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Gamebook
A gamebook is a work of printed fiction that allows the reader to participate in the story by making
choices. The narrative branches along various paths, typically through the use of numbered
paragraphs or pages. Each narrative typically does not follow paragraphs in a linear or ordered
fashion. Gamebooks are sometimes called choose your own adventure books or CYOA after the
influential Choose Your Own Adventure series originally published by US company Bantam Books.
Gamebooks influenced hypertext fiction.[1]

Production of new gamebooks in the West decreased dramatically during the 1990s as choice-based
stories have moved away from print-based media, although the format may be experiencing a
resurgence on mobile and ebook platforms. Such digital gamebooks are considered interactive fiction
or visual novels.

Contents
Description
History
Origins
Breakthroughs and popularization
The US (late 1970s–)
The UK (early 1980s–)
Outside the English-speaking world (mid 1980s–)
Eastern Europe (late 1980s–)
Decline and resurgence (1990s onward)
Types
Mainstream fiction
Education
Erotica
Role-playing solitaire adventures
Adventures
Online Adaptations
See also
References
External links

Description
Gamebooks range from branching-plot novels, which require the reader to make choices but are
otherwise like regular novels at one end, to what amounts to "solitaire rpg adventures" or "adventure
gamebooks",[2] which can feature sophisticated rules for battling monsters and overcoming obstacles.
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That is, in the latter category the story can be decided by other things than the reader's choices, such
as dice rolls or running out of health points.

In all gamebooks, the story is presented as a series of sections of printed text. These are often but not
always numbered. Branching-plot novel sections often run to several pages in length, whereas
solitaire and adventure gamebook sections are usually no longer than a paragraph or two. These are
not intended to be read in order. Instead, at the end of a text section, the reader is typically given a
choice of narrative branches that they may follow. Each branch contains a reference to the number of
the paragraph or page that should be read next if that branch is chosen (e.g. to go north turn to
section 98). The narrative thus does not progress linearly through the book or follow the paragraphs
in numerical order. The story continues this way until a paragraph or page which ends that branch of
the story. Many solitaire or adventure gamebooks feature a single "successful" ending, and the
remainder are "failures".[3] Thus, a gamebook becomes a "puzzle" since only a few or even one
branching paths lead to victory. Branching plot novels, on the other hand, tend to be more concerned
with narrative resolution rather than winning or losing, thus often have several endings which may be
deemed equally "successful".

Gamebooks are generally linear, meaning the reader cannot circle back to an earlier passage, which
means the narrative forms what graph theory considers a directed rooted tree. There are many
exceptions.

Gamebooks are typically written in the second person with the reader assuming the role of a character
to experience the world from that character's point of view (e.g. 'you walk into the cold and dark
forest').

Many gamebooks form series with a common theme, trade dress and/or ruleset. While each book is
typically a stand-alone narrative, there are gamebook series such as Steve Jackson's Sorcery! that
continue the narrative from the previous books in the series.

History

Origins

There are several examples of early works of art with branching narratives. The romantic novel
Consider the Consequences! by Doris Webster and Mary Alden Hopkins was published in the United
States in 1930, and boasts "a dozen or more" different endings depending on the "taste of the
individual reader".[4] The 1936 play Night of January 16th by Ayn Rand, about a trial, is unusual in
that members of the audience are chosen to play the jury and deliver a verdict, which then influences
the play's ending: guilty or not guilty.[5][6]

Also quite early on, the possibility of having stories branching out into several different paths was
suggested by Jorge Luis Borges in his short story "An Examination of the Work of Herbert Quain"
(1941). This story features an author whose novel is a three-part story containing two branch points,
and with nine possible endings.[7][8] Another story by Borges, titled "The Garden of Forking Paths"
(1941), also describes a book with a maze-like narrative, which may have inspired the gamebook
form.[8][9] The children's book Treasure Hunt, published in 1945 in Britain under the name of "Alan
George" (probably a pseudonym), is another early example of a story with multiple paths for the
reader to follow.[10]

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Programmed learning materials, first proposed by B.F. Skinner,[11] have been recognized as an early
influence on the development of branching path books.[12] This learning method was first applied in
the TutorText series of interactive textbooks, published from the late 1950s up until the early 1970s.
These books present the reader with a series of problems related to a particular area of study, allowing
him or her to choose among several possible answers. If the answer to a problem is correct, the reader
moves on to the next problem. If the answer is incorrect, the reader is given feedback and is asked to
pick a different answer. This educational technique would form a basis for many later narrative
gamebook series.[13][11]

During the 1960s, authors from several different countries started experimenting with fiction that
contained multiple paths and/or endings. Some literary works in this vein include the French-
language novel L'ironie du sort (1961) by Paul Guimard, the Spanish-language novels Hopscotch
(1963) by Julio Cortázar and Juego de cartas (Card Game, 1964) by Max Aub, and the works of the
French literary group known as the Oulipo (1967).[14][15][16][17] Other early experiments include the
short stories "Alien Territory" and "The Lost Nose: a Programmed Adventure" (both 1969) by John
Sladek, the novel The French Lieutenant's Woman (1969) by John Fowles, and the collection of short
stories titled Tante storie per giocare (Many Tales to Play With, 1971) by Italian author Gianni
Rodari.[18][19][20]

Taken together, these influences may have contributed to the development of several pioneering
gamebooks in the 1960s and 1970s. These include Lucky Les by E.W. Hildick (1967), State of
Emergency by Dennis Guerrier and Joan Richards (1969), and the Swedish-language book Den
mystiska påsen (The Mysterious Bag, 1970) by Betty Orr-Nilsson, among others.

Breakthroughs and popularization

The first gamebook series proper appears to have been Tracker Books, published by Transworld in the
UK between 1972 and 1980. This series includes adventures in a variety of genres such as science
fiction, mystery, and sports.[21][22][23][24][25] Meanwhile, in the US, The Adventures of You series
appeared in 1976–77, with two titles that would later become part of the groundbreaking Choose Your
Own Adventure series: Sugarcane Island by Edward Packard and Journey Under the Sea by R. A.
Montgomery.

Tabletop role-playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons were another early influence that would
contribute in major ways to the development of the gamebook form. The first module which
combined a branching-path narrative with a set of role-playing game rules was Buffalo Castle for the
Tunnels & Trolls system (1975). Buffalo Castle was innovative for its time, as it allowed the reader to
experience a role-playing session without need for a referee. It has been followed by many other
solitaire adventures for the T&T system, as well as solos for other tabletop role-playing games.

The first commercially successful series of gamebooks was the Choose Your Own Adventure series
establishing the "American" gamebook tradition. The "British" tradition, as exemplified by the
Fighting Fantasy series, was, by contrast, slightly younger. British gamebooks differ from the
American tradition by having rules more strongly influenced by the game mechanics of roleplaying
games.[26]

The US (late 1970s–)

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The Adventures of You, a two-book series, authored by Edward Packard and R.A. Montgomery and
initially published by Vermont Crossroads Press, laid much of the groundwork for the later surge in
popularity of the gamebook format. Sugarcane Island by Edward Packard was written in 1969 but did
not see publication until 1976. This became a series when Journey Under the Sea by R. A.
Montgomery was published in 1977. Two standalone gamebooks authored by Packard would follow,
both published by Lippincott: Deadwood City (1978) and The Third Planet from Altair (1979). While
these early efforts apparently achieved some popularity with readers, they (and the gamebook format
in general) still did not have a publisher with the marketing strength required to make them available
to mass audiences.

Packard and Montgomery took the idea of publishing interactive books to Bantam, and thus the
Choose Your Own Adventure (CYOA) series was born in 1979, beginning with The Cave of Time. The
series became immensely popular worldwide and several titles were translated into more than 25
languages.[27] The series reached the peak of its popularity with children in the 1980s. It was during
this period that Bantam released several other interactive series to capitalize on the popularity of the
medium (a few examples are: Choose your Own Adventure for Younger Readers, Time Machine and
Be An Interplanetary Spy). Many other American publishers released their own series to compete
with CYOA.

One of the most popular competitors seems to have been TSR, who released several branching-path
novels based on their own role-playing games. The most famous TSR series was Endless Quest
(1982–). Another strong competitor was Ballantine with their Find Your Fate series, which featured
adventures in the Indiana Jones, James Bond and Doctor Who universes. Famous author R. L. Stine
wrote several books for this line, including The Badlands of Hark, as well as for other series such as
Wizards, Warriors and You. Several Choose your Own Adventure spin-offs and many competing
series were translated into other languages.

The UK (early 1980s–)

One of the most influential and popular gamebook series was the Fighting Fantasy series, which
started in 1980 when a Puffin Books representative saw a hall full of 5,000 people playing Dungeons
& Dragons and asked Ian Livingstone and Steve Jackson to make a book about role-playing games.
They instead offered the idea of a book which simulated the experience of roleplaying games. Within a
year they presented a book under the name of The Magic Quest to Puffin which Puffin agreed to
publish. Having spent six more months developing the concept it was published under the name of
The Warlock of Firetop Mountain in 1982.[28][29]

Another notable UK gamebook series is Lone Wolf, developed by Joe Dever in 1984. Like Fighting
Fantasy, the writer was an experienced Dungeons & Dragons player who developed the setting of
Lone Wolf for his campaigns.[30] However the books were also inspired by medieval texts such as
Gawain and the Green Knight and Le Morte d'Arthur.[31]

Grailquest is a series of gamebooks written by J.H. Brennan (also in 1984) that were also inspired by
the Arthurian legends. Set mainly on Avalon they make use of a dice based system.[32]

The Way of the Tiger, a Japan-themed gamebook by Mark Smith and Jamie Thomson (1985), is also
a notable UK publication.

Outside the English-speaking world (mid 1980s–)

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Branching-path books also started to appear during the 1980s in several other countries, including
Spain, France, Italy, Mexico, Chile, Denmark and Japan.

Despite the domination of works that have been translated from English in most non-English-
speaking countries, a sizable number of original gamebooks—both individual books and series—have
been published in various countries; this is especially the case in France (e.g. the La Saga du Prêtre
Jean series) and in Japan (e.g. Tokyo Sogensha's Super Adventure Game series and Futabasha's
Bouken Gamebook series).

In some other countries, publication both of translated series and of original books began in later
years. For example, the first original books in Brazil and Italy seem to have appeared in the 1990s.

Eastern Europe (late 1980s–)

Translated editions of Choose your Own Adventure, Fighting Fantasy and other English-language
series only appeared in Eastern European countries after the fall of Communism.[33]

Since the mid-1980s, about 90 gamebooks have been published in Poland, not only as printed books,
but also as comics, e-books or mobile applications. The author of the largest number of titles (20) is
Beniamin Muszyński. Polish gamebooks are also regularly written and self-published by their fans.[34]

In the 1990s, the gamebook genre became highly popular in Bulgaria for approximately ten years.[35]
Whilst internationally well-known series such as Choose Your Own Adventure and Fighting Fantasy
were translated for the Bulgarian market, the works of numerous Bulgarian gamebook authors were
most popular with readers.

During the popularity peak of gamebooks in Bulgaria, Bulgarian publishing houses believed that only
Western authors would sell and, as a consequence, virtually all Bulgarian gamebook authors adopted
English pseudonyms.[35][36] This tradition persisted after their nationality was publicly disclosed. A
smaller number of Hungarian authors also adopted Western pseudonyms, in addition to "official
titles" that were also in English.[37]

Several adventure gamebooks have been released in the Czech Republic and Russia. In Azerbaijan,
Narmin Kamal's novel, Open It's Me, offers the reader a choice to either read the book as a random
collection of thirty-nine short stories about the same character, or as a single novel. A photo of the
book's hero is published on the final page and the author asks the reader questions about the
character.

Decline and resurgence (1990s onward)

The branching-path book commercial boom dwindled in the early 1990s, and the number of new
series diminished. However, new branching-path books continue to be published to this day in several
countries and languages. Choose Your Own Adventure went on to become the longest running
gamebook series with 185 titles. The first run of the series ended in 1998.[38][39][40][41][42]

R. A. Montgomery started rereleasing some Choose Your Own Adventure titles in 2005. His company
has also released some new titles. New books and series continue to be published in other countries to
this day. Examples are the 1000 Gefahren series in Germany and the Tú decides la aventura series in
Spain. The sixtieth and "lost" entry in the Fighting Fantasy series, Bloodbones, was finally published
by Wizard in 2006.

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In recent years, the format may be getting a new lease of life on mobile and ebook platforms.[43]

Types
This type of book was seen predominantly as a form of entertainment for children. Nonetheless, there
were books with more didactic purposes (ranging from historical series such as the aforementioned
Time Machine to books with religious themes such as the Making Choices series). Also, a few
branching-path books were aimed at adults, ranging from business simulations to works of erotica.

Mainstream fiction

Barring the aforementioned works of Dennis Guerrier in the 1960s, one of the earliest examples of the
form is the five-volume Barcelona, Maxima Discrecion series, which adapted the noir fiction genre to
an interactive form.[44] Published in the 1980s, this series was only available in Catalan and Spanish.

Heather McElhatton published a bestselling[45] gamebook for adults in 2007, called Pretty Little
Mistakes: A Do-Over Novel. It was followed by a sequel titled Million Little Mistakes published in
2010.[46]

Some contemporary literary novels have used the gamebook format, including Kim Newman's Life's
Lottery (1999) and Nicholas Bourbaki's If (2014).[47]

Education

In 2011, McGraw-Hill Education began releasing adaptations of the original Choose Your Own
Adventure titles as graded readers. The stories were retold in simplified language and re-organized
plotlines, in order to make them easier for English as a second or foreign language readers to play.
The choice format of gamebooks has proved to be popular with ESL teachers as a way to motivate
reluctant students, target critical thinking skills, and organize classroom activities.[48]

Erotica

Various erotic gamebooks have been published by major publishers. In 1994 Derrière la porte by
Alina Reyes was published by Pocket Books France and Éditions Robert Laffont, and later translated
into English for Grove Press and Weidenfeld & Nicolson (as Behind Closed Doors) and into Italian for
Ugo Guanda Editore (as Dietro le porte). Melcher Media in 2003 packaged two "Choose-Your-Own-
Erotic-Adventure" books for Penguin Books' Gotham Books imprint, including Kathryn in the City by
Mary Anne Mohanraj, a well-known writer of erotica.

Role-playing solitaire adventures

Solitaire adventures were a parallel development. This type of book is intended to allow a single
person to use the rules of a role-playing game to experience an adventure without need of a referee.
The first role-playing game solitaire adventures to be published were those using the Tunnels & Trolls
system, beginning with the book Buffalo Castle in 1976, making Tunnels & Trolls the first role-playing

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game to support solitaire play. Flying Buffalo released 24 solo adventure books (plus several pocket
size adventures) in the period 1976–1993. A number of the adventures are still in print today.[49][50]
They were very successful among players of role-playing games and inspired many imitators.

Another early role-playing game with solitaire modules made for it was The Fantasy Trip. The first
such module was Death Test, published in 1978. Eight adventures were released in total. One thing
that set them apart was the need for miniatures and a hexmap, in order to take advantage of the
combat and movement systems. These adventures were also very popular and influential.

Meanwhile, several third-party publishers started to publish solitaire adventures meant for use with
popular roleplaying systems. Some of the earliest adventures in this vein were The Solo Dungeon
(1978) by British author Richard Bartle, and Survival of the Fittest (1979), published by Judges' Guild
in the United States. Both of these adventures were meant to be used with Dungeons & Dragons
rules.

Solitaire role-playing adventures also experienced a boom in the 1980s. Many role-playing rulesets
included solo adventures which were intended to teach the rules systems to the players. Some
companies released lines of solitaire adventures for their own games. Examples of games with prolific
solitaire lines were Dungeons & Dragons, GURPS, Das Schwarze Auge, DC Heroes, and Call of
Cthulhu. Some third-party publishers continued to release solo adventures for established RPG
systems (including Judges' Guild, who released solos for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons). Solitaire
adventures were also featured quite frequently in professional RPG magazines and fanzines. Several
solo adventures (such as those for Tunnels & Trolls, Dungeons & Dragons, and Das Schwarze Auge)
were translated into other languages.

As was the case with other types of gamebooks, the production of solitaire RPG adventures decreased
dramatically during the 1990s. However, new solos continue to be published to this day. Some
companies continue to produce solo adventures for Tunnels & Trolls. There are also new solo
adventures for a variety of systems, and even some influenced by the Fantasy Trip solos (such as the
ones by Dark City Games). The Internet has provided a channel to distribute solitaire adventures,
with both free and commercial adventures made available as electronic documents.

Adventures

Adventure gamebooks incorporate elements from Choose Your Own Adventure books and role-
playing solitaire adventures. The books involve a branching path format in order to move between
sections of text, but the reader creates a character as in a role-playing game, and resolves actions
using a game-system. Unlike role-playing solitaire adventures, adventure gamebooks include all the
rules needed for play in each book. Adventure gamebooks are usually not divided into numbered
pages, but rather into numbered sections of text, so that several sections may fit in a single page, or a
single section can span several pages.

The Warlock of Firetop Mountain was published in 1982, the first of what became the Fighting
Fantasy series of gamebooks, one of the first adventure gamebook series. With over 60 titles,
including a variety of spin-offs, the series popularised the gamebook format in the UK and many other
countries, such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Singapore, the United States,
Portugal, Tanzania, Brazil, Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Israel, Japan, and after the fall of
communism, Eastern Europe.[51][52]

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Several authors in different countries continue to publish adventure gamebooks in the late 2010s.
Notable examples are German fantasy authors Wolfgang Hohlbein, Markus Heitz and Lemonbits,[53]
and British author Jonathan Green. Adventure gamebooks experienced a publishing boom in the
1980s, most notably in the United Kingdom, the United States, Italy and France. British series such as
Fighting Fantasy, Lone Wolf, and The Way of the Tiger were translated into several languages and
became very popular worldwide. The boom decreased considerably in the 1990s, with Fabled Lands
being the last major British gamebook series. In the 2000s, reissues of the Fighting Fantasy and Lone
Wolf series emerged, and garnered some commercial success.

Online Adaptations
Given the similar structure to html links between the pages of a website, numerous efforts have been
made to create a digital equivalent to the gamebook format, with varying degrees of success. Visual
novels, story websites, various experiments with audio cds (such as TSR, Inc's shortlived "Terror
TRAX" line). . . none are as well known as the books.

One variant, though, was initially unrelated to the books, and more-or-less stumbled into a similar
format. Originally an online version of party games like Would You Rather or "which girl would you
date", such "CYOA Games" (an acronym derived from choose-your-own-adventure) have seen a rapid
evolution to the point that the more complex ones now closely resemble the character creation
process in a role-playing game or even the world building of a god game. Generally released
psuedonymously, some of the better known titles include Aromage's "Demigod", DTA/Shirley's
"Divine Trials", ZBG's "War of the Zodiac Brides" and EternalAnon's "Eternal Arms"

See also
Adventure game
Interactive movie
Interactive novel
List of gamebooks
Nonlinear narrative
Visual novel

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External links
Demian Katz' catalogue of gamebooks (http://gamebooks.org/)
samizdat.cc/cyoa/ (http://samizdat.cc/cyoa/) – Visualised path-analysis of ten "Choose your own
adventure" game books

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