NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE : MTH 211

COURSE TITLE: SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT

ALGEBRA
COURSE GUIDE
MTH
211
COUR
SE
GUIDE

MTH 211
SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Adapted from Indira Gandhi National Open University

Course Team Dr. Bankole Abiola (Developer) - NOUN Dr. Sunday

Reju (Programme Leader) - NOUN
Bankole Abiola (Coordinator) - NOUN
 NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ii
MTH 211 COURSE GUIDE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2009

ISBN: 978-058-643-1

All Rights Reserved

Printed by:
 iii
MTH 211 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGES

Introduction ………………………………………………….…… 1
What You Will Learn in This Course …………………………….. 1
Course Aims ……………………………………………………… 1
Course Objectives ………………………………………………… 1
Working through this Course ……………………………………… 2
Assignment File …………………………………………………... 2
Assessment ………………………………………………………… 2
How to Get the Most from the Course ……………………………. 2
 iv
Introduction

You are welcome to Set Theory and Abstract Algebra. This course is a 3-
credit course and it is offered at the undergraduate level.

This course consists of 2-modules of 4 units each. The prerequisite for this
course is MTH131 – Elementary Set Theory.
This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is all about, what
materials you will be using and how you can walk your way through these
materials.

What You Will Learn in This Course

Set Theory and Abstract Algebra is course that is compulsory for all B.Sc
(Hons) Mathematics students, Computer Science Students and
Communications Technology Students. All Students in Education Majoring
in Mathematics as teaching subjects are required to pass this course. This
text is an informal axiomatic treatment of Set Theory and Abstract Algebra.

The text contains expository treatment of fundamentals of Algebras. Topics

such as Sets and Functions, Groups Subgroups Lagrange’s Theorem,
Polynomial Rings, Special Integral Domains and Irreducibility and Field
Extensions are given expository treatments.

Each unit begins with clear statements of pertinent definitions principles

and relevant theorems, and further illustrated with some graded and solved
problems. The supplementary exercises are meant to illustrate the work
further.

Course Aims

The aim of the course can be summarized as follows:

• To introduce you to concept of Algebra at the University Level • To

expose you to idea of groups theory , subgroups and the relevant theorems
on groups
• To prepare you rigorously for more advance courses in algebra

Course Objectives

Set out below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole. On
successful completion of this course you should be able to:

• Explain the meaning of Groups ,Subgroups, Polynomial Rings Integral

Domain, Irreducibility and Field Extensions
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

• Be able to give examples of groups subgroups, polynomial rings • Solve

related problems concerning these topics.

Working through this Course

 To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read the
recommended textbooks and other materials provided by the NOUN.

Assignment File

The assignment File contains details of the work you must submit to your
tutor for marking. It contains a more compact form of the Tutor marked

Assessment

There are two aspects of the assessment of the course. First are the tutor
marked assignments; second there is a written examination. In tackling the
assignments, you are expected to apply information, knowledge and
techniques gathered during the course. The assignments must be submitted
to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the stipulated
deadlines.

How to Get the Most from the Course

In distance learning, the study units replace the lecturer. This is an

advantage over the conventional mode of learning; because it affords the
opportunity of reading and working through all the specially designed
materials at your pace, at a time and place that suit you best. Just as a
lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units provide
exercises for you to do at appropriate points.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and the course as a whole.
Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what
you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You
should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished
the unit you must go back and check whether you have achieved the
objectives. If you make a habit of doing this you will significantly improve
your chances of passing the course.

Exercises are interspersed within the units, and answers are given. Working
through these exercises will help you to achieve the objectives of the unit
and help you to prepare for the assignments and examination.

ii
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course.

1) Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

2) Organize a study schedule

3) Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can
to stick to it.
4) Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to
provide a sequence for you to follow.

5) Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have
achieved a unit’s objectives; you can then start on the next unit.
Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study
so that you keep yourself on schedule.

6) When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do

not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your
schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular attention
to your tutor’s comments.

iii
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Course Code MTH 211

Course Title Set Theory and Abstract Algebra

Adapted from Indra Gandhi National Open University

Course Team Dr. Bankole Abiola (Developer) - NOUN Dr. Sunday

Reju (Programme Leader) - NOUN
Bankole Abiola (Coordinator) - NOUN
 NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

iv
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2009

ISBN: 978-058-643-1

All Rights Reserved

Printed by:
 v
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

CONTENTS PAGES Module 1

………………………………………………………. 1

Unit 1 Sets and Functions …………………………..……... 1 Unit 2

Groups …………………………………………….… 39 Unit 3 Subgroups
………………………………………….... 72 Unit 4 Lagrange’s
Theorem………………………..……….. 93

Module 2 ………………………….…………………………….. 111

Unit 1 The Basics …………………………………………….111 Unit 2

Polynomial Rings…………………………………….. 138 Unit 3 Special
Integral Domains……………………..……… 165 Unit 4 Irreducibility
and Field Extensions……………..……. 192
 vi
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Sets and Functions

Unit 2 Groups
Unit 3 Subgroups
Unit 4 Lagrange’s Theorem

UNIT 1 SETS AND FUNCTIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sets
3.2 Cartesian Products
3.3 Relation
3.4 Functions
3.5 Some Number Theory
3.5.1 Principle of Induction
3.5.2 Divisibility in Z
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit we first discuss some ideas concerning sets and functions.
These concepts are fundamental to the study of any branch of mathematics,
in particular, algebra.

In MTH 131, we discuss some elementary number theory. The primary

aims of this section, is to discuss some few facts, that we will need in the
rest of the course. We also hope to:
Give you a glimpse of the elegance of number theory. It is this elegance
that led the mathematician Gauss to call number theory the ‘queen of
mathematics’.

We would like to repeat that this unit consists of very basic ideas that will
be used throughout the course. So go through it carefully.

1
 MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• use various operations on sets

• define Cartesian products of sets
• check if a relation is an equivalence relation or not, and find equivalence
classes
• define and use different kinds of functions
• state the principle of induction
• use the division algorithm and unique prime factorisation theorem.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Sets

You must have used the word ‘set’ off and on in your conversations to
describe any collection. In mathematics the term set is used to describe any
well defined collection of objects, that is, every set should be so described
that given any object it should be clear whether the given object belongs to
the set or not.

For instance, the collection N of all natural numbers is well defined, and
hence is a set. But the collection of all rich people is not a set, because
there is no way of deciding whether a human is rich or not.

If S is set, an object a in the collection S is called an element of S. This fact

is expressed in symbols as a∈ S (read as “a is in S” or “a belongs to S”). If
a is not in S, we write a∈ S. For example, 3∈ R the set of real numbers.
But. −1 ∉ R.

Elementary Group Theory

A set with no element in it is called the empty set, and is denoted by the
Greek φ (phi). For example, the set of all natural numbers less than 1 is φ.

There are usually two way of describing a non-empty set:

(1) Roster method, and (2) set builder method.

2
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Roster Method
In this method, we list all the elements of the set: within braces. For
instance, the collection of all positive divisors of 48 contains 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8,
12, 16, 24 and 48 as its elements. S0 this set may be written as '{1, 2, 3, 4,
6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48}.

In this description of a set, the following two conventions are followed:

Convection 1

The order in which the elements of the set are listed is not important.

Convention 2

No element is written more than once, that is, every element must be
written exactly once.

For example, consider the set S of all integers between r and 4

21 41 .
Obviously, these integers are 2, 3 and 4. So we may write S = (2, 3, 4}.

We may also write S = (3, 2, 4}, but we must not write S = (2, 3, 2, 4}.
Why? Isn't this what Convention 2 says?

The roster method is sometimes used to list the elements of a large set also.
In this case we may not want to list all the elements of the set. We list a
few, enough to give an indication of the rest of the elements. For example,
the set of integers lying between 0 and 100 is {0, 1, 2… 100}, and the set
of all integers is
Z = {0, ±1, ± 2,……}.

Another method that we can use for describing a set is the

Set Builder Method

In this method we first try to find a property which characterises, the

elements of the set, that is, a property P which all the elements of the set
possess. Then we describe the set as:

{x | x has property P}, or as

{x: x has property P}.

This is to be read as “the set all x such that x has property P”. For example,
the set of all integers can also be written as

3
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Z = {x | x is an integer}.

Some other sets that you may be familiar with are

 a
.
Q, the set of rational numbers =


 a, b ∈ Z, b ∉ 0
b
R, the set of real numbers

C, the set of complex numbers = {a+ib a, b ∈ R}. (Here i = −1 .) Let

us now see what subsets are.

Subsets

Consider the sets A = {1, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4}. Here every element of B is
also all element of A. in such a case, that is, when every element of a set B
is an element of a set A, we say that B is a subset of A, and we write this
as B ⊆ A.

for every set A, A ⊆ A.

Also, for any set A, φ ⊆ A.

Now consider the set S = {1, 3, 5, 15} and T = (2, 3, 5, 7}. Is S ⊆ T? No,
because not every element of S is in T; for example, 1 ∈ S but 1∉ T. In
this case we say that S is not a subset of T, and denote it by S ⊄ T.

‘∃'denotes ‘there exists’, Note that if B is not a subset of A, there must be

an element of B which is not an element of A. In mathematical notation this
can be written as ‘∃' x ∋ B such that x ∉ A’.

We can now say that two sets A and B are equal (i.e., have precisely the
same elements) if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Sets and Functions

Try the following exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Which of the following statements are true?

(a) N ⊆ Z, (b) Z ⊆ N, (c) {0} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}, (d) {2, 4, 6} ⊄ {2, 4, 8}.

4
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Let us now look at some operations on sets. We will briefly discuss the
operations of union, intersection and complementation on sets.
Union

If A and B are subsets of a set S, we can collect the elements of both to get
a new set. This is called their union. Formally, we define the union of A
and B to be the set of those elements of S which are in A or in B.

We denote the union of A and B by:

A U B. Thus,
A U B = {x ∈ S x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

For example, if A = {1, 2} and B = {4, 6, 7}, then A U B = {1, 2, 4, 6, 7}.

Again, if A = (1, 2, 3, 4] and B= (2, 4, 6, 8), A U B= (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8).

Observe that 2 and 4 are in both A and B, but when we write A U B, we
write these elements only once, in accordance with Convention 2 given
earlier.

Can you see that, for any set A, A  A = A?

Try the following exercise now. While trying it remember that to show that
A ⊄ B you need to show that x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Let A, B, C, be subsets of a set Such that A ⊄ C and B ⊄ C.

Then show that:

a. A  B ⊄ C
b. A  B = B  A
c. A  φ= A

Now will extend the definition of union to define the union of more than
two sets.

If A1, A2, A3……… Ak are k subsets of a set S, then their union A 1A2
…..Ak is the set of elements which belong to at least one of these sets.
That is,
A1A2……. Ak = {x ∈ S x ∈ Ai for some I = 1, 2…… k).

5
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

The expression A1A2…..Ak is often abbreviated to A .i


i=1

If ℘ is a collection of subsets of a set S, then we can define the union of 

{x ∈ A for some A ∈ ℘}
 all members of ℘ by =
A
A ∈℘
Now let us look at another way of obtaining a new set from two or more
given sets.

Intersection

If A and B are two subsets of a set S, we can collect the elements that are
common to both A and B. We call this set the intersection of A, and B
(denoted by A  B, So,

A  B = {x ∈ S x ∈A and x ∈B}

Thus, if P= {1, 2, 3, 4} and Q= {2, 4, 6, 8}, then PQ= {2, 4}.

Can you see that, for any set A, A A = A?

Now suppose A = {1, 2} and B = (4, 6, 7). Then what is A B? We

observe that, in this case A and B have no common elements, and so A  B
=φ, the empty set.

When the intersection of two sets is φ , we say that the two sets are disjoint
(or mutually disjoint). For example, the sets {1, 4} and {0, 5, 7, 14} are
disjoint.

Try this exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Let A and B be subsets of a set S. Show that

a. A  B = B  A
b. A ⊆ B ⇒ A  B = A
c. A  φ = φ

Elementary Group Theory

The definition of intersection can be extended to any number of sets.

Thus, the intersection of k subsets A1, A2…… Ak of a set S is

A1A2 …….Ak ={x ∈ S x ∈Ai for each i = 1, 2, .......k}.

6
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

We can shorten the expression A1A2 …….Ak to A .i


i=1
In general, if ℘ is a collection of subsets of a set S, then we can define the
intersection of all the members of ℘by =
 {x ∈S x ∈A V
A
A
∈℘

A∈℘}

In the following exercise we give important properties of unions and

intersections of sets.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

For any subsets, A, B, C of a set S, show that

a. (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
b. (A B)  C = A  (B  C)
c. A  (B  C) = (A U B)  (A  C)
d. A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

State whether the following are true or false. If false, give a counter
example.

a. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C
b. If A ⊄ B and B ⊄ A, then A and B are disjoint
c. A ⊄ A U B
d. If A U B =φ , then A = B =φ .

Apart from the operations of unions and intersections, there is another

operation on sets, namely, the operation of taking differences.

Differences

Consider the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}. Now the set of all
elements of A that are not in B is {1}. We call this set the difference A\B.
Similarly, the difference B \ A is the set of elements of B that are not in A,
that is, {4}. Thus, for any two subsets ‘A and B of a set S, {x ∈X x ∈A
and x ∈B}.

When we are working with elements and subsets of a single set X, we say
that the set X is the universal set. Suppose X is the universal set and A ⊆
X. Then the set of all elements of X which are not in A is called the
complement of A and is denoted by A′ c A or X \ A.

7
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Thus,
 c
A ={x ∈X x ∉A}.

For example, if X = {a, b, p, q, r} and A = (a. p, q}, then c A = { b′ , r}.

Try the following exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Why are the following statements true?

a. A and c A are disjoint, i.e., A ∩ c A = φ

b. A U c A = X, where X is the universal set.
c. ( c A ) = A.

And now we discuss one of the most important constructions in set theory.

3.2 Cartesian Products

An interesting set that can be formed from two given sets is their Cartesian
product, named after a French philosopher and mathematician Rene
Descartes (1596 -1650). He also invented the Cartesian coordinate system.

Let A and B be two sets. Consider the pair (a, b), in which the first element
is from A and the second from B. Then (a, b) is called an ordered pair. In
an ordered pair in order in which the two elements are written is important.
Thus, (a, b) and (b, a) are different ordered pairs. Two ordered pairs (a,
b) and (c, d) are called equal, or the same, if a = c and b = d.

Definition

The Cartesian product A x B, of the sets A and B, is the set of all

possible ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈A,b∈B.

For example, if A = {1, 2,2 3} and B = {4, 6}, then A X B = { (1, 4), (1, 6),
(2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 6)}.

Also note that

B x A = {(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3)} and A x

B ≠ B x A. Let us make some remarks about the

Cartesian product here.

8
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Remarks:

i. A x B = φ if A = φ or B =φ.
ii. If A has m elements and B has n elements, then A x B has mn elements.
 B x A also has mn elements. But the elements of B x A need not be
the same as the elements of A x B, as you have just seen.

We can also define the Cartesian product of more than two sets in a similar
way. Thus, if A1, A2, A3 …..... An are n sets, we can define their Cartesian
product as

A1 x A2 x…… xAn = {(a1, a2 …… an) a1 ∈ A1 ……..an ∈ An}. For

example, if R is the set of all real numbers, then

R x R = {(a1, a2) a1, ∈ R, a2 ∈ R}

R x R x R = {(a1, a2, a3) a1, ∈ R, for i = 1, 2, 3}, and so on. It is customary
to write
R2 for R x R and Rn for R x ……… x R (in times).

Now, you know that every point in a plane has two coordinates, x and y.
Also, every ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers defines the coordinates of a
point in the plane. So, we can say that R2represents a plane. In fact, R2 is
the Cartesian product of the x-axis and the y-axis. In the same way R3
represents three-dimensional space, and Rn represents n-dimensional space,
for any n ≥1. Note that R represents a line.

Try the following exercises now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

If A = {2, 5} B = {2, 3}, find A x B, B x A and A x A.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

If A x B = {(7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4)}, determine A and B.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

Prove that (A  B) x C = (A x C)  (B x C) and (A  B) x C == (A x C)

 (B x C).

Let us now look at certain subsets of Cartesian products.

9
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

3.3 Relations

You are already familiar with the concept of a relationship between people.
For example, a parent-child relationship exists between A and B if and only
if A is a parent of B or B is a parent of A.
 In mathematics, relation R on a set S is a relationship between the elements
of S. If a ∈ S is related to b ∈ S by means of relation, we write a R b or (a,
b) ∈ R ⊆ S x S. And this is exactly how we define a relation on a set.

Definition

A relation R defined on a set S is a subset of S x S.

For example, if N is the set of natural and R is the relation’ is a multiple of’
then 15 R 5, but not 5 R 15. That is, (15, 5) ∈ R but (5, 15) ∉ R. Here R ⊆
N x N.

Again, if Q is the set of all rational numbers and R is the relation ‘is greater
than’, then 3 R 2 (because 3> 2).

The following exercise deals with relations.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10

Let N be the set of all natural numbers and R the relation {(a, a 2) a ∈ N}.
State whether the following are true or false:

a. 2 R 3, b. 3 R 9, c. 9 R 3.

We now look at some particular kinds of relations.

Definition

A relation R defined on a set S is said to be

i. reflexive if we have aRa V a ∈ S.

ii. symmetric if aRb ⇒ bRa V a , b ∈ S.
iii. transitive if aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc V a, b, c ∈ S.

To get used to these concepts, consider the following examples.

10
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Example 1

Consider the relation R on Z given by ‘aRb iff and only if a> b’. Determine
whether R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Solution

Since a > a is not true, aRa is not true. Hence, R is not reflexive.
If a > b, then certainly b > a is not true. That is, aRb does not imply bRa.
Hence, it is into symmetric,

Since a > b and b > c implies a > c, we find that aRb, bRc implies aRc.
Thus, R is transitive.

Example 2

Let S be a non-empty set. Let ℘ (S) denote the set of all S, i.e., ℘ (S) = {A :
A ⊆ S}. We call ℘ (S) the power set of S.

Define the relation R on ℘ (S) by

R= {(A, B) A, B ∈ ℘(S) and A ⊆ B}.

Check whether R is reflexive, symmetric or transitive.

Solution

Since A ⊆ A V A ∈ ℘ (S), R is reflexive.

If A ⊆ B, B need not be contained in A. (In fact, A ⊆ Band B ⊆ A ⇔ A =

B.) Thus, R is not symmetric.

If A ⊆ Band B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C V A, B, C ∈ ℘(S). Thus, R is transitive.

You may like to try the following exercises now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 11

The relation R ⊆ N x N is defined by (a, b)∈, R if 5 divides (a -b). Is R

Reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive? ,

11
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 12

Give examples to show why the relation in Self-Assessment Exercise l0 is

not reflexive, symmetric or transitive.

The relationship in Self-Assessment Exercise 11 is reflexive, symmetric

and transitive. Such a relation is called an equivalence relation.

A very important property of an equivalence relation on a set S is that it

divides S into a number of mutually disjoint subsets, that is, it partitions S.
Let us see how this happens.
 Let R be an equivalence relation on the set S. Let a ∈ S. Then the set {b ∈
S aRb} is called the equivalence class of a in S. It is just the set of elements
in S which are related to a. We denote it by [a}.

For instance, what is the equivalence class of 1 for R given in Self

Assessment Exercise 11?

This is

[1] = {n | 1Rn, n ∈ N}
= { n | n ∈ N and 5 divides 1-n}
= { n | n ∈ N and 5 divides n-1}
= {1, 6, 11, 16, 21 ...},

Similarly,

[2] = { n | n ∈ N and 5 divides n-2}

= {2, 7, 12, 17, 22,},
[3] = {3, 8, 13, 18, 23 ...},
[4] = {4, 9, 14, 19, 24,},
[5] = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25 ...},
[6] = {1, 6, 11, 16, 21 ...},
[7] = {2, 7, 12, 17, 22 ...},

Note that

i. [1] and [6] are not disjoint. In fact, [1] = [6]. Similarly, [2] = [7], and so
on.
ii N = [1] [2]  [3]  [4]  [5], and the sets on the right hand side are
mutually disjoint.

We will prove these observations in general in the following theorem.

12
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Theorem 1

Let R be an equivalence relation on a set S. For a ⊆ S, let [a] denote the

equivalence class of a. then

a. a ∈ [a],
b. b ∈ [a] ⇔ [a] = [b],
c. S =  [a] a∈S
d. if a, b ∈ S, then [a] [b] = φ or [a] = [b].

Proof: a. Since R is an equivalence relation, it is reflexive. ∴

aRa V a ∈ S, ∴ a ∈ [a].
 b. Firstly, assume that b ∈ [a]. We will show that [a] ⊆ [b] and [b] ⊆ [a].
For this, let x ∈ [a]. Then xRa.

We also know that aRb. Thus, by transitivity of R, we have xRb, i.e., x ∈

[b]. ∴ [a] ⊆ [b].

We can similarly show that [b] ⊆ [a].

∴ [a] = [b].

Conversely, assume that [a] = [b]. Then b ∈ [b]. ∴ b ∈ [a].

c. Since [a] ⊆ S V a ∈ S, Exercise 2).  [a] ⊆ S (see Self Assessment a∈S

Conversely, let x ∈ S. Then λ∈ [x], x ⊆ [x] by (a) above. [x] is one of

the sets in the collection whose union is  [a]. a∈S
Hence, x =  [a]. a∈S  [a] and a∈S
 [a]. So, S ⊆ a∈S Thus, S ⊆  [a] ⊆ S, proving (c). a∈S

d. Suppose [a]  [b]≠ φ . Let x ∈ [a]  [b].

Then x ∈ [a] and x ∈ [b]

⇒ [x] = [a] and [x] = [b], by (b) above
⇒ [a] = [b].

Note that in Theorem 1, distinct sets on the right hand side of (c) are
mutually disjoint because of (d). Therefore, (c) expresses S as a union of

13
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

mutually disjoint subsets of S; that is we have a partition of S into

equivalence classes.

Let us look at some more examples of partitioning a set into equivalence

classes.

Examples 3

Let S be the set of straight lines in R x R. Consider the relation on S given

by ‘L1 R L2 if L1 = L2 or L1 is parallel to L2’. Show that R is an equivalence
relation. What are the equivalence classes in S?

Solution

R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.

Now, take any line L1 (see Fig. 1).

 Y

L L1

O X

Fig. 1: The equivalence class of L1

Let L be the line through (0, 0) and parallel to L 1. Then L∈ [L1]. Thus, [L]
= [L1]. In this way the distinct through (0, 0) give distinct equivalence
classes into which S is partitioned. Each equivalence class [L] consists of
all the lines in the planes that are parallel to L.

Now for a nice self assessment exercise!

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 13

Show that ‘aRb if and only if |a| = |b|’ is an equivalence relation on Z. what
are [0] and [1]?

14
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

In the next section we will briefly discuss a concept that you may be
familiar with namely, functions.

3.4 Functions

Recall that a function f from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a

rule which associates with every element of A exactly on element of B. This
is written as f: A → B. If f associates with a ∈ A, the element b of B, we
write f(a) = b. A is called the domain of f, and the set f(A) = {f(a) | a ∈ A}
is called the range of f. The range of f is a subset of B, i.e., f(A) ⊆ B. B is
called the codomain of f.

Note that

i. For each element of A, we associate some element of B. ii. For

each element of A, we associate only one element of B.

iii Two or more elements of A could be associated with the same element
of B.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Define f: A
→ B by f(1) = 1, f(2) = 4, f(3) = 9. Then f is a function with domain A and
range {1, 4, 9}. In this case we can also write f(x) = x 2 fro each x ∈ A or f:
A → B: f(x) = x2. We will often use this notation for defining any function.

If we define g: A → B by g(1) = 1, g(2) = 1, g(3) = 4, then g is also a

function. The domain of g remains the same, namely, A. but the range of g
is {1, 4}.

Remark

We can also consider a function f: A → B to be the subset {(a, f(a)) | a ∈

A} of A x B.

Now let us look at functions with special properties.

Definition

A function f: A → B is called one-one (or injective) if f associates

different elements of A with different elements of B, i.e., if a1, a2 ∈ A and
a1 ≠ a2, then f(a1) ≠ f(a2). In other words, f is 1 - 1 if f(a1) = f(a2) ⇒ a1 =
a2.

15
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

In the examples given above, the function f is one-one. The function g is

not one-one because 1 and 2 are distinct elements of A, but g(1) = g(2).

Now consider another example of sets and functions.

Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {p, q, r}. Let f: A → B be defined by f(1) = q, f(2) =

r, f(3) = p. then f is a function. Here the range of f = B = codomain of f.
This is an example of an onto function, as you shall see.

Definition

A function f: A → B is called onto (or surjective) if the range of f is B,

i.e., if, for each b ∈ B, there is an a ∈ A such that f (a) = b. In other words,
f is onto if f(A) = B.

For another important example of a surjective function, consider two non-

empty sets a and B. we define the function π1: A x B → A: π1 ((a, b)) = a. π1
is called the projection of A x B onto A. You can see that the range of π1 is
the whole of A. Therefore, π1 is onto. Similarly, π2: A x B → B: p2 ((a, b)) =
b, the projection of A x B onto B, is a surjective function.

If a function is both one-one and onto, it is called bijective, or a bijection.

You will be using this type of function heavily in Block 2 of this course.
 Consider the following example that you will use again and again.

Example 4

Let A be any set. The function IA: A → A: IA(a) = a is called the identity
function on A. Show that IA is bijective.

Solution

For any a ∈ A, IA(a) = a. Thus, the range of IA is the whole of A. That is, IA
is onto.

IA is also: because if a1, a2, ∈ A such that a1 ≠ a2, then IA (a1) ≠ IA(a2).

Thus, IA is bijective.

If f: A → B is a bijection, then we also say that the sets A and B are

equivalent. Any set which is equivalent to the set {1, 2, 3……... n}, for

16
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

some n ∈ N, is called a finite set. A set that is not finite is called an

infinite set.

Convention

The empty set f is assumed to be finite.

Try the following self assessment exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 14

Let f: N → N be defined by f(n) = n + 5. Prove that f is one-one but not

onto.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 15

Let f: Z → Z be defined by f(n) = n + 5. Prove that f is both one-one and

onto.

The next exercise deals with a function that you will often come across,
namely, the constant function f: A → B: f(a) = c, where c is a fixed element
of B.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 16

What must X be like for the constant function f: X → {c} to be injective?

Is f surjective?

Let us now see what the inverse image of a function is.

Definition

Let A and B be two sets and f: A → B be a function. Then, for any subset S
of B, the inverse image of S under f is the set.

f-1(S) = {a ∈ A | f(a) ∈ S}.

For example, 1
-
AI (A) = {a ∈ A | IA(a) ∈ A} = A.

Again, for the function f in Self-Assessment Exercise 14, f-

1
({1, 2, 3}) = {n ∈ N | f(n) ∈ {1, 2, 3}}
= {n ∈ N | n+5 ∈ {1, 2, 3}}
= φ, the empty set.

But f-1 (N) = {6, 7, 8, .....}.

17
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

We now give some nice theorems involving the inverse image of a

function.

Theorem 2

Let f : A → B be a function. Then,

a) for any subset S of B, f(f-1(S)) ⊆ S.
b) for any subset X of A, X ⊆ f-1(f(X)).

Proof

We will prove (a) and you can prove (b) (see Self Assessment Exercise
17). Let b ∈ f(f-1(S)). Then, by definition, ∃ a ∈ f-1(S) such that b = f(a).
But a ∈ f-1(S) ⇒ f(a) ∈ S. That is, b ∈ S. Thus, f(f-1(S) ⊆ S.

The theorem will be proved once you solve Self Assessment Exercise 17.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 17

Prove (b) of Theorem 2.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 18

Given f: A → B and S, T ⊆ B, show that

a. if S ⊆ T, then f-1(S) ⊆ f-1(T).

b. f-1 (S  T) = f-1(S)  f-1(T)
c. f-1 (S  T) = f-1(S)  f-1(T)
 Now let us look at the most important way of producing new functions
from given ones.

Composition of Functions

If f : A → B and g: C → D are functions and if the range of f is a subset of

C, there is a natural way of combining g and f to yield a new function h: A
→ D. Let us see how.

For each x ∈ A, h(x) is defined by the formula h(x) = g(f(x)).

Note that f(x) is in the range of f, so that f(x) ∈ C. Therefore, g(f(x)) is

defined and is an element of D. This function h is called the composition
of g and f and is written as g  f. The domain of g f is A

18
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

and its codomain is D. In most cases that we will be dealing with we will
have B = C. Let us look at some examples.

Example 5

Let f: R → R and g: R → R be defined by f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 1. What

is g f? What is f  g?

Solution

We observe that the range of f is a subset of R, the domain of g. Therefore,

g f is defined. By definition, Vx∈ R,g f(x) = g(f(x)) = f(x) + 1 = x2 + 1.

Now, let us find f  g. Again, it is easy to see that f  g is defined. Vx ∈

R,f  g(x) = f(g(x)) = (g(x))2 = (x + 1)2.

So f  g and g f are both defined. But g f ≠ f  g(1).)

Example 6

Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {p, q, r} and C = {x, y}. Let f: A → B be defined by

f(1) = p, f(2) = p, f(3) = r. Let g: B → C be defined by g(p) = x, g(q) = y,
g(r) = y. determine if f  g and g f can be defined.

Solution

For f  g to be defined, it is necessary that the range of g should be a

subset of the domain of f. In this case the range of g is C and the domain of
f is A. As C is not a subset of A, f  g cannot be defined.

Since the range of f, which is {p, r}, is a subset of B, the domain of g, we

see that g f is defined. Also g f: A → C is such that
g f(1) = g(f(1)) = g(p) = x,
g f(2) = g(f(2)) = g(p) = x,
g f(3) = g(f(3)) = g(r) = y.

In this example note that g is surjective, and so is g  f.

Now for an exercise on the composition of functions.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 19

In each of the following questions, both f and g are functions from R → R.

Define f  g and g f.

19
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

a. f(x) = 5x, g(x) = x + 5

b. f(x) = 5x, g(x) = x/5
c. f(x) = | x |, g(x) = x2.

We now come to a theorem which shows us that the identity function

behaves like the number 1 ∈ R does for multiplication. That is, if we take
the composition of any function f with a suitable identity function, we get
the same function f.

Theorem 3

Let A be a set. For every function f: A → A, we have f  IA = IA  f = f.

Proof

Since both f and IA are defined from A to A, both the compositions f  IA

and IA  f are defined. Moreover, V x∈ A.,
f  IA(x) = f(IA(x)) = f(x), so f  IA = f.
Also, Vx∈ A, IA  f(x) = IA(f(x)) = f(x), so IA  f = f.

You can try the next self assessment exercise on the lines of this theorem.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 20

If A and B are sets and g: B → A, prove that IA  g = g and g  IB = g.

In the case of real numbers, you know that given any

real number x ≠ 0, ∃y ≠ 0 such that xy = 1. y is called
the inverse of x. Similarly, we can define an inverse
function for a given function.

Definition

Let f: A → B be a given function. If there exists a function g: B → A such

that f  g = IB and g f = IA, then we say that g is the inverse of f, and we
write g = f-1.
 For example, consider f: R → R defined by f(x) = x + 3. If we define g:
R→ R by g(x) = x – 3, then f  g(x) = f(g(x)) = g(x) + 3 = (x – 3) + 3 = x
Vx∈ R. Hence, f  g = IR. You can also verify that g  f = IR. So g = f-1.

Note that in this example f adds 3 to x and g does the opposite – it subtracts
3 from x. Thus, the key to filling the inverse of a given function is: try to
retrieve x from f(x).

20
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

For example, let f: R → R be defined by f(x) = 3x + 5. How can we

-
retrieve x from 3x + 5? The answer is “first subtract 5 and then divide .
f(x) 5
And we find g f(x) = g(f(x)) =
-
x5
by 3”. So, we try g(x) =
3
3
(3x 5) 5
=
+-
= x.
3
g(x) = 3(g(x)) + 5 =    −
Also, f    3
(x 5 + 5 = x Vx∈ R.

Let’s see if you’ve understood the process of extracting the inverse of a

function.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 21

x
What is the inverse of f: R → R: f(x) = 3?

Do all functions have an inverse? No, as the following example shows.

Example 7

Let f: R → R, be the constant function given by f(x) = 1 Vx∈ R. What is

the inverse.

Solution

If f has an inverse g: R → R, we have f  g = Ig, i.e. V x∈ R, f  g(x) = x.

Now take x = 5. We should have f  g (5) = 5, i.e., f(g(5)) = 5. but f(g(5))

= 1,
Since f(x) = 1 V R x. So we reach a contradiction. Therefore, f has no
inverse.

In view of this example, we naturally ask for necessary and sufficient

conditions for f to have an inverse. The answer is given by the following
theorem.

Theorem 4

A function f: A → B has an inverse if and only if f is bijective.

21
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Proof

Firstly, suppose f is bijective. We shall define a function g: B → A and

prove that g = f-1.

Let b ∈ B. Since f is onto, there is some a ∈ A such that f(a) = b. Since f is

one-one, there is only one such a ∈ A. We take this unique element a of A
as g(b). That is, given b ∈ B, we define g(b) = a, where f(a) = b.

Note that, since f is onto, B = {f(a) | a ∈ A}. Then, we are simply defining
g: B → A by g(f(a)) = a. This automatically ensures that g  f = IA.

Now, let b ∈ B and g(b) = a. Then f(a) = b, by definition of g. Therefore, f

 g(b) = f(g(b)) = f(a) = b. Hence, f  g = IB.

So, f  g = IB and g f = IA. This proves that g = f-1.

Conversely, suppose f has an inverse and that g = f-1. We must prove that f
is one-one and onto.

Suppose f(a1) = f(a2). Then g(f(a1)) = g(f(a2)).

⇒ g f(a1) = g f(a2)
⇒ a1 = a2, because g f = IA.
So, f is one-one.

Next, given b ∈ B, we have fog = IB, so that f  g(b) = IB(b) = b,

i.e., f(g(b)) = b. That is, f is onto.

Hence, the theorem is proved.

Try the following self assessment exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 22

 Consider the following functions from R to R. For each determine whether
it has an inverse and, when the inverse exists, find it.

a. f(x) = x2 V x∈ R.
b. f(x) = 0 V x∈ R.
c. f(x) = 11x + 7 V x∈ R.

Let us now discuss some elementary number theory.

22
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

3.5 Some Number Theory

In this section we will spell out certain factorization properties of integers

that we will use throughout the course. For this we first need to present the
principle of finite induction.

3.5.1 Principle of Induction

We will first state an axiom of the integers that we will often use implicitly,
namely, the well-ordering principle. We start with a definition.

Definition

Let S be a non-empty subset of Z. An element a ∈ S is called a least

element (or a minimum element) of S if a ≤ b V x ∈ S. For example, n
has a least element, namely, 1. But Z has no least element. In fact, many
subsets of Z, like 2Z, {-1, -2, -3, .....}, etc., don’t have least elements.

The following axiom tells us of some sets that have a least element.

Well-ordering Principle: Every non-empty subset of N has a least

element.

You may be surprised to know that this principle is actually equivalent to

the principle of finite induction, which we now state.

Theorem 5

Let S ⊆ ∈ N such that

i. 1 ∈ S, and
ii. Whenever k ∈ S, then k + 1 ∈ S
Then S = N

This theorem is further equivalent to:

Theorem 6
 Let S ⊆ N such that

i. 1 ∈ S, and
ii. if m ∈ S V m < k, then k ∈ S.
then S = N

23
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

We will not prove the equivalence of the well-ordering principle and

Theorems 5 and 6 in this course, since the proof is slightly technical.

Let us rewrite Theorem 5 and 6 in the forms that we will normally use.

Theorem 5’: Let P(n) be a statement about a positive integer n such that

i. P(1) is true, and

ii. if P(k) is true for some k ∈ N, then P(k + 1) is true.
Then, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.

Theorem 6’: Let P(n) be a statement about a positive integer n such that

i. P(1) is true, and

ii. if P(m) is true for all positive integers m < k, then P(k) is true. Then
P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.

The equivalence statements given above are very useful for proving a lot of
results in algebra. As we go along, we will often use the principle of
induction in whichever form is convenient. Let us look at an example.

Example 8
Prove that 13 + 23 +.............. + n3= 2 2 n (n 1)
+
for every n ∈ N.
4

Solution
22
Let Sn = 13 +................. + n3, and let P(n) be the statement that
n (n 1)
S= 4
+
.
1 x2 2 2, P(1) is true.
= n3
Since S1 4 22
(n 1) n

Now, suppose P(n – 1) is true, i.e., Sn-1 =

22
(n 1) n
Then Sn = 13 + ................ + (n – 1)3 + n3 = Sn-1 +
- 4

-
+ n3, since P(n – 1) is true.
=
4
22
n [( n 1) 4 n]
-+
=
4

24
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

= +
22
n (n 1) 4

Thus, P(n) is true.

Therefore, by the principle of induction, P(n) is true for all n in N.

Now, use the principle of induction to prove the following property of

numbers that you must have used time and again.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 23

For a, b ∈ R and n ∈ N, prove that (ab)n = anbn.

Let us now look at some factorization properties of integers.

3.5.2 Divisibility in Z

One of the fundamental ideas of number theory is the divisibility of

integers.

Definition

Let a, b ∈ Z, a ≠ 0. Then, we say that a divides b if there exists an

integer c such that b = ac. We write this as a | b and say that a is a divisor
(or factor) of b, or b is divisible by a, or b is a multiple of a.

If a does not divide b we write a | b.

We give some properties of divisibility of integers in the following

exercise. You can prove them very easily.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 24

Let a, b, c be non-zero integers. Then

a. a | 0, ± 1 | a, ± a | a.
b. a | b ⇒ ac | bc.
c. a | b and b | c ⇒ a | c.
d. a | b and b | a ⇔ a = ± b.
e. c | a and c | b ⇒ c | (ax + by) V x, y ∈ Z.

We will now give a result, to prove which we use Theorem 5’.

25
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Theorem 7

(Division Algorithm): Let a, b ∈ Z, b > 0. Then there exists unique

integers q, r such that a = qb + r, where 0 ≤ r < b.

Proof

We will first prove that q and r exist. Then we will show that they are
unique. To prove their existence, we will consider three different situations:
a = 0, a > 0, a < 0.

Case 1 (a = 0) : Take q = 0, r = 0. Then a = qb + r.

Case 2 (a > 0) : Let P(n) be the statement that n = qb + r for some q, r Î Z,

0 ≤ r < b.

Now let us see if P(1) is true.

If b = 1, we can take q = 1, r = 0, and thus, 1 = 1.1 + 0.

If b ≠ 1, then take q = 0, r = 1, i.e., 1 = 0.b + 1.

So, P(1) is true.

Now suppose P(n - 1) is true, i.e., (n – 1) = q1b + r1 for some q1, r1 ∈ Z, 0 ≤

r1 < b. But then r1 ≤ b – 1, i.e., r1 + 1 ≤ b. Therefore,

q b (r 1),if(r 1) b
+++<
n= 
 + + + =
111

(q 1)b 0,if r 1 b
11
 This shows that P (n) is true. Hence, by theorem 5’, P(n) is true, for any n
∈ N. That is, for a > 0, a = qb + r, q, r ∈ Z, 0 ≤ r < b.

Case 3 (a < 0): Here (-a) > 0. Therefore, by Case 2, we can write (-

a) = qb + r’, 0 ≤ r’ < b

( q)b,if r' 0
−=
i.e., a = 
 − − + − < < ( q 1)b (b r'),if 0 r' b
This proves the existence of the integers q, r with the required properties.

26
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Now let q’, r’ be in Z such that a = qb + r and a = q’b + r’, where 0 ≤ r, r’ <
b. Then r – r’ = b(q’ – q). Thus, b | (r – r’). But |r – r’| < b. Hence, r – r’ = 0,
i.e., r = r’ and q = q’. So we have proved the uniqueness of q and r.

In the expression, a = qb + r, 0 ≤ r < b, r is called the remainder obtained

when a is divided by b.

Let us go back to discussing factors.

Definition

Let a, b ∈ Z. c ∈ Z is called a common divisor of a and b if c | a and c | b.

For example, 2 is a common divisor of 2 and 4. From Self Assessment

Exercise 24(a) you know that 1 and -1 are common divisors of a and b, for
any a, b ∈ Z. Thus, a pair of integers does have more than one common
divisor. This fact leads us to the following definition.

Definition

An integer d is said to be a greatest common divisor (g.c.d in short) of

two non-zero integers a and b if

i. d | a and d | b, and
ii. if c | a and c | b, then c | d.

Note that if d and d’ are two g.c.d s of a and b, then (ii) says that d | d’ and
d’ | d. Thus, d = ± d’ (see Self-Assessment Exercise 24). But then only one
of them is positive. This unique positive g.c.d. is denoted by (a, b).

We will now show that (a, b) exists for any non-zero integers a and b. You
will also see how useful the well-ordering principle is.
Theorem 8
Any two non-zero integers a and b have a g.c.d, and (a, b) = ma + nb, for
some m, n ∈ Z.

Proof

Let S = {xa + yb | x, y ∈ Z, (xa + yb) > 0}.

27
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Since a2 + b2 > 0, a2 + b2∈ S, i.e., S ≠ f . But then, by the well-ordering

principle, S has a least d ∈ S. Therefore, d > 0. So by the division
algorithm we can write
a = qd + r, 0 £ r < d. Thus,
r = a – qd = a – q(ma + nb) = (1 – qm)a + (-q)b.

Now, if r ≠ 0, then r ∈ S, which contradicts the minimality of d in S.

Thus, r = 0, i.e., a = qd, i.e., d | a. We can similarly show that d | b. Thus, d
is a common divisor of a and b.

Now, let c be an integer such that c | a and c | b.

Then a = a1c, b = b1c for some a1, b1 ∈ Z.

But then d = ma + nb = ma1c + nb1c. Thus, c | d. So we have shown that d

is a g.c.d. In fact, it is the unique positive g.c.d. (a, b).

For example, the g.c.d. is 2 and 10 is 2 = 1.2 + 0.10, and the g.c.d. of 2 and
3 is 1 = (-1) 2+ 1(3).

Pair of integers whose g.c.d. is 1 have a special name.

Definition

If (a, b) = 1, then the two integers a and b are said to be relatively prime
(or co prime) to each other.

Using Theorem 8, we can say that a and b are co prime to each other iff
there exists m, a ∈ Z such that 1 = ma + nb.

The next theorem shows us a nice property of relatively prime numbers.

Theorem 9

If a, b ∈ Z, such that (a, b) = 1 and b | ac, then b | c.

Proof
 We know that ∃ m, n ∈ Z such that 1 = ma + nb. Then c = c.1 = c(ma +nb)
= mac + nbc.

Now, b | ac and b | bc. ∴ b | (mac + nbc) (by Self-Assessment Exercise

24(c)). Thus, b | c.

Let us now discuss prime factorization.

28
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Definition

A natural number p (≠ 1) is called a prime if its only

divisors are 1 and p. If a natural number n (≠ 1) is not
a prime, then it is called a composite number.

For example, 2 and 3 are prime numbers, while 4 is a composite number.

Note that, if p is a prime number and a ∈ Z such that p | a, then (p, a) = 1.

Try the following self assessment exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 25

If p is a prime and p | ab, then show that p | a or p | b.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 26

If p is a prime and p| a1a2 ...... an, then show that p ai for some i = 1, ..., n.

Now consider the number 50. We can write 50 = 2 x 5 x 5 as a product of

primes. In fact we can always express any natural number as a product of
primes. This is what the unique prime factorization theorem says.

Theorem 10

(Unique Prime Factorisation): Every integer n > 1 can be written as n p 1,

p2 ............ pn, where p1, .........., pn are prime numbers. This representation is
unique, except for the order in which the prime factors occur.

Proof

We will first prove the existence of such a factorization. Let P (n) be the
statement that n + 1 is a product of primes. P (1) is true, because 2 is a
prime number itself.

Now let us assume that P (m) is true for all positive integers m < k. We
want to show that P (k) is true. If (k + 1) is a prime, P (k) is true. If k + 1 is
not a prime, then we can write k + 1 = m1m2, where 1 < m1 < k + 1 and 1 <
m2 < k + 1. But then P (m 1 - 1) and P(m2 – 1) are both true. Thus, m 1 =
p1p2.........pr, m2 = q1 q2 ............ qs, where p1, p2... pr, q1, q2, ………, qs are
primes. Thus,

29
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

k + 1 = p1p2 … pr q1 q2 …. qs, i.e., P(k) is true. Hence, by Theorem 6’, P(n)

is true for every n ∈ N.

Now let us show that the factorisation is unique.

Let n = p1p2 … pt = q1 q2 …. qs, where

p1, p2 … pt, q1, q2 …. qs, are primes. We will use induction on t.

If t = 1, then p1 = q1 q2 ……., qs. But p1 is a prime. Thus, its only factors are
1 and itself. Thus, s = 1 and p1 = q1.

Now suppose t > 1 and the uniqueness holds for a product of t – 1 primes.
Now p1 | q1q2 …… qs and hence, by Self-Assessment Exercise 26, p1 | q1 for
some i. By re-ordering q1, ….., qs we can assume that p1 | q1. But both p1 and
q1 are primes. Therefore, p1 = q1 are primes.

Therefore, p1 = q1. But then p2 …… pt = q2 ……. qs. So, by induction, t – 1

= s – 1 and p2, ……., pt are the same as q2, ……qs in some order.

Hence, we have proved the uniqueness of the factorisation.

The primes that occur in the factorisation of a number may be repeated in

the factorisation 50 = 2 x 5 x 5. By collecting the same primes together we
can give the following corollary to Theorem 10.

Corollary: Any natural number n can be uniquely written as n = 1 p m2

m1
2p...... mr r p , where for i = 1, 2, ........., r, each mi ∈ N and each pi
is a prime with 1 < p1 < p2 < …. < pr.

As an application of Theorem 10, we give the following important theorem,

due to the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid.

Theorem 11

There are infinitely many primes.

Proof

Assume that the set P of prime numbers is finite, say

P = {p1, p2, …., pn}. Consider the natural number
n = (p1p2, ……, pn) + 1

Now, suppose some pi | n. Then pi | (n – p1p2 ……In.. pn), i.e., pi | 1, a

contradiction. Therefore, no pi divides n. But since n > 1, Theorem 10 says
that n must have a prime factor. We reach a contradiction. Therefore, the
set of primes must be infinite.
 30
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Try the following self assessment exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 27

Prove that p is rational for any prime p.

a
(Hint : Suppose p is rational. Then p = b, where a, b ∈Î Z and we can
assume that (a, b) = 1. Now use the properties of prime numbers that we
have just discussed.)

Let us now summarise what we have done inn this unit.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have placed emphasis on some properties of sets and

subsets. We have also defined relations in general and equivalence relations
in particular. The definitions of functions were also considered. The
summary of what we have considered in this unit are given below, Please
read carefully and master every bit of it in order for you to follow the
subsequent units.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have covered the following points.

• Some properties of sets and subsets.

• The union, intersection, difference and complements of sets. • The
Cartesian product of sets.
• Relation in general and equivalence relations in particular. • The definition
of a function, a 1-1 function, an onto function and a bijective function.
• The composition of functions.
• The well-ordering principle, which states that every subset of N has a
least element.
• The principle of finite induction, which states that : If P(n) is a statement
about some n ∈ N such that:

- P(1) is true, and

- if P(k) is true for some k ∈ N, then P(k + 1) is true, then
P(n) is true for every n ∈ N.

• The principle of finite induction can also be stated as: If P(n)

is a statement about some n ∈ N such that
- P(1) is true, and

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
 - if P(m) is true for every positive integer m < k, then P(k) is true, then
P(n) is true for every n ∈ N,

Note that well-ordering principle is equivalent to the principle of finite

induction.

• Properties pf divisibility in Z, like the division algorithm and unique

prime factorisation.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

a) T b) F c) F d) T

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

a. x ∈ A  B ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ⇒x ∈ C, since A ⊆ C and B ⊆ C.

b. x ∈ A  B ⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ⇔ x ∈ B or x ∈ A Û x ∈ B  A. ∴ A
 B = B  A.

c. x ∈ A  φ ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ φ ⇒ x ∈ A, since φ has no element. ∴ A

 φ ⊆ A.
Also, A ∈ A  φ, since x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A  φ.
∴A = A  φ

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

a. You can do it on the lines of Self Assessment Exercise 2(b).

b. x ∈ A  B ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A, since A ⊆ B. ∴ A
 B ⊆ A.

Conversely, x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B since A ⊆ B.

⇒ x ∈ A  B.
∴ A ⊆ A  B.
∴ A  B = A.

c. Use the fact that φ ⊆ A.

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

a. x ∈ (A  B)  C ⇔ x ∈ A  B or x ∈ C ⇔ x ∈ A or
x ∈ B or x ∈ C.
⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ B  C
⇔ x ∈ A  (B  C)
∴ (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)

b. Try it on the same lines as (a).

c. B  C ⊆ B ⇒ A  (B  C) ⊆ A  B.

Similarly, A  (B  C) ⊆ A  C.
∴ A  (B  C) ⊆ (A  B)  (A  C)

Conversely, x ∈ (A  B)  (A  C)
⇒ x ∈ A  B and x ∈ A  C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and x ∈ A or x ∈ C.
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B  C
⇒ x ∈ A  (B  C)
∴ (A  B)  (A  C) ⊆ A  (B  C).

Thus, (c) is proved

d. Try it on the same lines as (c).

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

a. T
b. F. For example, if A = [0, 1] and B = [0, 2], then A ⊄
B, B ⊄ and A  B = (0) ≠φ.
c. F, In fact, for any set A, A ⊆ B.
d. T.
e. T.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

a. x ∈ A iff x ∉ Ac.

b. Since A and Ac are subsets of X, A  Ac ⊆ X.

Conversely, if x ∈ X and x ∉A, then x ∈Ac. ∴
X ⊆ A  Ac.
∴X = A  A c.

c. x ∈ A ⇔ x ∉ Ac ⇔ x ∈ (Ac)c. ∴A = (Ac)c.

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

A x B = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (5, 2), (5, 3)}

 B x A = {(2, 2), (3, 2), (2, 5), (3, 5)}
A x A = {(2, 2), (2, 5), (5, 2), (5, 5)}

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

The set of the first coordinates is A. ∴A = {7, 2}. The

set of the second coordinates is B. ∴B = {2, 3, 4}.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

(x, y) ∈ (A  B) x C ⇔ x ∈ A  B and y ∈ C ⇔ x
∈ A or x ∈ B and y ∈ C
⇔ x ∈ A and y ∈ C or x ∈ B and y ∈ C
⇔ (x, y) ∈ A x C or (x, y) ∈ B x C
⇔ (x, y) ∈ (A x C)  (B x C).

You can similarly show that

(A  B) x C = (A x C)  (B x C).

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10

a. F b. T c. F ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT

EXERCISE 11

Since 5 divides (a - a) = 0 V a ∈ N, R is reflexive. If 5 | (a –

b), then 5 | (b – a). ∴, R is symmetric. If 5 | (a – b), then 5 |
(b – c), then 5 | {(a – b) + (b – c)}, i.e. 5 | (a – c). ∴, R is
transitive.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 12

2 R 2 is false
(2, 4) ∈ R, but (4, 2) ∉ R.
(2, 4) ∈ R, (4, 16) ∈ R, but (2, 16) ∉ R.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 13

|a| = |a| V a ∈ Z ∴, R is reflexive.

|a| = |b| ⇒ |b| = |a| ∴, R is symmetric.
|a| = |b| and |b| = |c| ⇒ |a| = |c|. ∴, R is transitive.

34
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

∴, R is an equivalence relation.

[0] = {a ∈ Z | aR0} = {a ∈ Z | |a| = 0} = {0}.

[1] = {1, -1}.
ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 14

For n, m ∈ N, f(n) = f(m) ⇒ n + 5 = m + 5 ⇒ n = m.

∴, f is 1 – 1.
Since 1 ∉ f(N), f(N) ≠N.∴, f is not surjective.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 15

f is 1 – 1 (as in Self Assessment Exercise 14).

For any z ∈ Z, f(z – 5) = z. ∴, f is surjective, and hence, bijective.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 16 f(x) = c V x

∈ X.

Suppose X has at least two elements, say x and y. Then

f(x) = c = f(y), but x ≠ y. That is, f is not 1 – 1.
Therefore, if f is 1 – 1, then X consists of only one
element.

Since f(X) = {c}, f is surjective.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 17 x

∈ X ⇒ f(x) ∈ f(X) ⇒ x ∈ f-1 (f(X)).∴, X ⊆ f-1 f(X)).

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 18

a. x ∈ f-1 (S) ⇔ f(x) ∈ ST.

⇔ f(x) ∈ S or f(x)∈T
⇔ x ∈ f-1 (S) or x ∈f-1 (T)
∴ f-1 (S) ⊆ f-1 (T).

b. x ∈ f-1 (S  T) ⇔ f(x) ∈ S  T
⇔ f(x) ∈ S or f(x) ∈ T
⇔ x ∈f-1 (S) or x ∈ f-1 (T)
⇔ x ∈f-1 (S)  f-1 (T)

c.) Do it on the lines of (b).

35
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 19 f

 g and g f are functions from R to R in all cases.

a. f  g (x) = f(x + 5) = 5(x + 5) V x ∈ R g f

 (x) = g(5x) = 5x + 5 V x ∈ R.

b. f  g (x) = g f (x) = x V x ∈ R.

c. f  g (x) = x2= g f (x) V x ∈ R.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 20

Show that IA  g(b) = g(b) and g IB(b) = g(b) V b ∈ B.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 21 g

: R → R : g(x) = 3x.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 22

a. f is not 1 – 1, since f(1) = f(-1).

∴, f-1 doesn’t exist.

b. f is not surjective, since f(R) ≠ R.

∴ , f-1 doesn’t exist.

c. f is bijective, ∴, f-1 exists.

x7
f-1: R → R : f-1(x) =
-
.
11

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 23

Let P(n) be the statement that (ab)n = anbn. P(1) is true.

Assume that P(n – 1) is true. Then (ab)n = (ab)n-1 (ab) =
(an-1 bn-1)ab, since P(n -1) is true. = an-1 (bn-1a)b
= an-1 (abn-1)b
= anbn.
∴, P(n) is true
∴, P(n) is true V n ∈N.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 24

a. Since a.0 = 0, a | 0.
(± 1) (± a) = a. ∴± 1 | a and ± a | a.

36
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

b. a | b ⇒ b = ad, for some d ∈ Z

⇒ bc = (ac)d,
⇒ ac | bc

c. b = ad, c = be, for some d, e ∈ Z.

 ∴, c = ade. ∴, a | c.

d. a | b ⇒ b = ad, for some d ∈ Z

b | a ⇒ a = be, for some e ∈ Z.
∴, a = ade ⇒ de = 1, since a ≠ 0.
∴, e = ± 1. ∴, a = ± b.

e. c | a and c | b ⇒ a = cd, b = ce for some d, e ∈Z. ∴ ,

for any x, y ∈ Z, ax + by = c(dx + ey).
∴ , c | (ax + by).

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 25

Suppose p | a. Then (p, a) = 1. ∴, by Theorem 9, p | b.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 26

Let P(n) be the statement that p | a1 a2 ……… an

⇒ p | ai for some i = 1, 2, ……….., n.
P(1) is true.

Suppose P (m – 1) is true.

Now, let p | a1a2 ……… am. Then p | (a1 ………. Am-1)am. By Self
Assessment Exercise 25, p | (a1 a2 ……… am-1) or p | am. ∴, p | ai
for some i = 1, ……, m (since P(m – 1) is true). ∴, P(m) is true.
∴, P(n) is true V n ∈N.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 27 p

a
= b⇒a2 = pb2 ⇒ p | a2 ⇒ p | a, since p is a prime.

Let a = pc. Then a2 = pb2 ⇒ p2c2 = pb2 ⇒ pc2 = b2 ⇒

p | b2 ⇒ p | b.
∴, p | (a, b) = 1, a contradiction.
∴, p is irrational.

37
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Birkhaffand Melhnew (1972). A Survey of Modern Algebra.

Blacksell: Topics in Algebra.

 38
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

UNIT 2 GROUPS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Binary Operations
3.2 What is a Group?
3.3 Properties of Groups
3.4 Three Groups
3.4.1 Integers modulo n
3.4.2 Symmetric Group
3.4.3 Complex Numbers
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1 we have discussed some basic properties of sets and functions. In
this unit we are going to discuss certain sets with algebraic structures. We
call them groups.

The theory of groups is one of the oldest branches of abstract algebra. It has
many applications in mathematics and in the other sciences. Group theory
has helped in developing physics, chemistry and computer science. Its own
roots go back to the work of the eighteenth century mathematicians
Lagrange, Ruffini and Galois.

In this unit we start the study of this theory. We define groups and give
some examples. Then we give details of some properties that the elements
of a group satisfy. We finally discuss three well known and often used
groups. In future units we will be developing group theory further.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define and give examples of binary operations

• define and give examples of abelian and non-abelian groups • use the
cancellation laws and laws of indices for various groups • use basic
properties of integers modulo n, permutations and complex numbers.

39
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
 3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Binary Operations

You are familiar with the usual operations of addition and multiplication in
R, Q and C. these operations are examples of binary operations, a term that
we will now define.

Definition

Let S be an non-empty set. Any function * : S x S → S is called a binary

operation on S.

So, a binary operation associates a unique element of S to every ordered

pair of elements of S.

For a binary operation * on S and (a, b) ∈ S x S, we denote * (a, b) by a* b.

We will use symbols like +, -, x,⊕ ,  ,* and ∆ to denote binary operations.

Let us look at some examples.

i. + and x are binary operations on Z. In fact, we have +(a, b) = a + b and x

(a, b) = a ´ b V a, b ∈ Z. We will normally denote a x b by ab.

ii. Let ℘(S) be the set of all subsets of S. Then the operations  and  are
binary operations on ℘ (S), since A  B and A  B are in ℘ (S) for
all subsets A and B of S.

iii. Let X be a non-empty set and F(X) be the family of all functions f: X →
X. Then the composition of functions is a binary operation on F (X),
since f  g ∈ F (X) " f, g ∈ F (X).

We are now in a position to define certain properties that binary operations

can have.

Definition

Let * be a binary operation on a set S. We say that

i. * is closed on a subset T of S, if a * b ∈ T V a, b ∈ T.

40
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

ii. * is associative if, for all a, b, c ∈ S, (a, * b) * c = a * (b * c). iii. * is

commutative if, for all a, b Î S, a * b = b * a.

 For example, the operations of addition and multiplication on R are
commutative as well as associative. But, subtraction is neither commutative
nor associative on R. Why? Is a – b = b – a or (a – b) –c = a - (b – c) V a, b,
c ∈ R? No, for example, 1 – 2 ≠ 2 – 1 and (1 – 2) -3 ≠ 1 –
(2 – 3). Also subtraction is not closed on N ⊆ R, because 1
∈ N, 2 ∈ N but 1 – 2 ∉ N.

Note that a binary operation on S is always closed on S, but may not be

closed on a subset of S.

Try the following self assessment exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

For the following binary operations defined on R, determine whether they

are commutative or associative. Are they closed on N?

1. x ⊕ y = x + y – 5
2. x * y = 2(x + y)
xy
3. x ∆ y =
-
2
for all x, y ∈ R.

In calculations you must have often used the fact that a(b + c) = ab + ac and
(b + c) a = bc + ba V a, b, c ∈ R. This fact says that multiplication
distributes over addition in R. In general, we have the following definition.

Definition

If  and * are two binary operations on a set S, we say that * is distributive

over  if V a, b, c ∈ S, we have a * (b  c) = (a * b)  (a * c) and (b  c) *
a = (b * a)  (c * a).

+   +
V a, b ∈ R. Then a(b * c) = a   2
ab   +
For example, let a * b = (b * c)a =   2
2
b ca = ba ca
ab ac
+ +
= ab * ac, and = ba * ca V a, b, c ∈ R.
2 2
b c=
 41
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Hence, multiplication is distributive over* .

For another example, go back to Self Assessment Exercise 4 of Unit 1.

What does it say? It says that the intersection of sets distributes over the
union distributes over the intersection of sets.

Let us now look deeper at some binary operations. You know that, for any
a ∈ R, a + 0 = a, 0 + a = a and a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0. We say that 0 is the
identity element for addition and (-a) is the negative or additive inverse of
a. In general, we have the following definition.

Definition
Let * be a binary operation on a set S. If there is an element e ∈ S such that
V a ∈ S, a * e = a and e * a = a, then e is called an identity element for* .
For a ∈ S, we say that b ∈ S is an inverse of a, if a * b = e and b * a = e. In
this case we usually write b = a-1.

Before discussing examples of identity elements and inverses consider the

following result. In it we will prove the uniqueness of the identity element
for* , and the uniqueness of the inverse of an element with respect to * , if it
exists.

Theorem 1

Let * be a binary operation on a set S. Then

a. if * has an identity element, it must be unique.

b. if * is associative and s ∈ S has an inverse with respect to * , it must be

unique.

Proof

a. Suppose a and e’ are both identity elements for* .

Then e = e * e ' , since e' is an identity element.

= e ' , since e is an identity element.
That is, e = e' . Hence, the identity element is unique.

b. Suppose there exist a, b ∈ S such that s * a = e = a * s and s * b = e = b *

s, e being the identity element for* . Then
a = a * c = a * (s * b)
= (a * s) * b, since * is associative.
= e * b = b.

42
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
That is, a = b.

Hence, the inverse of s is unique.

This uniqueness theorem allows us to say the identity element and the
inverse, henceforth.

A binary operation may or may not have an identity element. For example,
the operation of addition on N has no identity element.

Similarly, an element may not have an inverse with respect to a binary

operation. For example, 2∈Z has no inverse with respect to multiplication
on Z, does it?

Let us consider the following examples now.

Example 1

If the binary operation⊕ : R x R → R is defined by a ⊕ b = a + b – 1,

prove that ⊕ has an identity. If x ∈ R, determine the inverse of x with
respect to ⊕ , if it exists.

Solution

We are looking for some e ∈ R such that a ⊕ e = a = e ⊕ a V a ∈ R. So

we want e ∈ R such that a + e – 1 = a V a ∈ R. Obviously, e = 1 will
satisfy this. Also, 1 ⊕ a = a Va ∈ R. Hence, 1 is the identity element of⊕ .

For x ∈ R, if b is the inverse of x, we should have b ⊕ x = 1. i.e., b + x – 1

= 1, i.e., b = 2 – x. Indeed, (2 – x) ⊕ x = (2 – x) + x – 1 = 1.
Also, x ⊕ (2 – x) = x + 2 – x – 1 = 1. So, x-1 = 2 – x.

Example 2

Let S be a non-empty set. Consider ℘(S), the set of all subsets of S. Are 
and commutative or associative operations on ℘(S)? Do identity elements
and inverses of elements of ℘(S) exist with respect to these operations?

Solution

Since A  B = B A and A B = B A V A, B ∈ ℘(S), the operations of

union and intersection or are associative operations on ℘(S). Self

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Assessment Exercise of Unit 1 also says that both operations are

associative. You can see that the empty set φ and the set are S the
identities of the operations of union and intersection,
respectively. Since S ≠ φ, there is no B ∈ ℘(S) such that S  B =
 φ. In fact, for any A ∈
℘(S) such that A ≠ φ, A does not have an inverse with respect to
union. Similarly, any proper subset of S does not have an inverse with
respect to intersection.

Try the following self assessment exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Obtain the identity element, if it exists, for the operations given in Self
Assessment Exercise 1.

2. For x ∈ R, obtain x-1 (if it exists) for each of the operations given in Self
Assessment Exercise 1.

When the set S under consideration is small, we can represent the way a
binary operation on S acts by a table.

Operation Table

Let S be a finite set and * be a binary operation on S. We can represent the

binary operation by a square table, called an operation table or a Cayley
table. The Cayley table is named after the famous mathematician Arthur
Cayley (1821 – 1895).

To write this table, we first list the elements of S vertically as well as

horizontally, in the same order. Then we write a * b in the table at the table
at the intersection of the row headed by a and the column headed by b.

For example, if S = {-1, 0, 1} and the binary operation is multiplication,

denoted by then it can be represented by the following table.
-1 0 1

-1
(-1).(-1) (-1).0 (-1).1 =1 =0 =-1

0
0.(-1) 0.0 (-1).1 =0 =0 =0

44
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

1
1.(-1) 1.0 1.1 =-1 =0 =1

Conversely, if we are given a table, we can define a binary operation on S.

For example, we can define the operation * on S = {1, 2, 3} by the
following table.
* 123

1 123

2 312

3 231

From this table we see that, for instance, 1 * 2 = 2 and 2 * 3 = 2.

Now 2 * 1 = 3 and 1 * 2 = 2. ∴2 * 1 ≠ 1 * 2. That is, * is not commutative.

Again, (2 * 1) * 3 = 3 * 3 = 1 and 2 * (1 * 3) = 2.
∴ (2 * 1) * 3 ≠ 2 * (1 * 3). ∴, * is not associative.

See how much information a mere table can give!

The following exercise will give you some practice in drawing Cayley
tables.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Draw the operation table for the set ℘(S) (ref. Example 2), where S = {0, 1}
and the operation in .

Now consider the following definition.

Definition

Let * be a binary operation on a non-empty set S and let a1, .., ak+1 ∈ S.

We define the product a1 * …… * ak+1 as follows:

If k = 1, a1 * a2 is a well defined element in S.

If a1 * ……… * ak is defined, then

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

a1 * …….. * ak+1 = (a1 * …….. * ak)* ak+1

We use this definition in the following result.

Theorem 2

Let a1, …….., am+n be elements in a set S with an associative binary

operation * . Then
(a1 * …….. * am) * (am+1 * …….. * am+n) = a1 * ……..* am+n. Proof
 We use induction on n. That is, we will show that the statement is true for n
= 1.

Then, assuming that is true for n – 1, we will prove it for n.

If n = 1, our definition above gives us

(a1 * …….. * am) * * am+n = a1 * ……..* am+n.

Now, assume that

(a1 * ……. * am) * (am+1 * ….. * am+n-1) = a1 * ……. * am+n-1 Then

(a1 * ….. * am) * (am+1 * ….. * am+n)

= (a1 * ….. * am) * ((am+1 * ……. * am+n-1) * am+n)
= ((a1 * ….. * am) * (am+1 * ….. * am+n-1)) * am+n, since * is associative = (a1 *
….. * am+n-1) * am+n, by induction
= (a1 * ….. * am+n, by definition.

Hence, the result holds for all n.

We will use Theorem 2 quite often in this course, without explicitly

referring to it.

Now that we have discussed binary operations let us talk about groups.

3.2 What is a Group?

In this section we study some basic properties of an algebraic system called

a group. This algebraic system consists of a set with a binary operation
which satisfies certain properties that we have defined in Sec. 2.2. Let us
see what this system is.

46
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Definition

Let G be a non-empty set and * be a binary operation on G. We say that the

pair (G,* ) is a group if

G1) * is associative,
G2) G contains an identity element e for* , and
G3) every element in G has an inverse in G with respect to * . We

will now give some examples of groups.

Example 3

Show that (Z, +) is a group, but (Z,) is not.

Solution

+ is an associative binary operation on Z. the identity element with respect

to + is 0, and the inverse of nay n ∈ Z is (-n). Thus, (Z, +) satisfies G1, G2
and G3.

Therefore, it is a group.

Now, multiplication in Z is associative and 1∈ Z is the multiplicative

identity. But does every element in Z have a multiplicative? No. For
instance, 0 and 2 have no inverses with respect to ‘.’. Therefore, (Z,.) is not
a group.

Note that (Z,.) is a semi group since it satisfies G1. So, there exist semi
groups that aren’t groups!

The following self assessment exercise gives you two more examples of
groups.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Show that (Q, +) and (R, +) are groups.

Actually, to show that (G,* ) is a group it is sufficient to show that *

satisfies the following axioms.

G1’) * is associative.
G2’) ∃e ∈ G such that a * e = a V a ∈ G.
G3’) Given a ∈ G, ∃ b ∈ G such that a * b = e.

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

What we are saying is that the two sets of axioms are equivalent. The
difference between them is the following:

In the first set we need to prove that e is a two-sided identity and that the
inverse b of any a ∈ G satisfies a * b = e and b * a = e. In the second set we
only need to prove that e is a one-sided identity and that the inverse b of
any a ∈ G only satisfies a * b = e.

In fact, these axioms are also equivalent to

G1”) * is associative.
G2”) ∃ e ∈ G such that e * a = a V a ∈ G.
G3”) Given a ∈ G ∃ b ∈ G such that b * a = e.

Clearly, if * satisfies G1, G2 and G3, then it also satisfies G1’, G2’ and
G3’. The following theorem tells us that if * satisfies the second set of
 axioms, then it satisfies the first set too.

Theorem 3

Let (G,* ) satisfy G1’, G2’ and G3’. Then e * a = a " a ∈ G. Also, given a
∈ G, if ∃ b ∈ G such that a * b = e, then b * a = e. Thus, (G,* ) satisfies
G1, G2 and G3.

To prove this theorem, we need the following result.

Lemma 1

Let (G,* ) satisfy G1’, G2’ and G3’. If ∃ a ∈ G such that a * a = a, then a =
e.

Proof

By G3’ we know that ∃ b ∈ G such that a * b = e.

Now (a * a) * b = a * b = e.

Also, a * (a * b) = a * e = a. Therefore, by G1’, a = e.

Now we will use this lemma to prove Theorem 3.

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Proof to Theorem 3

G1 holds since G1 and G1’ are the same axioms. We will next prove that
G3 is true. Let a ∈ G such that a * b = e. We will show that b * a = e. Now,

(b * a) * (b * a) = (b * (a * b) * a = (b * e) * a = b * a.

Therefore, by Lemma 1, b * a = e. Therefore, G3 is true.

Now we will show that G2 holds. Let a ∈ G. Then by G2’, for a ∈ G, a * e

= a. since G3 holds, ∃ b ∈ G such that a * b = b * a = e. Then e * a = (a * b)
* a = a * (b * a) = a * e = a.

That is, G2 also holds.

Thus, (G, * ) satisfies G1, G2 and G3.

Now consider some more examples of groups.

Example 4

Let G = { ± 1, ± i}, i = - 1 . Let the binary operation be multiplication.

Show that (G,×) is a group.

Solution

The table of the operation is

1 -1 i -i

1 1 -1 i -i

-1 -1 1 -i i

i i -i -1 1

-i -i i 1 -1

This table shows us that a.1 = a V a ∈ G. Therefore, 1 is the identity

element. It also shows us that (G,.) satisfies G3’. Therefore, (G,.) is a group.

Note that G = {1, x, x2, x3}, where x = i.

From Example 4 you can see how we can use Theorem 3 to decrease the
amount of checking we have to do while proving that a system is a group.

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Note that the group in Example 4 has only 4 elements, while those in
Example 3 and Self Assessment Exercise 4 have infinitely many elements.
We have the following definitions.

Definition

If (G,* ) is a group, where G is a finite set consisting of n elements, then we

say that (G,* ) is a finite group of order n. If G is an infinite set, then we
say that (G,* ) is an infinite group.

If * is a commutative binary operation we say that (G, * ) is a commutative

group, or an abelian group. Abelian groups are named after the gifted
young Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.

Thus, the group in Example 4 is a finite abelian group of order 4. The

groups in Example 3 and Self Assessment 4 are infinite abelian groups.

Now let us look at an example of a non-commutative (or non-abelian)

group. Before doing this example recalls that an m ´ n matrix over a set S is
 a rectangular arrangement of elements of S in m rows and n columns.

Example 5

Let G be the set of all 2 x 2 matrices with non-zero determinant. That is,

∈ ≠    
   a, b, c, d R, ad-bc 0

ab
G= cd


Consider g with the usual matrix multiplication, i.e., for a

A=  
and P =      cd
  rspq
in G, A.P =   
  + + cp dr cq
ap br aq bs + + ds

Show that (G,.) is a group.

Solution

First we show that, is a binary operation, that is, A, P ∈ G ⇒ A.P ∈ G.

Now,

det(A. P) = det A. det P ≠ 0, since det A ≠

0, det P ≠ 0. Hence, A.P ∈ G for all A, P in G.

50
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

10
 
 
.
We also know that matrix multiplication is associative and 0 1 a b

in G, the matrix
is the multiplicative identity. Now, for A =  

 


c
d
d − b
B= 1
−− is such that det B =
  
  − −   −

ad bc cad bc ad bc - ≠ 0 and AB
a
ad bc  
 
.
10 = 01
ad bc

Thus, B = A-1. (Note that we have used the axiom G3’ here, and not G3.)
This shows that the act set of all 2 x 2 matrices over R with non-zero
determinant forms a group under multiplication. Since

2 1and
=
 
01   43
12  
  10
  
  34
=  
12   12
01   
     34 34’
  10

We see that this group is not commutative.

This group is usually denoted by GL2(R), and is called the general linear
group of order 2 over R. We will be using this group for examples
throughout Blocks 1 and 2.

And now another example of an abelian group.

Example 6

Consider the set of all translation of R2,

T = {f :R R f a,b(x,y) (x a, y b) fixed a,b R} 22
a,b → = + + for
 some ∈
Note that each element fa,b in T is represented by a point (a, b) in R2. Show
that (T,  ) is a group, where  denotes the composition of functions.

51
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Solution

Let us see if  is a binary operation on T.

Now fa,b  fc,b(x, y) = fa,b(x + c, y + d) = (x + c + a, y + d + b)

= fa+c, b+d(x, y) for any (x, y) ∈ R2.
∴fa,b  fc,d = fa+c, b+d ∈ T.
Thus,  is a binary operation on T.
Now, fa,b  f0,0 = fa,bV fa,b ∈ T.

Therefore, f0,0 is the identity element.

Also, fa,b  f-a,-b is the inverse of f0,0 V fa,b∈T.

Thus, (T,  ) satisfies G1’, G2’ and G3’, and hence is a group. Note that

fa,b  fc,d = fc,d  fa,b V fa,b  fc,d ∈ T. Therefore, (T,  ) is abelian. Try the

following self assessment exercises now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Let Q*, R* and Z* denote the sets of non-zero rationals, reals and integers.
Are the following statements true? If not, give reasons.

1. (Q*, .) is an abelian group.

2. (R*, .) is a finite abelian group.
3. (Z*, .) is a group.
4. (Q*, .), (R*, .) and (Z*, .) are semigroups.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Show that (G, * ) is a non-abelian group,

where G = {(a,b) a,b∈R,a ≠ 0} and * is defined on G by
(a, b) * (c, d) = (ac, bc + d).

We will now look at some properties that elements of a group satisfy.

3.3 Properties of Groups

 In this section we shall give some elementary results about properties that
group elements satisfy. But first let us give some notational conventions.

52
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Convention

Henceforth, for convenience, we will denote a group (G,* ) by G, if there

is no danger of confusion. We will also denote a * b by ab, for a, b∈ G,
and say that we are multiplying a and b. The letter e will continue to
denote the group identity.

Now let us prove a simple result.

Theorem 4

Let G be a group. Then

a. (a-1)-1 = a for every a ∈ G.

b. (ab)-1 = b-1 a-1 for all a, b ∈ G.

Proof

a. By the definition of inverse,

(a-1)-1 (a-1) = e = (a-1) (a-1)-1.

But, a a-1 a = c also. Thus, by Theorem 1 (b), (a-1)-1= a.

b. For a, b∈G, ab∈G. Therefore, (ab)-1∈G and is the unique element

satisfying (ab) (ab)-1 = (ab)-1 (ab) = e.

However, (ab) (b-1 a-1) = ((ab) b-1)a-1

= (a (b b-1)a-1)
= (a e)a-1
= aa-1
=e
-1 -1
Similarly, (b a ) (ab) = e.

Thus, by uniqueness of the inverse we get (ab)-1 = b-1a-1. Note that,

for a group G, (ab)-1 = a-1 b-1 V a, b ∈ G only is abelian.

You know that whenever ba = ca or ab = ac for a, b, c in R*, we can

conclude that b = c. That is, we can cancel a. This fact is true for any group.

Theorem 5

For a, b, c in a group G,
a. ab = ac ⇒ b = c. (This is known as the left cancellation law.) b. ba =
ca ⇒ b = c. (This is known as the right cancellation law.)

53
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Proof

We will prove (a) and leave you to prove (b) (see Self Assessment 7).

a. Let ab = ac. Multiplying both sides on the left hand side by a -1∈ G, we
get
a-1(ab) = a-1(ac)
⇒ (a-1 a)b = (a-1a)c
⇒ eb = ec, e being the identity element.
⇒ b = c.

Remember that by multiplying we can mean we are performing the

operation * .

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

Prove (b) of Theorem 5.

Now use Theorem 5 to solve the following self assessment exercise.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

If in a group G, there exists an element g such that gx = g for all x ∈ G,

then show that G = {e}.

We now prove another property of groups.

Theorem 6

For elements a, b in a group G, the equations ax = b and ya = b have unique

solutions in G.

Proof

We will first show that these linear equations do have solutions in G, and
then we will show that the solutions are unique.

For a, b ∈ G, consider a-1 b ∈ G. We find that a(a-1 b) = (aa -1)b = eb = b.

Thus, a-1 b satisfies the equation ax = b, i.e., ax = b has a solution in G.
But is this the only solution? Suppose x 1, x2 are two solutions of ax = b in
G. then ax1 = b = ax2. By the left cancellation law, we get x 1 = x2. thus, a-1 b
is the unique solution in G.

Similarly, using the right cancellation law, we can show that ba-1 is the
 unique solution of ya = b in G.

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Now we will illustrate the property given in Theorem 6.

Example 7

,B=  
23   04
Consider A =    
  12 1 5in GL2 (R) (see Example 5).
Find the solution of AX = B.

Solution

From Theorem 6, we know that X = A-1 B. Now,

=  
A-1   −−
2 3(see Example 5).
12

B=  
∴ A-1   −−
2 2= X.
13

In the next example we consider an important group.

Example 8

Let S be a non-empty set. Consider ℘(S) (see Example 2) with the binary
operation of symmetric difference∆, given by
A ∆ B = (A \ B)  (B \ A) V A, B ∈ Ã (S).

Show that (℘(S), ∆) is an abelian group. What is the unique solution for the
equation Y ∆ A = B?

Solution

∆ is an associative binary operation. This can be seen by using the fact that
A \ B = A  Bc, (A  B)c = Ac  Bc, (A  B)c = Ac  Bc and that  and 
are commutative and associative. ∆ is also commutative since A ∆ B = B ∆
A V A, B ∈ ℘(S).
Also, φ is the identity element since A ∆ φ = A V A ∈ ℘(S). Further, any
element is its own inverse, since A ∆ A = φ V A ∈ ℘(S). Thus, (℘ (S), ∆)
is an abelian group.

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

For A, B in (℘(S), ∆) we want to solve Y ∆ A = B. but we know that A is its

own inverse. So, by Theorem 6, Y = B ∆ A-1 = B ∆ A is the unique
solution. What we have also proved is that (B ∆ A) ∆ A = B for any A, B in
℘Ã (S).
Try the following self assessment exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

Consider Z with subtraction as a binary operation. Is (Z, -) a group? Can

you obtain a solution for a – x = b Va, b ∈ Z?

And now let us discuss repeated multiplication of an element by itself.

Definition

Let G be a group. For a ∈ G, we define

i. a0 = e.

ii. a0 = an-1.a, if n > 0

iii a-a = (a-1)n, if n > 0.

n is called the exponent (or index) of the integral power an of a.

Thus, by definition a1= a, a2= a.a, a3 = a2. a, and so on.

Note: When the notation used for the binary operation is addition, a n
becomes na. For example, for any a ∈ Z,

na = 0 if a = 0,
na = a + a + … + a (n times) if n > 0;
na = (-a) + (-a) + … + (-a) (-n times) if n < 0.

Let us now prove some laws of indices for group elements.

Theorem 7

Let G be a group. For a ∈ G and m, n ∈ Z,

a. (an)-1= a-n = (a-1)n,

b. am.an = am+n,
 c. (am)n = amn.

56
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Proof

We prove (a) and (b), and leave the proof of (c) to you (see Self
Assessment Exercise 10).

a. If n = 0, clearly (an)-1= a-n = (a-1)n,

Now suppose n > 0. Since aa-1 e, we see that
e = en = (aa-1)n
= (aa-1) (aa-1) ....... (aa-1) (n times)
= an (a-1)n, since a and a-1 commute
∴ (an)-1 = (a-1)n.
Also, (a-1)n = a-n, by definition.
∴ (an)-1 = (a-1)n = a-n when n > 0.
If n < 0, then (-n) > 0 and
(an)-1 = [a-(-n)]-1
= [(a-n)-1]-1, by the case n > 0
= a-n
Also, (a-1)n = (a_1)-(-n)
= [(a-1)-1]-n, y the case n > 0
= a-n.
So, in this case too,
(an)-1= a-n = (a-1)n.

b. If m = 0 or n = 0, then am+n = am.an. Suppose m ≠ 0 and n ≠

0. We will consider 4 situations.

Case 1 (m > 0 and n > 0): We prove the proposition by induction on n. If

n = 1, then am.a = am+1, by definition.
Now assume that am.an-1= a
Then, am.an = am(an-1.a) = (am.an-1) a = am+n-1.a = am+n. Thus, by the principle
of induction, (a) holds for all m > 0 and n > 0.

Case 2 (m < 0 and n < 0): Then (-m) > 0 and (-n) > 0. Thus, by Case 1, a -
n
.a-m = a-(n+m) = a-(m+n). Taking inverses of both the sides and using (a), we
get,
am+n = (a-n.a-m)-1 = (a-m)-1.(a-n)-1= am.an.

Case 3 (m > 0, n < 0 such that m + n ≥ 0): Then, by Case 1, am+n.a-n = am.
Multiplying both sides on the right by an = (a-n)-1, we get am+n = am.an.

Case 4 (m > 0, n < 0 such that m + n < 0): By Case 2, a-m.am+n = an.
Multiplying both on the left by am = (a-m)-1, we get am+n = am.an.

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MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

The cases when m < 0 and n > 0 are similar to Case 3 and 4. Hence, a m+n =
am.an for all a ∈ G and m, n ∈ Z.

To finish the proof of this theorem try self assessment exercise 10.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10

Now you can prove (c) of theorem 7.

(Hint: Prove, by induction on n, for the case n > 0.

Then prove for n < 0.)

We will now study three important groups.

3.4 Three Groups

In this section we shall look at three groups that we will use as examples
very often throughout this course – the group of integers modulo n, the
symmetric group and the set of complex numbers.

3.4.1 Integers Modulo n

Consider the set of integers, Z, and n ∈ Z and n ∈ N. Let us define the

relation of congruence on Z by: a is congruent to b modulo n if n divides a-
b. We write this as a ≡ b (mod n). For example, 4 ≡ 1 (mod n 3),
since 3 | (4 -1).

Similarly, (-5) ≡ 2 mod 7) and 30 ≡ 0 (mod 6).

≡ is an equivalent relation (see Sec. 3.3 of Unit 1), and

hence partitions Z into disjoint equivalence classes called
congruence classes modulo n. We denote the class containing r by r .

Thus, r = {m ∈ Z | m ≡ r(mod n)}.

So an integer m belongs to r for some r, 0 ≤ r <, iff n | (r – m), i.e., iff r – m

= kn, for some k ∈ Z.

∴ r = {r + kn | k Î Z}.

Now, if m ≥ a, then the division algorithm says that m = nq + r for some q,

r ∈ Z, 0 ≤ r <. That is, m ≡ r (mod n), for some r 0, …., n –
1.
 Therefore, all the congruence classes modulo n are 0 , 1 , ……, n 1 - .

58
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Let Zn = { 0 , 1 , 2 , ……., n 1 - }. We define the operation + on Zn by a + b

=ab+.

Is this operation well defined? To check this, we have to see that if a = b

and c = d in Zn, then a b + =c d + .
+ 0123

Now, a ≡ b (mod n) and c ≡ d (mod n). Hence, there exist

integers k1 and k2 such that a - b = k1n and c – d = k2n. But then (a + c)
– (b + d) = (a – b) + (c – d) = (k1 + k2)n.

∴ac+=bd+.

Thus, + is a binary operation on Zn.

For example, 2 + 2 = 0 in Z4 since 2 + 2 = 4 ≡ 0 (mod 4). To

understand addition in Zn, try the following self assessment

exercise. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 11

Fill up the following operation table for + on Z4.

Now, let us show that (Zn, +) is a commutative group.

i. a + b = a b + = b a + = b + a V a , b ∈ Zn, i.e., addition is

commutative in Zn.

ii. a + ( b + c ) = a + ( b c + ) = a (b c) + +
= (a b) c + + = ( a b + ) + c = ( a + b ) + c V a , b , c ∈ Zn, i.e.,
addition is associative in Zn.

iii. a + 0 = a = 0 + a V a ∈ Zn, i.e., 0 is the identity for addition. iv. For ∈

Zn,∃ n a - ∈ Zn such that a + n a - = n = 0 = n a - + a . Thus, every element

a in Zn has an inverse with respect to addition.

59
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

The properties (i) to (iv) show that (Zn, +) is an abelian group.

Try the following self assessment exercise now.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 12

Describe the partition of Z determined by the relation ‘congruence modulo

5’.

Actually we can also define multiplication on Zn by a . b = ab . Then, a b =

b a V a , b ∈ Zn. Also ( a b ) c = a ( b c ) V a , b , c ∈ Zn. Thus,
multiplication in Zn is a commutative and associative binary operation.

Zn also has a multiplicative identity, namely, 1 .

But (Zn,.) is not a group. This is because every element of Zn, for example
0 does not have a multiplicative inverse.

But, suppose we consider the non-zero elements of Zn, that is, ( Zn* , .) Is
this a group? For example Z4* = { 1 , 2 , 3 } is not a group because . is not
even a binary operation on Z4* , since 2 . 2 = 0 ∉ Z4* . But ( Zp* ,.). is an
abelian group for any prime p.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 13

Show that ( Z5* ,.) is an abelian group.

(Hint: Draw the operation table.)

Let us now discuss the symmetric group.

3.4.2 The Symmetric Group

We will now discuss the symmetric group briefly. In MTH 312 we will
discuss this group in more detail.

Let X be a non-empty set. We have seen that the composition of functions

defines a binary operation on the set F(X) of all functions from X to X.
This binary operation is associative. IX, the identity map, is the identity in
F (X).

Now consider the subset S(X) of F (X) given by

S(X) = {f ∈ F (X) | f is bijective}.

 60
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

So f ∈ S(X) iff f-1: X → X exists. Remember that f  f-1 = f-1  f = IX. This
also shows that f-1∈ S(X).

Thus, o is a binary operation on S(X).

Let us check that (S(X), o) is a group

i. o is associative since (f o g) o h = f(g o h) V f, g, h ∈S(X). ii. I x is

the identity element because f o I x = I x o f V f ∈ S(X). iii. f-1 is the
inverse of f, for any f ∈ S(X).

Thus, (S(X), o) is a group. It is called the symmetric group on X.

If the set X is finite, say X = (1, 2, 3 ……………….,n), then we denote

S(X) by Sn, and each f Sn is called a permutation on n symbols.

Suppose we want to construct an element f in S n. We can start by choosing

f(1). Now, f(1) can be any one of the n symbols 1, 2, ….,n. Having chosen
f(1), we can choose f(2) from the set {1, 2, ….n}\{f(1)}, i.e., in (n – 1)
ways. This is because f is 1 – 1. Inductively, after choosing f(i), we can
choose f (I + 1) in ( n – I ) ways. Thus, f can be chosen in (1 x 2 x….x n) n 1
ways, i.e., Sn contains an! Elements.

For our convenience, we represent f ∈ Sn by

1 2 .............. n

 
 
  f(1) f(2) ............... f(n)

1 2 3 4represents the function f:

For example, 
 
 
  2431

{1, 2, 3, 4} → {1, 2, 3, 4}: f(1) = 2, f(2) = 4, f(3) = 3, f(4) = 1. the elements

in the top row can be laced in any order as long as the order of the elements
in the bottom row is changed accordingly.

2 1 3 4also represents the same function f.

Thus, 
 
 
  4231

Try this exercise now.

 61
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 14

Consider S3, the set of all permutations on 3 symbols. This has 3! (=6) 1 2
3. Can
elements. One is the identify function, I. Another is 
 
 
  213
you list the other four.

Now, while solving Self Assessment Exercise one of the elements you 1 2
3.
must have obtained is f = 
 
 
  231
Here f(1) = 2, f(2) = 3 and f(3) = 1, such a permutation is called a cycle. In
general we have the following definition.

Definition

We say that f ∈ Sn is a cycle of length r if there are x1……., xr in X = { 1,

2, ….., n} such that f(xi) = xi + 1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ r – 1, (fxr) and f(t) = t for t x i,
…..xr. In this case f is written as (xi …xr),
For example, by f = (2 4 5 10) ∈ S10 we mean f(2) = 4, f(4) = 5, f(5)
= 10, f(10) = 2 and f(j) = j for j ≠ 2, 4, 5,10.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
i.e., f = 
 
 
  1 4 3 5 10 6 7 8 9 2

f ∈ Sn fixes an element x if f(x) = x.

Note that, in the notation of a cycle, we don’t mention the elements that are
left fixed by the permutation. Similarly, the permutation.

1 2 3 4 5is the cycle ( 1 2 5 3 4) in S5,

  
  25413  
Now let us see how we calculate the composition of two permutations.
Consider the following example S3,
 62
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

αβ=  12345   12345 

       
25431 53412
12345

 
 
  αβ αβ αβ αβ αβ =

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

12345

 
 
  ααααα=

(5) (3) (4) (1) (2)

  12345 = 
  =  
(2,4),
14325

Since 1, 3 and 4 are left fixed.

The following exercises will give you some practice in computing the
product of elements in Sn.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 15

Calculate (1 3)  (1 2) in S3.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 16

Write the inverses of the following in S3:

a. (1 2)
b. (1 3 2)

Show that (1 2)  (1 3 2)]-1 ≠ (1 2)-1  (1 3 2)-1. (This shows that in

Theorem 4(b) we can’t write (ab)-1 = a-1b-1.)

And now let us talk of a group that you may be familiar with, without
knowing that it is a group.j

3.4.3 Complex Numbers

In this sub-section we will show that the set of complex numbers forms a
group with respect to addition. Some of you may not be acquainted with
 some basic properties of complex numbers. We have placed these
properties in the appendix to this unit.

Consider the set C of all ordered pairs (x, y) of real numbers, i.e., we take
C = R x R.

Define addition (+) and multiplication (.) in C as follows:

63
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

(x1, y1) + (x2, y2) = (x1 x2 – y1 + y2) and

(x1, y1) . (x2, y2) = (x1 x2 – y1 y2, x1 y2 – x2 y1)
for (x1,y1) and (x2, y2) in C.

This gives us an algebraic system (C, +,.) called the system of complex
numbers. We must remember that two complex numbers (x 1, y1) and (x2,
y2) are equal iff x1 = x2 and y1 = y2.

You can verify that + and, are commutative and associative.

Moreover,

i. (0, )) is the additive identity.

ii. For (x, y) in C, (-x, -y) s its additive inverse.
iii. (1, 0) is the multiplicative identity.
iv. If (x, y) (0, 0) in C, then either x2 > 0 or y2 > 0. Hence,

x2 + y2 > 0. Then

2222 y,
(x, y). xy xy
x+ +
−

=   
    +

x ( y) y x
,x
−⋅ −−⋅ 22222222
+ +⋅ xyx

= (1, 0) xy y xy xy+ + y

Thus, (C, +) is a group and (C*,.) is a group. (AS usual, C* denotes the set
of non-zero complex numbers).
 Now let us see what we have covered in this unit.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The study of groups in algebra is a fundamental requirement for any

students who want to major in pure mathematics. You are required to pay
attention to all the details in this unit.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have

• discussed various types of binary operations.

• defined and give examples of groups.

64
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

• proved and used the cancellation laws and laws of indices for group
elements.
• discussed the group of integers modulo n, the symmetric group and the
group of complex numbers.

We have also provided an appendix in which we list certain basic fact

about complex numbers.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. a. x ⊕ y = y ⊕ x, V x, y ∈
Therefore, ⊕ is commutative

(x ⊕ y) ⊕ z = ( x + y – 5) ⊕ z = ( x +y – 5) + z - 5
= x + y + z – 10
= x ⊕ (y ⊕ z)
Therefore, ⊕ is associative.

⊕ is not closed on N since 1 ⊕ 1∉ N.

b. * is commutative, not associative, closed on N.

c. ∆ is not commutative, associative or closed on N.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

a. The identity element with respect to ⊕ is 5.

Suppose e is the identity element for *
Then x * e = x ⇒ 2 (x + e) = x ⇒ c = -
2x , which depends on x.
Therefore, there is no fixed element e in R for which x * e = e * x =
x V x ∈ R. Therefore, * has no identify element.
b. The inverse of x with respect to ⊕ is 10-x. Since there is no identity for
the other operations, there is no question of obtaining x-1.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

℘(S) = {φ, (0), {1}, (0, 1)}

So, the table is

N φ {0} {1} S

φ φ φ φ {1}

65
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
{0} φ {0} φ {0}

{1} φ φ {1} {1}

S φ {0} {1} S

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Check that both of then satisfy G1, G2 and G3

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

a. and (d) are true.

b. R* is an infinite abelian group.
c. (Z*,.) satisfies G1 and G2, but not G3. NO integer, apart from +- 1, has a
multiplicative inverse.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

((a, b) * (c, d)) * (e, f)

= (ac, bc + d) * (e, f)
= (ace, (bc + d) e +f )
= (a, b) * ( (c, d) * (e, f) )

Thus, * satisfies G1’.

(a, b) * (1, 0) = (a, b) V (a, b) ∈ G.

Therefore, G3’ holds.

Therefore, (G, *) is a group.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

ba = ca ⇒ (ba)a-1 ⇒ (ca)a-1 ⇒ b = c
 ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

Let x ∈ G. Then gx = g = ge. So, by Theorem 5, x = e.

∴ G = {e},

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

(Z,-) is not a group since G1 is not satisfied.

For any a, b ∈ Z, a – (a – b) = b. So, a – x has a solution for any a, b ∈ Z.

66
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10

When n = 0, the statement is clearly true. Now, let n > 0. We will apply
induction on n. For n = 1, the statement is true.

Now , let n > 0. We will apply induction on n. For n = 1, the statement is

true.
Now, assume that it is true for n – 1, that is, (am)(n – 1) . = am(n – 1).

Then, (am)n = (am)n -1 + 1 = (am)(n – 1) . = am, by (b)

= am(n – 1) . am
= am (n + 1 + 1), by (b)
= amn.
So, (c) is true V n > m ∈ Z.

Now, let n < 0. Then (-n) > 0.

∴ (am)n = [(am)-n]-1, by (a)

= [(am)-n]-1, by the case n > 0
= [(a-mn)] -1
= amn, by (a).

Thus, V m, n ∈ Z, (c) holds.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 11

+ 0123
0 0123

1 1230
2 2301

3 3012
 ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 12

Z is the disjoint union of the following 5 equivalence classes.

0 = {........, −10, − 5, 0, 5, 10, 15,.........}

1 = {........, − 9, − 4, 1, 6, 11, ..................}
2 = {........, −8, − 3, 2, 7, 12,..................}
3 = {........, − 7, − 2, 3, 8, 13,..................}
4 = {........, − 6, −1, 4, 9, 14,...................}

67
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 13

The operation table for on Z5 is

.
1234

1 1134
2 2413

3 3142
4 4321

It shows that, is an associative and commutative binary operation of Z*5. 1

is the multiplicative identity and every element has an inverse.

Thus, (Z*5,.) is an abelian group.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 14

123,
321
123 123,
231
123,
132 
 
        
           
 
  312

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 15 f

= (1 3), g = (1 2).
123 123

g= 
Then f o  
 
   
 
  213
321

123
= 
 
 
  fg(2) fg(1) fg(3)

123
=   
    r(2)
r(1) r(3)
 123= 
   
(1 2 3)
= 231

68
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 16

123   213 
     
 -1 ,
 ∴f = 1 2 3
.
a. Let f = (1 2) = 2 1 3
just interchanging the rows.
∴ f-1 = (1 2).

b. (1 3 2)-1 = (2 3 1).
123
(1 3 2) = 
Now, (1 2) o  
 
  321
 3 2 1= (1 3).
Its inverse is 
 
 
  123
On other hand,
(1 2)-1-o (1 3 2)-1-o = (1 2) o (1 2 3) = (2 3) ≠ (1 3).

APPENDIX: COMPLEX NUMBERS

Any complex number can be denoted by an ordered pair of real numbers

(x, y). In fact, the set of complex numbers is

C = { (x, y) x, y ∈ R }.

Another way of representing (x, y) ∈ C is x + iy, where i = − i. .

We call x the real part and y the imaginary part of x + iy.

The two representations agree if we denote (x, 0) by x and (0, 1) by i .On

doing so we can write

x + iy = (x, 0) + (0, 1) (y, 0)

= (x, 0), + (0, y),
= (x, y),
2
and i = (0, 1) (0,.1) = (-1, 0) = -1.

While working~ with complex numbers, We' will sometimes use the
notation x + iy and sometimes the fact that the elements of C can be
represented by points in R2.

You can see that

(xi + iy1) + (x2 + iy2) = (x1, y1) + (x2, y2)
= (x1 + x2, x2 + y2)
= (x1 + x2) + i(y1 + y2), and

69
MTH 211 SET THEORY AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

(xi + iy1) (x2 + iy2) = (x1, y1) + (x2, y2)

= (x1x2 - y1y2, x1y2)
= (x1x2) - y1y2) + i(x1y2 + x2y1).), and

Now, given a complex number, we will define its conjugate.

Definition

For a complex number z = x + iy, the complex number x + i (-y) is called

the conjugate of z. It is also written as x -iy and is denoted by z .
For z. = x + iy, we list the following properties.

i. z + z is a real number. In fact, z + z =.2 x.

ii. z . z = x2 + y2, a non-negative real number.
iii. z z z z , 1 + 2 = 1 + 2 for any z1, z2 ∈ C. This is because (x x
i(y y ) 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 = (x1 + x2) – i(y1 + y2)
= (x1 - iy1) + i(x2 - iy2)
= 12z + z .
iv. z z z . z , 1 2 = 1 2 for any z1, z2 ∈ C.

Let us now see another way of representing complex numbers.

Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers Y

We have seen that a complex number, z = x + iy is represented by the point

(x, y) in the plane. If O is the point (0, 0) and P is (x,y) (see Fig.3), then we
know that the distance OP = 2 2 x + y . This is called the modulus (or the
absolute value) of the complex y number z and is denoted by | z |. Note
that 2 2 x + y 0 iff x = 0 and y = 0.

Now, let us denote | z | by r and the angle made by OP with the positive x-
axis by θ. Then θ is called an argument of the non-zero complex: number
z. If θ is an argument of z, then 0 + 2nπ is also an argument of z for all n ∈
Z,. However, there is a unique value of these arguments which lies in the
interval [-π,π]. It is called the principal argument of x + iy, and is denoted
by Arg (x +iy).

From fig. 3 you can see that x = r cosθ, y = sinθ = r sinθ that is, z = (rcosθ,
rsinθ) = r(cosθ + i sinθ) = re10.

This is called the polar form of the complex number (x + iy).

70