
pipe with high residual element content on the right (%Cu + %Ni + %Cr), as compared
to the low residual pipe section to the left of the weld.
Table 5-2 – Alloys listed in approximate order of increasing resistance to NAC

CS, 1.25C-0.5Mo, 2.25Cr-0.5Mo,

5Cr-0.5Mo,12Cr
9Cr-1Mo, 304L SS, 321SS, 347 SS
316 SS
317 SS
6% Mo Alloys
Alloy 625, Alloy 276
Figure 5-6 – Erosion-corrosion damage due to NAC in a 10-inch 5Cr elbow in the outlet of
a vacuum heater in a VDU.
Figure 5-7 – Severe NAC of 410 SS trays and bubble caps in the HVGO section of the
vacuum tower fed by the vacuum heater in Figure 5-6.
Figure 5-8 – Sulfuric acid corrosion data.
Figure 5-9 – Accelerated corrosion under a baffle.
Figure 5-10 – Grooving corrosion in the carbon steel vapor line from an alkaline
water wash drum in a sulfuric acid alkylation unit.
Figure 5-12 – Dye penetrant inspection showing extensive O.D. cracking around welds.
Figure 5-13 – High magnification photomicrograph of metallographic sample
showing intergranular cracking and grain dropping.
Figure 5-14 – PT inspection of a type 304 stainless steel catalyst withdrawal line
piping and weld neck flange.
Figure 5-15 – Cross-section of the catalyst withdrawal line attached to the flange
in Figure 5-14 showing cracking in the weld HAZ. Mag. 3x.
Figure 5-16 – Higher magnification view showing intergranular cracking. Mag. 200x
Figure 5-17 – A photomicrograph of a cross-section of a weld in non-PWHT piping
showing a SCC in the vicinity of a piping weld. Mag. 6x (From API 945)
Figure 5-18 – A higher magnification view of the crack tip in Figure 5-17. Mag.
200x. (From API RP 945.)
Figure 5-19 – A photomicrograph of a cross-section of a piping weld showing stress
corrosion cracking in section of the line from the MEA absorber column normally
operated at 100oF (38oC). Mag. 6x. (From API RP 945.)
Figure 5-20 – A higher magnification view of the cracks in Figure 5-19 which illustrates
the intergranular nature of cracking. Mag. 200x. (From API RP 945.)
Figure 5-21 – Schematic of hydrogen blistering and HIC damage.
Figure 5-22 – Extensive hydrogen blistering on the surface of steel pressure vessel.
Figure 5-23 – Cross-section of plate showing HIC damage in the shell of a trim cooler
which had been cooling vapors off a HHPS vessel in a hydroprocessing unit.
Figure 5-24 – High magnification photomicrograph of HIC damage.
Figure 5-25 – High magnification photomicrograph showing stepwise cracking
nature of HIC damage.
Figure 5-26 – Schematic showing hydrogen blistering that is accompanied by SOHIC
damage at the weld.
Figure 5-27 – Schematic of SOHIC damage at a fillet weld that is usually a combination of
SSC and SOHIC.
Figure 5-28 – Photograph showing WFMT of SOHIC damage.
Figure 5-29 – Schematic of SSC damage of a hard weld.
Figure 5-30 – Schematic showing morphology of sulfide stress cracking in a hard heat
affected zone.
Figure 5-31 – Carbonate cracking at and adjacent to the weldment in a non-PWHT
piping weld in an FCC gas plant after 15 years service.
Figure 5-32 – Photomicrograph of a cross-section of carbonate cracking in the base
metal. Cracks initiate from the I.D. surface (left side). Unetched.
Figure 5-33 – Photomicrograph of a cross-section of carbonate cracking in the base
metal, initiating at a corrosion pit on the ID surface. Unetched.
Figure 5-34 – Photomicrograph of a cross-section of carbonate cracking in the
base metal, showing the branched nature of the cracking. Etched.
Figure 5-35 – Recommended pressure and H2 partial pressure limits per API 941. (Ref. 1)
Figure 5-36 – Brittle appearing failure of a pipe section due to HTHA.
Figure 5-37 – High magnification photomicrograph showing microfissuring.
Figure 5-38 – High magnification photomicrograph showing linkup of microfissures
to form continuous cracks. Note that damage is accompanied by a significant
amount of decarburization.
Figure 5-39 – Titanium heat exchanger tube that failed from hydriding in a sour water
cooler. The cooling medium is sea water.
Figure 5-40 – High magnification photomicrograph of a cross-section of the tube
shown in Figure 5-39 through the crack tip. Mag. 200x.
Figure 5-41 – Another high magnification photomicrograph of a cross-section of the
tube showing more of the cross section through the tip of the crack. TI hydrides are
more clearly discernable. Mag. 400x.
 Table 5-3 – Key to Damage Mechanisms
DM# Damage Mechanism DM# Damage Mechanism
1 Sulfidation 33 885oF (475oC) Embrittlement
2 Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC) 34 Softening (Spheroidization)
3 Creep / Stress Rupture 35 Reheat Cracking
4 High temp H2/H2S Corrosion 36 Sulfuric Acid Corrosion
5 Polythionic Acid Cracking 37 Hydrofluoric Acid Corrosion
6 Naphthenic Acid Corrosion 38 Flue Gas Dew Point Corrosion
7 Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion 39 Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Cracking
8 Ammonium Chloride Corrosion 40 Hydrogen Stress Cracking in HF
9 HCl Corrosion 41 Dealloying (Dezincification/ Denickelification)
10 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack 42 CO2 Corrosion
11 Oxidation 43 Corrosion Fatigue
12 Thermal Fatigue 44 Fuel Ash Corrosion
13 Sour Water Corrosion (acidic) 45 Amine Corrosion
14 Refractory Degradation 46 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
15 Graphitization 47 Atmospheric Corrosion
16 Temper Embrittlement 48 Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking
17 Decarburization 49 Cooling Water Corrosion
18 Caustic Cracking 50 Boiler Water / Condensate Corrosion
19 Caustic Corrosion 51 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)
20 Erosion / Erosion-Corrosion 52 Liquid Metal Embrittlement
21 Carbonate SCC 53 Galvanic Corrosion
22 Amine Cracking 54 Mechanical Fatigue
23 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking 55 Nitriding
24 Carburization 56 Vibration-Induced Fatigue
25 Hydrogen Embrittlement 57 Titanium Hydriding
27 Thermal Shock 58 Soil Corrosion
28 Cavitation 59 Metal Dusting
29 Graphitic Corrosion (see Dealloying) 60 Strain Aging
30 Short term Overheating – Stress Rupture 61 Steam Blanketing
31 Brittle Fracture 62 Phosphoric Acid Corrosion
32 Sigma Phase/ Chi Embrittlement 63 Phenol (carbolic acid) Corrosion
33 885oF (475oC) Embrittlement
Figure 5-42 – Crude Unit / Vacuum