3

MATERIAL SCIENCE
By the end of the topic learners should be able to:
- describe the manufacture of iron and steel
- list different types of furnaces
- identify different types of materials- explain different properties and
behaviour of commonly used materials
- identify different types of materials used in the workshop
- give examples of commercial products made out of different materials
- Describe various methods of heat treatment of metals

Iron
Manufacture of Ferrous Metals
Iron is the most commonly used metal. It is easily cast and made into a wide
range of alloy steels. It is also easily available in large quantities. Rocks that
contain more than 20 per cent iron can be referred to as iron ores. The chief ores
of iron are red hematite, brown hematite, magnetite and limonite. The richest of
the ores (65 per cent iron), is magnetite.
The blast furnaces
The iron is produced by melting the ore in a blast furnace, using coke as fuel
and limestone as a flux. The process is a continuous one over some years until
the brick-lined heavy steel furnace needs relining.
A continuous feed of washed and ground ore, coke and limestone are tipped into
a revolving hopper. A double bell system prevents the gases from the furnace
from escaping. These carbon dioxide gases are fed through a dust extractor into
a 'Cowper's stove. Here they are mixed with air and burnt. When the
temperature is above 500°C, hot air is blasted through a bustle pipe and a dozen
evenly spaced tuyeres into the heart of the furnace.
The blast of hot air causes the coke to bum fiercely, producing carbon monoxide
(CO) gas. This combines with the iron oxides to become carbon dioxide (CO2)
gas. This ‘reduction’ process turns the iron into a mass that sinks into the hotter
part of the furnace. It melts into the hearth. The limestone mixes with many of
the impurities to form a liquid slag that floats on top of the molten iron.
This liquid slag is run off through the slag notch. It becomes solid as it cools
and is used as a filler for road building, or ground down and remade into
building blocks.
The molten iron is run out of the iron notch (taphole) into pigs. These are
castings (pig iron) of a convenient size for use in making cast iron or steel.

Cupola furnaces
This furnace is designed to melt and refine pig iron to make grey cast iron. The
inclusion of steel scrap with pig iron regulates the carbon content of the cast
iron produced. Alternate layers of iron, coke and limestone are put on top of a
bed of coke through which the molten metal flows into a hearth. The liquid slag
and molten metal are runoff in the same manner as with the blast furnace. The
furnace is also used to melt scrap iron for use in steel furnaces.
Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is the assumed approximately as purest iron which possesses at
least 99.5% iron. It contains a large number of minute threads of slag lying
parallel to each other, thereby giving the metal a fibrous appearance when
broken. It is said as a mechanical mixture of very pure iron and a silicate slag. It
can also be said as a ferrous material, aggregated from a solidifying mass of
pasty particles of highly refined metallic iron with which a minutely and
uniformly distributed quantity of slag is incorporated without subsequent fusion.
This iron is produced from pig iron by re-melting it in the puddling furnace or
air furnace or reverberatory furnace. The molten metal free from impurities is
removed from the furnace as a pasty mass of iron and slag. The balls of this
pasty mass, each about 45 to 65 kg in weight, are formed. These balls are then
mechanically worked to squeeze out the slag and to form it into some
commercial shape. This iron contains practically no carbon and therefore cannot
be hardened.
Properties
The wrought iron can be easily shaped by hammering, pressing, forging, etc. It
is never cast and it can be easily bent when cold. It is tough and it has high
ductility and plasticity with which it can be forged and welded easily. Its
ultimate strength can be increased considerably by cold working followed by a
period of aging. It possesses a high resistance towards corrosion.
It can accommodate sudden and excessive shocks loads without permanent
injury. It has a high resistance towards fatigue. It has high electrical
conductivity. The melting point of wrought iron is about 1530°C. It can be
easily formed when cold, without the outer side cracking at the formed portion.
Applications
It is used for making chains, crane hooks, railway couplings, and water and
steam pipes. It has application in the form of plates, sheets, bars, structural
works, forging blooms and billets, rivets, and a wide range of tubular products
including pipe, tubing and casing, electrical conduit, cold drawn tubing, nipples
and welding fittings, bridge railings, blast plates, drainage lines and troughs,
sewer outfall lines, weir plates, sludge tanks and lines, condenser tubes, unfired
heat exchangers, acid and alkali process lines, skimmer bars, diesel exhaust and
air brake piping, gas collection hoods, coal equipment, cooling tower and spray
pond piping.
The chemical process/ Steelmaking.
There are hundreds of different steels, each made to a slightly different recipe
but each having the common iron base. The iron which is produced in the blast
furnace contains varying amounts of carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus
and sulphur. The change that takes place when making pig iron into steel
involves reducing the amount of these elements.
There are two chemical processes – the Acid process and the Basic process.
Most steels are made using the basic process. Lime is added to allow the
phosphorus and sulphur to be removed from the slag.
The Bessemer processes

The refining of molten pig iron to make

steel is by the process of oxidation.
Oxygen is put into the metal and this
combines with unwanted materials to
produce oxides. These oxides are either
absorbed in the slag or passed out in a gas
The Bessemer processes
1. Charging

Molten pig iron is fed in.

2. Blowing
 The furnace is turned upright and the air blast turned on. Blowing takes
place. Burning out impurities.
3. Tapping/emptying

Furnace tilted to pour out processed steel.

The basic oxygen processes

This is the most common method in use today. Pure oxygen has replaced air,
and the oxygen is blown onto the hot metal from above. A modem furnace may
have a capacity of nearly 400 tonnes and yet the process takes less than an hour!
A typical melt will consist of 30 per cent selected scrap metal and 70 per cent
pig iron. In the newest furnaces, this will be delivered in its molten state directly
free the blast furnace. A hood is placed over the furnace to draw off the
unwanted gas, the water-cooled oxygen lance inserted and fluxes added as soon
as the ‘blow’ takes place. The furnace is tilted to tap the steel from underneath
the slag. It is poured into a ladle where the alloying elements can be added. The
furnace is then tilted in the opposite direction to remove the slag.
THE electric arc furnaces

These are smaller and are used for producing the highest quality steel. The roof
of the furnace is removed to insert the cold metal (often selected steel scrap) and
the fluxes and is then closed up again.
The three graphite electrodes are lowered and the powerful electric current
switched on. This creates an arc across the gap between electrode and metal
which produces enough heat to melt the metal. As the clean arc does not
produce any impurities, close control over the finished product is possible.

PROPERTIES OF METALS
There are three main types of metal:
1. Ferrous metals which contain iron
2. Non-ferrous metals which rarely contain any iron
3. Alloys which are a mixture of different metals
Pure metals are not often used because they do not have the qualities or
properties of carefully mixed alloys.
Metals are described by the following properties:
1. Physical properties
2. Chemical properties
3. Thermal properties
4. Electrical properties
5. Mechanical properties
These properties of the material are discussed as under.
Physical Properties
The important physical properties of the metals are density, colour, size and
shape (dimensions), specific gravity, porosity, lustre etc. Some of them are
defined as under.
1. Density
Mass per unit volume is called as density. In metric system its unit is kg/mm3.
Because of very low density, aluminium and magnesium are preferred in
aeronautic and transportation applications.
2. Colour
It deals the quality of light reflected from the surface of metal.
3. Size and shape
Dimensions of any metal reflect the size and shape of the material. Length,
width, height, depth, curvature diameter etc. determines the size. Shape
specifies the rectangular, square, circular or any other section.
4. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of any metal is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the
metal to the mass of the same volume of water at a specified temperature.
5. Porosity
A material is called as porous or permeable if it has pores within it.
Chemical Properties
The study of chemical properties of materials is necessary because most of the
engineering materials, when they come in contact with other substances with
which they can react, suffer from chemical deterioration of the surface of the
metal. Some of the chemical properties of the metals are corrosion resistance,
chemical composition and acidity or alkalinity. Corrosion is the gradual
deterioration of material by chemical reaction with its environment.
Thermal Properties
The study of thermal properties is essential in order to know the response of
metal to thermal changes i.e., lowering or raising of temperature. Different
thermal properties are thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, specific heat,
melting point, thermal diffusivity. Some important properties are defined as
under.
1. Melting Point
Melting point is the temperature at which a pure metal or compound changes its
shape from solid to liquid. It is called as the temperature at which the liquid and
solid are in equilibrium. It can also be said as the transition point between solid
and liquid phases.
Melting temperature depends on the nature of inter-atomic and intermolecular
bonds. Therefore, higher melting point is exhibited by those materials
possessing stronger bonds. Covalent, ionic, metallic and molecular types of
solids have decreasing order of bonding strength and melting point. Melting
point of mild steel is 1500°C, of copper is 1080°C and of Aluminium is 650°C.

Electrical Properties
The various electrical properties of materials are conductivity, temperature
coefficient of resistance, dielectric strength, resistivity, and thermoelectricity.
These properties are defined as under.
1. Conductivity
Conductivity is defined as the ability of the material to pass electric current
through it easily i.e., the material which is conductive will provide an easy path
for the flow of electricity through it.
2. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
It is generally termed as to specify the variation of resistivity with temperature.
3. Dielectric Strength
It means insulating capacity of material at high voltage. A material having high
dielectric strength can withstand for longer time for high voltage across it before
it conducts the current through it.
4. Resistivity
It is the property of a material by which it resists the flow of electricity through
it.
5. Thermoelectricity
If two dissimilar metals are joined and then this junction is heated, a small
voltage (in the milli-volt range) is produced, and this is known as thermoelectric
effect. It is the base of the thermocouple. Thermo -couples are prepared using
the properties of metals.
Mechanical Properties
Under the action of various kinds of forces, the behavior of the material is
studied that measures the strength and lasting characteristic of a material in
service. The mechanical properties of materials are of great industrial
importance in the design of tools, machines and structures. These properties are
structure sensitive in the sense that they depend upon the crystal structure and
its bonding forces, and especially upon the nature and behavior of the
imperfections which- exist within the crystal itself or at the grain boundaries.
The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the
ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. The main
mechanical properties of the metal are strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity,
ductility, malleability, toughness, brittleness, hardness, formability, castability
and weldability. These properties can be well understood with help of tensile
test and stress strain diagram. The few important and useful mechanical
properties are explained below.
1. Elasticity
It is defined as the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. It can also be referred as the
power of material to come back to its original position after deformation when
the stress or load is removed. It is also called as the tensile property of the
material.
2. Proportional limit
It is defined as the maximum stress under which a material will maintain a
perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress. Though its value is difficult to
measure, yet it can be used as the important applications for building precision
instruments, springs, etc.
3. Elastic limit
Many metals can be put under stress slightly above the proportional limit
without taking a permanent set. The greatest stress that a material can endure
without taking up some permanent set is called elastic limit. Beyond this limit,
the metal does not regain its original form and permanent set will occurs.
4. Yield point
At a specific stress, ductile metals particularly cease, offering resistance to
tensile forces. This means, the metals flow and a relatively large permanent set
takes place without a noticeable increase in load. This point is called yield
point. Certain metals such as mild steel exhibit a definite yield point, in which
case the yield stress is simply the stress at this point.
5. Strength
Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist the externally applied
forces with breakdown or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a material
to an externally applied force is called stress. The capacity of bearing load by
metal and to withstand destruction under the action of external loads is known
as strength. The stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand. This
property of material therefore determines the ability to withstand stress without
failure. Strength varies according to the type of loading. It is always possible to
assess tensile, compressive, shearing and torsional strengths. The maximum
stress that any material can withstand before destruction is called its ultimate
strength. The tenacity of the material is its ultimate strength in tension.
6. Stiffness
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The
resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or
rigidity. A material that suffers slight or very less deformation under load has a
high degree of stiffness or rigidity. For instance, suspended beams of steel and
aluminium may both be strong enough to carry the required load but the
aluminium beam will “sag” or deflect further. That means, the steel beam is
stiffer or more rigid than aluminium beam.
7. Plasticity
Plasticity is defined the mechanical property of a material which retains the
deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the material is
required in forging, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work. It is
the ability or tendency of material to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without its rupture or its failure. Plastic deformation takes place
only after the elastic range of material has been exceeded. Such property of
material is important in forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot or cold
working processes. Materials such as clay, lead, etc. are plastic at room
temperature and steel is plastic at forging temperature. This property generally
increases with increase in temperature of materials.
8. Ductility
Ductility is termed as the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into
wire with the application of tensile load. A ductile material must be strong and
plastic. The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation
and percent reduction in area which is often used as empirical measures of
ductility. The materials those possess more than 5% elongation are called as
ductile materials. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice
in order of diminishing ductility are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc,
tin and lead.
9. Malleability
Malleability is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets under
applications of heavy compressive forces without cracking by hot or cold
working means. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be
rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but
it is not essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in
engineering practice in order of diminishing malleability are lead, soft steel,
wrought iron, copper and aluminium. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead, steel, etc.
are recognized as highly malleable metals.
10. Hardness
Hardness is defined as the ability of a metal to cut another metal. A harder metal
can always cut or put impression to the softer metals by virtue of its hardness. It
is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meanings. It
embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc.
11. Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. The materials having less
than 5% elongation under loading behavior are said to be brittle materials.
Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads, snap off without giving any
sensible elongation. Glass, cast iron, brass and ceramics are considered as brittle
material.
12. Creep
When a metal part when is subjected to a high constant stress at high
temperature for a longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent
deformation (in form of a crack which may further propagate further towards
creep failure) called creep.
13. Formability
It is the property of metals which denotes the ease in its forming in to various
shapes and sizes. The different factors that affect the formability are crystal
structure of metal, grain size of metal hot and cold working, alloying element
present in the parent metal. Metals with smal1 grain size are suitable for shallow
forming while metal with size are suitable for heavy forming. Hot working
increases formability. Low carbon steel possesses good formability.
14. Castability
Castability is defined as the property of metal, which indicates the ease with it
can be casted into different shapes and sizes. Cast iron, aluminium and brass are
possessing good castability.
15. Weldability
Weldability is defined as the property of a metal which indicates the two similar
or dissimilar metals are joined by fusion with or without the application of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal (welding) efficiently. Metals
having weldability in the descending order are iron, steel, cast steels and
stainless steels.

Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals combine iron and carbon in varying amounts and all of them are
likely to rust when exposed to the weather.
Grey cast iron is an alloy of iron and about 3.5 per cent carbon. It is a brittle
material that cannot be forged, but the high carbon content makes it melt and
pour easily. It will absorb vibrations better than other ferrous metals so it is used
for large castings on machines, such as drill-stand bases and lathe beds.
Unfortunately, it is brittle and may break, when struck.
Properties
(i) When fractured it gives grey colour.
(ii) It can be easily cast.
(iii) It is marked by presence of flakes of graphite in a matrix of ferrite and
pearlite or austenite; graphite flakes occupy 10% of metal volume.
 (iv) It can be easily machined and possesses machinability better than
steel.
(v) It possesses lowest melting of ferrous alloys.
(vi) It possesses high vibration damping capacity.
(vii) It has high resistance to wear.
(viii) It possesses high fluidity and hence can be cast into complex shapes
and thin sections.
(ix) It possesses high compressive strength.
(x) It has a low tensile strength.
(xi) It has very low ductility and low impact strength as compared with
steel.
Applications
The grey iron castings are mainly used for machine tool bodies, automotive
cylinder blocks, pipes and pipe fittings and agricultural implements. The other
applications involved are
(i) Machine tool structures such as bed, frames, column etc.
(ii) Household appliances etc.
(iii) Gas or water pipes for underground purposes.
(iv) Man, holes cover.
(v) Piston rings.
(vi) Rolling mill and general machinery parts.
(vii) Cylinder blocks and heads for I.C. engines.
(viii) Frames of electric motor.
(ix) Ingot mould. And
(x) General machinery parts.
(xi) Sanitary wares.
(xii) Tunnel segment.
Malleable cast iron
The ordinary cast iron is very hard and brittle. Malleable cast iron is unsuitable
for articles which are thin, light and subjected to shock. It can be flattened under
pressure by forging and rolling. It is an alloy in which all combined carbon
changed to free form by suitable heat treatment. Graphite originally present in
iron in the form of flakes which is the source of weakness and brittleness.
Carbon in this cast iron is dispersed as tiny specks instead of being flaky or in
combined form. The tiny specks have not such weakening effect and casting
would not break when dropped. The tensile strength of this cast iron is usually
higher than that of grey cast iron. It has excellent machining quality and is used
for making machine parts for which the steel forging and in which the metal
should have a fair degree of machining accuracy e.g., hubs of wagon, heels
small fittings for railway rolling brake supports, parts of agricultural machinery,
pipe fittings, hinges, locks, body of a woodworker’s smoothing plane etc.
Plain carbon steel
Plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It has good machineability and
malleability. It is different from cast iron as regards the percentage of carbon. It
contains carbon from 0.06 to 1.5% whereas cast iron possesses carbon from 1.8
to 4.2%. Depending upon the carbon content, plain carbon steels can be divided
to the following types:
1. Dead carbon steel - up to 0.15% carbon
2. Low carbon or mild steel - 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
3. Medium carbon steel - 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
4. High carbon steel - 0.8% to 1.5% carbon

Dead - mild steel

It possesses very low percentage of carbon varying from 0.05 to 0.15% and is
the basis of the tin plate - the thin layer of tin preventing rust. Steel wire, sheets,
rivets, screws, pipe, nail and chain are made from this steel. This steel is used
for making camshafts, sheets
and strips for fan blades, welded tubing, forgings, chains, stamping, rivets, nails,
pipes, automobile body etc.
Low carbon or mild steel
Low carbon steel is sometimes known as mild steel also. It contains 0.20 to
0.30% Carbon. It possesses bright fibrous structure. It is tough, malleable,
ductile and more elastic than wrought iron. It can be easily forged and welded.
It can absorb shocks. It rusts easily. Its melting point is about 1410°C. It is used
for making angle, channels, case hardening steel, rods, tubes, valves, gears,
crankshafts, connecting rods, railway axles, fish plates, small forgings, free
cutting steel shaft and forged components etc. It cannot be hardened but case
hardened.
Applications
1. Mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.20% carbon
 It is used in structure steels, universal beams, screws, drop forgings, case
hardening steel, bars, rods, tubes, angles and channels etc.
2. Mild steel containing 0.20-0.30% carbon
It is used in making machine structure, gears, free cutting steels, shafts
and forged components etc
Black mild steel is coated with a greyscale from oxidation during the process of
hot rolling. This is chemically cleaned and cold rolled to an accurate size and is
then referred to as bright drawn mild steel (BDMS).
Medium carbon steels
Medium carbon steel contains carbon from 0.30 to 0.8%. It possesses having
bright fibrous structure when fractured. It is tough and more elastic in
comparison to wrought iron. It can be easily forged, welded, elongated due to
ductility and beaten into sheets due to its good malleability. It can easily absorb
sudden shocks. It is usually produced as killed or semi killed steels and is
harden able by treatment. Hardenability is limited to thin sections or to the thin
outer layer on thick parts. Its tensile strength is better than cast iron and wrought
iron but compressive strength is better than wrought iron but lesser than cast
iron. It rusts readily. Its melting point is 1400°C. It can be easily hardened and it
possesses good balance of strength and ductility. It is generally used for making
railway coach axles, bolts, connecting rods, key stock, wires and rods, shift and
break levers, spring clips, gear shafts, small and medium forgings, railway
coach axles, crank pins on heavy machines, spline shafts, crankshafts, forging
dies, set screws, die blocks, self-tapping screws, clutch discs, valve springs,
plate punches, thrust washers etc. The applications of different kinds of medium
carbon steel are given as under.
Applications
1. Plain carbon steels having carbon % 0.30 to 0.45. Axles, special duty
shafts, connecting rods, forgings, machinery steel, spring clips, turbine,
rotors, gear shafts, key stock, forks and bolts.
2. Plain carbon steels having carbon % 0.45 to 0.60. Railway coach
axles, crank pins, crankshafts, axles, spline shafts, loco tyres.
3. Plain carbon steels having carbon % 0.60 to 0.80. Drop forging dies,
die blocks, bolt heading dies, self-tapping screws, valve spring, lock
washers, hammers, cold chisels, hacksaws, jaws for vices etc.
High carbon steel
High carbon steels (HCS) contain carbon from 0.8 to 1.5%. Because of their
high hardness, these are suitable for wear resistant parts. Spring steel is also
high carbon steel. It is available in annealed and pre-tempered strips and wires.
High carbon steel loses their hardness at temperature from 200°C to 250°C.
They may only be used in the manufacture of cutting tools operating at low
cutting speeds. These steels are easy to forge and simple to harden. These steels
are of various types which are identified by the carbon percentage, hardness and
applications
HCS containing 0.7 to 0.8% carbon - It has application for making cold
chisels, drill bits, wrenches, wheels for railway service, jaws for vices, structural
wires, shear blades, automatic clutch discs, hacksaws etc.
Steel containing 0.8 to 0.9% Carbon. This steel is used for making rock drills,
punches dies, railway rails clutch discs, circular saws, leaf springs, machine
chisels, music wires,
Steel containing 0.90 to 1.00% carbon is also known as high carbon tool
steel. Such steel is used for making punches, dies, springs keys and shear
blades.
Steel containing 1.0 to 1.1 % Carbon is used for making railway springs,
mandrels, taps, balls, pins, tools, thread metal dies.
Steel containing 1.1 to 1.2% Carbon is used for making taps, twist drills, the
thread dies, knives. Steel containing 1.2 to 1.3% carbon is used for making files,
reamers Files dies for wire drawing, broaches, saws for cutting steel, tools for
turning chilled iron. Cutting tool materials imply the materials from which
various lathe tools or other cutting tools are made. The best tool material to use
for a certain job is the one that will produce the machined part at the lowest
cost. To perform well during cutting, the tool material should possess the
following properties for its proper functioning.
1. A low coefficient of friction between tool material and chip material.
2. Ability to resist softening at high temperatures.
3. Ability to absorb shocks without permanent deformation.
4. Sufficient toughness to resist fracture and bear cutting stresses.
5. Strength to resist disintegration of fine cutting edge and also to withstand
the stresses developed, during cutting, in the weakest part of the tool.
6. The high hardness means the tool must be harder than the material being
cut.
Non-ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous metals do not contain either iron or carbon and do not rust.
Copper
It is produced in the reverberatory furnace and a convertor similar to the
Bessemer converter. Its ores are malachite and pyrites
Copper is a reddish-brown metal that is malleable and ductile. We use copper
in the home for water pipes, soldering bits, rivets, boilers, firebox plates,
electric wiring and high-quality cookware, as it is an excellent conductor of heat
and electricity. It also solders well and forms alloys readily Half the world’s
copper production is used in this way. A large part of the remainder is used in
making alloys such as brass. Copper hardens as it is worked.
Copper alloy
Brass (copper 65% and zinc 35%)
It is malleable and ductile. Brass polishes well, solders easily, cannot be forged
and crumbles when heated. It is used for making rivets, brazing wire, water
tapes and padlock keys.
Gilding metal (90% copper and 10% zinc)
It is malleable and ductile. Looks like gold because of its colour and is
expensive, also polishes well. It is used for making jewellery.
Bronze (copper and tin)
It’s a tough non-ferrous metal and is extremely resistant to corrosion and rust
and machines well. Used for making bells, bearings and machine castings.
Zinc is a bluish-grey metal that is used mainly as the corrosion-resisting coating
of galvanized steel. It is mixed with copper to produce both brass and gilding
metal. It bends easily and also solders well.
The chief ores of zinc are sphalerite or blend. It is roasted in air to burn away
sulphur which is found in the ore. Pure zinc is produced by electrolytic or
reduction processes.
Zinc has a fairly low melting point (420°C) which means it is ideal for the
pressure die-casting techniques used in industry. Zinc, with small amounts of
aluminium, magnesium and copper added, produces an alloy used for casting
carburettors and washing machine components.
Lead
The chief ore is called galena which is roasted to burn impurities such as
sulphur. It is fed into the blast furnace to be smelted into the lead. Lead is a
bluish-grey, heavy and extremely malleable metal. Because water and acids will
not corrode it, it used to be the traditional material for household plumbing,
making accumulator plates in car batteries and cable coverings. As it can cause
lead poisoning its use in the home is now limited to waterproof flashings for
slate and tile roofs.
Tin is a silvery, malleable and ductile metal used mainly as the thin rust-
resistant coating of tinplate. Its chief ores are tinstone and cassiterite. Tin is
produced by a reduction process in a reduction cell
Properties of tin are
 It is malleable and ductile
 Resistant to corrosion
 It alloys with other metals e.g., Mixed with lead to form soft solder and
with copper to form bronze.
Used to coat mild steel in food cans to prevent the can from rust and for making
soft solder.
Aluminium is a bluish-white metal that is malleable and ductile. In its pure
form, it is weak so it is usually alloyed with other metals. The alloys combine
strength with lightness so they are ideal for working castings such as engines.
Aluminium is used as a cheaper alternative to copper in some electrical work. It
is also a good conductor of heat.
Steel Alloys
We have seen how steel is affected by the quantity of carbon in it and that high
carbon steel can be given heat treatment to change its working properties.
The quality of steel can also be changed by adding to it small quantities of pure
metals to produce alloy steel. Common additives are nickel, tungsten, chromium
and manganese. Molybdenum, vanadium and titanium are used for specialist
steels in the manufacture of crankshafts and parts of aero-engines which need to
be hard at high working temperatures
Nickel makes steel that is tough and which resists impact and corrosion - ideal
for rails, points and parts of railway engines.
Nickel and chromium are both used in the manufacture of gears.
Tungsten is used to tip cutting tools such as drills and the woodworker's circular
saw. At high speed the tips become hot, but the tungsten steel keeps its cutting
edge.
Chromium is present in large quantities in good-quality cutlery and is about 13
per cent of stainless steel. Chromium and molybdenum allow some sports
bicycle tubing to be made thin, light and strong.
Manganese is present in most steels and its presence in different parts of the
sports bicycle is carefully controlled to help produce different wearing qualities.
For example, the steering column and the mainframe are both made from mild
steel. The column has about three times more manganese (1.20 per cent) than
the frame so that it will resist the wear of a lifetime of use.
High-speed steels
High-Speed Steels (HSS) have been given this name since these steels may be
operated as cutting tools at much higher speeds than are possible with plain
carbon tool steel. High-speed steels cutting tools operate at cutting speeds 2 to 3
times higher than for High carbon steel. At higher cutting speeds, sufficient heat
may be developed during the cutting process. This heat causes the cutting edge
of the tool to reach a high heat (red heat). This heat softens the carbon tool steel
and thus the tool will not work efficiently for a longer period. These steels have
the property of retaining their hardness even when heated to red heat. High
hardness at elevated temperatures is developed by the addition of elements such
as tungsten, chromium-vanadium to high carbon steels. These steels are
generally used for making lathe cutting tools, planner cutting tools, shaper
cutting tools, slotting cutting tools, drills, reamers, broaches, milling cutters and
punches. There are four general types of high-speed steel used in machine
shops.
1. High-speed steel
High-speed steels (HSS) are most commonly operated as cutting tools at much
higher speed i.e., twice or thrice whereas tool steel. It is the most common kind
of cutting tool. It contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1 % vanadium, 0.8
carbon and remaining iron. It is considered to be one of the best of all-purpose
tool steels. This brand of high-speed steel is used for machining operations on
steel and non-ferrous materials. This is generally used for lathe, planer and
shaper tools, drills, millings cutters, punches etc.
2. Molybdenum based high-speed steel
It has excellent toughness and cutting ability. Molybdenum high-speed steels
are cheaper than other types of steel and are particularly used for drilling and
tapping tools. These steels are also used for making rough-cutting tools, lathe
tools and various kinds of milling cutters.
3. Cobalt-based high-speed steel
This is also known as super high-speed steel because cutting tools made of this
steel can be operated at much higher speeds. In this steel, cobalt is added from 2
to 15 per cent to increase the cutting efficiency, especially at high temperatures.
Since the cost of this steel is more, therefore, it is principally used for making
cutting tools for heavy operations which impose high pressure and temperature
on the tool. It is extensively used for making high production tools of heavy
work for high production lathe, planer, shaper, milling and boring machine.
4. Vanadium High-Speed Steel
Generally, this steel contains more than 1% V and 0.70% C. This steel
possesses better abrasive resistance in comparison to normal HSS type steel. It
is preferred for machining materials that are highly difficult to machine by
conventional means. These steels cutting tools are close competitors of carbides
cutting tools such as drills, reamers, milling cutters etc. In addition to having
heat resistance properties of high-speed steels possesses desirable properties of
high hardness, high compressive strength and outstanding wear resistance.
Stainless steel
Stainless steel contains chromium together with nickel as alloy and the rest is
iron. It has been defined as that steel which when correctly heat treated and
finished, resists oxidation and corrosive attack from most corrosive media. The
stainless steel surface is responsible for corrosion resistance. Stainless steel is
highly resistant to corrosion and oxidation. It can be classified into three major
categories according to the type of microstructures.
General Properties of Stainless Steels
It possesses a wide range of strength and hardness, high ductility, formability,
high corrosion resistance, good creep resistance, good thermal conductivity,
good machinability, good weldability, high hot, cold workability, high
resistance to scaling and oxidation at elevated temperatures, excellent surface
appearance and finish.
Applications
Stainless steels containing 12 to 14% chromium and 0.3% carbon are
extensively used for table cutlery, tools and equipment etc. Stainless steels
containing 16-18% chromium and 0.2% carbon are used as springs, ball
bearing, valves, knife blades and instruments under high temperature and
corrosive conditions. These steels are generally used for making utensils,
surgical and dental instruments, and springs of high temperature operations, ball
valves and toilet seats.
Heat treatment
Heat treatment is a heating and cooling process of a metal or an alloy in the
solid-state to change its properties. It can also be said as a process of heating
and cooling of ferrous metals especially various kinds of steels in which some
special properties like softness, hardness, tensile strength, toughness etc, are
induced in these metals for achieving the special function objectively. It consists
of three main phases namely;
1) heating of the metal
2) soaking of the metal and
3) cooling of the metal.

The theory of heat treatment is based on the fact that a change takes place in the
internal structure of the metal by heating and cooling which induces desired
properties in it. The rate of cooling is the major controlling factor. Rapid
cooling of the metal from above the critical range results in hard structure.
Whereas very slow cooling produces the opposite effect i.e., soft structure. In
any heat treatment operation, the rate of heating and cooling is important. A
hard material is difficult to shape by cutting, forming, etc. During machining in
a machine shop, one requires machinable properties in the job piece hence the
properties of the job piece may require heat treatment such as annealing for
inducing softness and machineability property in a workpiece.
Heating Stage
In the heating stage, the primary objective is to heat uniformly, and you attain
and maintain uniform temperatures by slow heating. If you heat unevenly, one
section can expand faster than another, resulting in a distorted or cracked part.
The appropriate heating rate will depend on several factors.
• The metal’s heat conductivity. A metal with a high-heat conductivity
heats at a faster rate than one with low conductivity.
 • The metal’s condition. The heating rate for hardened (stressed) tools and
parts should be slower than the heating rate for unstressed or untreated
metals.
• A metal part’s size and cross-section. To prevent warping or cracking,
you need to heat large cross-sectioned parts slowly to allow the interior
temperature to remain close to the surface temperature. Parts with uneven
cross-sections will naturally tend to heat unevenly, but they are less apt to
crack or excessively warp when you keep the heating rate slow.
Soaking Stage
In the soaking stage, the objective is to hold the metal to the proper temperature
until the desired internal structural changes take place. “Soaking period” is the
term you use for the time the metal is held at the proper temperature. The
chemical analysis of the metal and the mass of the part will determine the
appropriate soaking period. (Note: For steel parts with uneven cross-sections,
the largest section determines the soaking period.)
Except for the rare variance, you should not bring the temperature of metal
directly from room temperature to soaking temperature in one operation.
Instead, heat the metal slowly to a temperature just below the point at which the
internal change occurs and hold it at that temperature until you have equalized
the heat throughout. Following this process (called “preheating”), quickly heat
the metal to its final required temperature.
When a part has an intricate design, you may have to preheat it to more than one
temperature stage to prevent cracking and excessive warping. For example,
assume an intricate part needs to be heated to 815 degrees Celsius for
hardening.
You may need to heat this part slowly to a 315 degrees Celsius stage and soak it
at this temperature for a defined period, then heat it slowly and soak it at a 649
degrees Celsius stage, and then heat it quickly to the hardening temperature of
815°C
Cooling Stage
In the cooling stage, the objective is self-explanatory, but there are different
processes to return metal to room temperature, depending on the type of metal.
To cool the metal and attain the desired properties, you may need to place it in
direct contact with a cooling medium (a gas, liquid, solid, or a combination),
and any cooling rate will depend on the metal itself and the chosen medium.
Therefore, the choice of a cooling medium has an important influence on the
properties desired.
Cooling metal rapidly in air, oil, water, brine, or some other medium is called
quenching.
Quenching is usually associated with hardening since most metals that are
hardened are cooled rapidly during the process. However, neither quenching nor
rapid cooling always results in increased hardness. For example, a water quench
is usually used to anneal copper, and some other metals are cooled at a
relatively slow rate for hardening, such as air-hardened steels.
Some metals crack or warp during quenching, while others suffer no ill effects;
so, the quenching medium must fit the metal. Use brine or water for metals that
require a rapid cooling rate; use oil mixtures for metals that need a slower
cooling rate. Generally, you should water-harden carbon steels, oil-harden alloy
steels, and quench nonferrous metals in water.
RECOGNIZING HEAT COLORS for STEEL
“Red-hot” is a term you are probably familiar with as it applies to steel, but steel
takes on several colours and shades from the time it turns a dull red until it
reaches a white heat. The diagram below shows these approximate colours and
their corresponding temperatures.
Steel is heated through various temperatures during hardening, normalizing, or
annealing, and each temperature produces a colour change; so, by observing
these changes, you should be able to approximate the temperature of the steel.
As an example, assume you must quench-harden a steel part at 815°C. You
should heat the part slowly and evenly while watching it closely for any colour
change. Once the steel begins to redden, carefully note each change in shades of
red as you continue to apply heat. When the steel is bright red or approximately
815°C, quench the part. Your judgment, ability to distinguish shades of red and
the accuracy with which you identify each colour with its corresponding
temperature can determine the success of your heat-treating operation.
To accurately judge a steel’s temperature, you must be able to tell the difference
between faint red and blood red, dark cherry and medium cherry, or cherry red
and bright red.
Sometimes in various lightings and work environments, this is a difficult task,
and to add to the difficulty, your conception of medium cherry may differ from
another’s conception. For an actual heat-treating operation, use a printed chart
showing the authentic colours of steel at various temperatures.

TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

Objectives of Heat Treatment
The major objectives of heat treatment are given as under
1. It relieves internal stresses induced during hot or cold working.
2. It changes or refines grain size.
3. It increases resistance to heat and corrosion.
4. It improves mechanical properties such as ductility, strength,
hardness, toughness, etc.
5. It helps to improve machinability.
6. It increases wear resistance
7. It removes gases.
8. It improves electrical and magnetic properties.
9. It changes the chemical composition.
10. It helps to improve shock resistance.
 11. It improves weldability.
The above objectives of heat treatment may be served by one or more
of the following
1. Normalizing
2. Annealing.
3. Hardening.
4. Tempering
5. Case hardening
(a) Carburizing
(b) Cyaniding
(c) Nitriding
(d) Flame hardening.
The following sections describe the techniques used in each process and show
how they relate to Steelworkers.
1 Annealing
The objective of annealing is the opposite of hardening. You anneal metals to
relieve internal stresses, soften them, make them more ductile, and refine their
grain structures.
The process includes all three stages of heat treatment already covered (heat the
metal to a specific temperature, hold it at a temperature for a set length of time,
cool it to room temperature), but the cooling method will depend on the metal
and the properties desired.
You may need to furnace-cool some metals or bury others in ashes, lime, or
other insulating materials to achieve the appropriate characteristics.
Under certain job conditions, or without proper preheating, welding can produce
areas of molten metal adjacent to other areas at room temperature. Given
specific conditions, welding can weaken a metal, for as a weld cools, internal
stresses occur along with hard spots and brittleness. Annealing is just one
method for correcting these problems and relieving the stresses.
Ferrous Metal
To anneal ferrous metals and produce the maximum softness(ductility) in steel,
you slowly heat the metal to its proper temperature, soak it, and then let it cool
very slowly by burying the hot part in an insulating material, or by shutting off
the furnace and allowing the furnace and the part to cool slowly together.
Soaking periods depend on both the type and the mass of the metal involved.
The table below provides approximate soaking periods for annealing steel of
various thicknesses.
Extremely low-carbon steels require the highest annealing temperature, but as
steel’s carbon content increases, its annealing temperatures decrease.
Approximate Soaking Periods for Hardening, Annealing and Normalizing
Steel showed in the table below

Nonferrous Metal
Annealing nonferrous metals may or may not follow the same process as ferrous
metals. For example, copper becomes hard and brittle when mechanically
worked, but it can be made soft again by annealing at a temperature between
371°C and 482°C.
However, copper may be cooled rapidly (normally associated with hardening)
or slowly since the cooling rate does not affect the heat treatment.
One drawback experienced in annealing copper is the phenomenon called “hot
shortness.” Copper loses its tensile strength at about 482°C and if not properly
supported, it could fracture.
Aluminium also has the characteristic of “hot shortness,” and reacts similarly to
copper when heat treating. With a large number of aluminium alloys in use, you
must provide special care while heat treating aluminium to produce the best
properties for each alloy.
Objectives
1. To soften metals
2. Refine grain structure
3. Improve machinability after forging and rolling
4. improve grain size
5. Improve structure of the weld
6. Prepare steel for sub heat treatment
2 Normalizing
The intent of normalizing is to remove internal stresses that may have been
induced by heat treating, welding, casting, forging, forming, or machining.
Uncontrolled stress leads to metal failure; therefore, you should normalize steel
before hardening it to ensure maximum results.
Normalizing applies to ferrous metals only, and it differs from annealing; the
metal is heated to a higher temperature, but then it is removed from the furnace
for air cooling.
Low-carbon steels do not usually require normalizing, but if they are
normalized, no harmful effects result.
Castings are usually annealed rather than normalized; however, some castings
require the normalizing heat treatment.
Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed steel; it has relatively high
strength and ductility, much tougher than in any other structural condition.
Metal parts that will be subjected to impact and those requiring maximum
toughness with resistance to external stress are usually normalized.
In normalizing, since the metal is air-cooled, the mass of metal has a significant
influence on the cooling rate and hence on the resulting piece’s hardness. With
normalizing, thin pieces cool faster in the air and are harder than thick ones,
whereas, with annealing and its associated furnace cooling, the hardness of the
thin and thick pieces is about the same.
Objectives of Annealing
The purpose of annealing is to achieve the following
1. Soften the steel.
2. Relieve internal stresses
 3. Reduce or eliminate structural in-homogeneity.
4. Refine grain size.
5. Improve machinability.
6. Increase or restore ductility and toughness.

3 Hardening
The purpose of hardening is not only to harden steel as the name implies but
also to increase its strength. However, there is a trade-off; while a hardening
heat treatment does increase the hardness and strength of the steel, it also makes
it less ductile, and brittleness increases as hardness increases. To remove some
of the brittleness, you should temper the steel after hardening.
Many nonferrous metals can also be hardened and their strength increased by
controlled heating and rapid cooling, but for nonferrous metals, the same
process is called heat treatment rather than hardening.
For most steels, hardening consists of employing the typical first two stages of
heat treatment (slowly heat to temperature and soak to time and temperature),
but the third stage is dissimilar. With hardening, you rapidly cool the metal by
plunging it into oil, water, or brine. (Note: Most steels require rapid cooling
[quenching] for hardening, but a few can be air-cooled with the same results.)
The cooling rate required to produce hardness decreases when alloys are added
to steel; this is advantageous since a slower cooling rate also lessens the danger
of cracking and warping.
The following provides hardening characteristics for a few irons and low-carbon
steel.
• Pure iron, wrought iron, and extremely low-carbon steels - very little
hardening properties; difficult to harden by heat treatment
• Cast iron-limited capabilities for hardening
o Cooled rapidly, it forms white iron; hard and brittle
o Cooled slowly, it forms grey iron; soft but brittle under impact
• Plain carbon steel - maximum hardness depends almost entirely on the
carbon content
o Hardening ability increases as carbon content increase to a
maximum of 0.80 % carbon
 o Increased carbon content beyond 0.80 % increases wear resistance
but not hardness
o Increased wear resistance is due to the formation of hard cementite
Adding an alloy to steel to increase its hardness also increases the carbon’s
effectiveness to harden and strengthen. Consequently, the carbon content
required to produce maximum hardness is lower in alloyed steels than it is for
plain carbon steels with the result that alloy steels are usually superior to carbon
steels.
4 Tempering
After hardening by either case or flame, steel is often harder than needed and
too brittle for most practical uses, containing severe internal stresses that were
set during the rapid cooling of the process. Following hardening, you need to
temper the steel to relieve the internal stresses and reduce brittleness.
Tempering consists of:
• Heating the steel to a specific temperature (below its hardening
temperature)
• Holding it at that temperature for the required length of time
• Cooling it, usually in still air.
You temper a steel part to reduce the brittleness caused by hardening, and
develop specific physical properties; it always follows, never precedes
hardening. Tempering reduces brittleness, but it also softens the steel, which
you cannot avoid. However, the amount of hardness lost is controllable and
dependent on the temperature you subject the steel to during the tempering
process. That is true of all steels except high-speed steel; tempering increases
the hardness of high-speed steel.
Cold chisels and similar tools must have hard cutting edges with softer bodies
and heads. The heads must be tough but not brittle to prevent shattering when
struck, the cutting edge must be twice as hard (or more) as the head, and the
zone separating the two must blend the two extremes without a line of
demarcation that would encourage breakage.
One method frequently used for tempering chisels and similar tools is one in
which the cutting end is heated and tempered by the residual heat of the
opposite end of the same tool.
To simultaneously harden and temper a cold chisel by this method:
• Heat the tool to the proper hardening temperature.
 • Quench the cutting end only.
• Bob the chisel up and down in the bath, always keeping the cutting edge
below the surface.
o This method air cools the head (normalizing) while rapidly
quenching the cutting edge (hardening).
The result is a tough head, a fully hardened cutting edge, and a properly blended
structure.

When the cutting end has cooled:

• Remove the chisel from the bath.
• Quickly polish the cutting end with a buff stick (emery).
• Watch the polished surface for heat from the opposite end feeding back
into the quenched end.
o Oxide colours will appear on the hardened end as the temperature
increases, progressing from pale yellow to a straw colour, and
finally to blue colours.
As soon as the correct shade of blue appears:
• Quench the entire chisel to prevent further softening of the cutting edge.
o Temper the hardened end as soon as the proper oxide colour
appears; quenching merely prevents further tempering by halting
the process.
o This final quench does not affect the body and the head of the
chisel. Their temperatures will have dropped below the critical
 point by the time the proper oxide colour appears on the cutting
edge.
By completing this described process, you will have hardened and tempered the
chisel, and it only needs grinding.

5 Case Hardening
The object of case hardening is to produce a hard, wear-resistant surface (case)
over a strong, tough core. In the case of hardening, the surface of the metal is
chemically changed by the introduction of a high carbide or nitride content, but
the core remains chemically unaffected. When the metal is heat-treated, the
high-carbon surface responds to hardening and the core toughens.
Case hardening applies only to ferrous metals. It is ideal for parts that must have
a wear-resistant surface yet be internally tough enough to withstand heavy
loading. Low carbon and low-alloy series steels are best suited for case
hardening. When high carbon steels are case hardened, the hardness penetrates
beyond the surface resulting in brittleness.
There are three principal processes for case hardening: carburizing, cyaniding,
and nitriding.
Carburizing
Carburizing - a case hardening process by which carbon is added to the surface
of low-carbon steel.
When the carburized steel is heat-treated, the case becomes hardened and the
core remains soft and tough--in other words, it has a high-carbon surface and a
low-carbon interior.
There are two methods for carburizing steel:
• Heat the steel in a furnace containing a carbon monoxide atmosphere.
• Place the steel in a container packed with charcoal (or some other carbon-
rich material) and heat in a furnace.
The parts can be left in the container and furnace to cool, or they can be
removed and air-cooled. In either case, the parts become annealed during the
slow cooling. The depth of the carbon penetration depends on the length of the
soaking period during heat treatment. Modern methods dictate that carburizing
is almost exclusively done by gas atmospheres.
Cyaniding
Cyaniding — a case hardening process by which preheated steel is dipped into a
heated cyanide bath and allowed to soak.
The part is then removed, quenched, and rinsed to remove any residual cyanide.
This process is fast and efficient. It produces a thin, hard shell, harder than the
shell produced by carburizing and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes vice
several hours. The major drawback is the use of cyanide; cyanide salts are a
deadly poison
Nitriding — a case hardening process by which individual parts have been
heated treated and tempered before being heated in a furnace that has an
ammonia gas atmosphere.
This case hardening method produces the hardest surface of any of the
hardening processes, and it differs from the other methods in that no quenching
is required so there is no worry about warping or other types of distortion.
The nitriding process is used to case harden items such as gears, cylinder
sleeves, camshafts, and other engine parts that need to be wear-resistant and
operate in high heat areas.
Flame Hardening
Flame hardening is another process available for hardening the surface of metal
parts. Inflame hardening, you use an oxyacetylene flame to heat a thin layer of
the surface to its critical temperature and then immediately quench it with a
water spray. In this case, the cold base metal assists in the quenching since it is
not preheated.
Similar to case hardening, this process produces a thin, hardened surface while
the internal parts retain their original properties.
The process can be manual or mechanical, but in either case, you must maintain
a close watch since an oxyacetylene flame can heat the metal rapidly and
temperatures in this method are usually determined visually.