ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS

Objectives:
By the end of the topic learners should be able to:
 demonstrate an appreciation of health and safety rules when working with
electrical circuits
 explain ways of preventing accidents when working with electrical
circuits
 apply First Aid skills
 identify the colour coding for the live, neutral and earth cables
 demonstrate the ability to wire three-pin plugs and sockets
 explain the use of components used in electronics
 design and make electronic devices to satisfy given needs
Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy
source which means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of
energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power, water, and other natural
sources, which are called primary sources. The energy sources we use to make
electricity can be renewable or non-renewable, but electricity itself is neither
renewable or non-renewable.
Electricity is also a form of energy called electrical energy. It is sometimes
called the unseen force because the energy itself cannot be seen, heard, touched,
or smelled.
However, the effects of electricity can be seen – a light bulb gives off the light,
an electric motor turns, a cigarette lighter gets red hot, a buzzer, alarm, siren
makes noise. The effect of electricity can be heard, felt, and smelled. A loud
crack of lighting is easily heard, while a fuse blowing may sound like a soft pop
or snap. With electricity flowing through them some cables may feel warm or
some bare wire may produce a tingling or worse, quite a shock. And the odor of
burning wire insulation is easily smelled.
Electricity has made human life much easier by providing energy for various
uses, but this source of energy can also be dangerous. Great care must be taken
when using this form of energy.
Electrical Safety
Electricity Is Dangerous
Whenever you work with power tools or on electrical circuits, there is a risk of
electrical hazards, especially electrical shock. Anyone can be exposed to these
hazards at home or at work. The risk is higher at work because many jobs
involve electric power tools. Workers must pay special attention to electrical
hazards because they work on electrical tools. Coming in contact with an
electrical voltage can cause current to flow through the body, resulting in
electrical shock and burns. Serious injury or even death may occur. As a source
of energy, electricity is used without much thought about the hazards it can
cause. Because electricity is a familiar part of our lives, it often is not treated
with enough caution. As a result, an average of one worker is electrocuted on
the job every day of every year!
How Is an Electrical Shock received?
An electrical shock is received when electrical current passes through the body.
Current will pass through the body in a variety of situations. Whenever two
wires are at different voltages, current will pass between them if they are
connected. Your body can connect the wires if you touch both of them at the
same time. Current will pass through your body.
In Most households in Zimbabwe, the brown wires and the blue wires are at 240
volts. The green and yellow wires are at 0 volts because they are connected to
ground. The connection to ground is often through a conducting ground rod
driven into the earth. The connection can also be made through a buried metal
water pipe. If you come in contact with an energized/live brown wire, and
you are also in contact with the green and yellow wire, current will pass
through your body. You will receive an electrical shock.
Your risk of receiving a shock is greater if you stand in a puddle of water. But
you don’t even have to be standing in water to be at risk. Wet clothing, high
humidity, and perspiration also increase your chances of being electrocuted. Of
course, there is always a chance of electrocution, even in dry conditions.
Dangers of Electrical Shock
The severity of injury from electrical shock depends on the amount of electrical
current and the length of time the current passes through the body. For example,
1/10 of an ampere (amp) of electricity going through the body for just 2 seconds
is enough to cause death. The amount of internal current a person can withstand
and still be able to control the muscles of the arm and hand can be less than 10
milliamperes (milliamps or mA). Currents above 10 mA can paralyze or
“freeze” muscles. When this “freezing” happens, a person is no longer able to
release a tool, wire, or other objects. In fact, the electrified object may be held
even more tightly, resulting in longer exposure to the shocking current. For this
reason, handheld tools that give a shock can be very dangerous. If you can’t let
go of the tool, current continues through your body for a longer time, which can
lead to respiratory paralysis (the muscles that control breathing cannot move).
You stop breathing for a period of time. People have stopped breathing when
shocked with currents from voltages as low as 49 volts. Usually, it takes about
30 mA of current to cause respiratory paralysis.
Currents greater than 75 mA cause ventricular fibrillation (very rapid,
ineffective heartbeat). This condition will cause death within a few minutes
unless a special device called a defibrillator is used to save the victim. Heart
paralysis occurs at 4 amps, which means the heart does not pump at all. The
tissue is burned with currents greater than 5 amps.
The table shows what usually happens for a range of currents
Effects of Electrical Current in the Human Body.
Below 1 Generally, not perceptible
milliampere
1 milliampere Faint tingle
5 milliamperes The slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. The
average individual can let go. Strong involuntary
reactions can lead to other injuries.
6–25 milliamperes Painful shock, loss of muscular control. The freezing
(women) current or "let-go" range. An individual cannot let go but
9–30 milliamperes can be thrown away from the circuit if extensor muscles
(men) are stimulated.
50–150 Extreme pain, respiratory arrest (breathing stops), severe
milliamperes muscular contractions. Death is possible.
1,000–4,300 The rhythmic pumping action of the heart ceases.
milliamperes Muscular contraction and nerve damage occur; death
likely.
10,000 Cardiac arrest and severe burns occur. Death is probable.
milliamperes
15,000 Lowest overcurrent at which a typical fuse or circuit
milliamperes breaker opens a circuit!
*If the extensor muscles are excited by the shock, the person may be thrown
away from the power source. The lowest overcurrent at which a typical fuse
or circuit breaker will open is 15,000 milliamps (15 amps).

Electrical Fires
Electricity is one of the most common causes of fires and thermal burns in
homes and workplaces. Defective or misused electrical equipment is a major
cause of electrical fires. If there is a small electrical fire, be sure to use only a
Class C or multipurpose (ABC) fire extinguisher, or you might make the
problem worse. All fire extinguishers are marked with the letter(s) that tell you
the kinds of fires they can put out. Some extinguishers contain symbols, too.
The letters and symbols are explained below (including suggestions on how to
remember them).

However, do not try to put out fires unless you have received proper training. If
you are not trained, the best thing you can do is evacuate.
First Aid Fact Sheet
What Should I Do If a Co-Worker Is Shocked or Burned by Electricity?
Shut off the electrical current if the victim is still in contact with the energized
circuit. While you do this, have someone else call for help. If you cannot get to
the switchgear quickly, pry the victim from the circuit with something that does
not conduct electricity such as dry wood. Do not touch the victim yourself if he
or she is still in contact with an electrical circuit! You do not want to be a
victim, too!
Do not leave the victim unless there is absolutely no other option. You should
stay with the victim while emergency medical services (EMS) are contacted.
The caller should come back to you afterward to verify that the call was made.
If the victim is not breathing, does not have a heartbeat, or is badly injured,
quick response by a team of emergency medical technicians (EMTs) or
paramedics gives the best chance for survival.
Once you know that electrical current is no longer flowing through the victim,
call out to the victim to see if he or she is conscious (awake). If the victim is
conscious, tell the victim not to move. It is possible for a shock victim to be
seriously injured but not realize it. Quickly examine the victim for signs of
major bleeding. If there is a lot of bleeding, place a cloth (such as a
handkerchief or bandanna) over the wound and apply pressure. If the wound is
in an arm or leg and keeps bleeding a lot, gently elevate the injured area while
keeping the pressure on the wound. Keep the victim warm and talk to him or her
until help arrives.
If the victim is unconscious, check for signs of breathing. While you do this,
move the victim as little as possible. If the victim is not breathing, someone
trained in CPR should begin artificial breathing, then check to see if the victim
has a pulse. Quick action is essential! To be effective, CPR must be performed
within 4 minutes of the shock.
If you are not trained in CPR or first aid, now is the time to get trained—before
you find yourself in this situation! Ask your instructor or supervisor how you
can become certified in CPR. You also need to know the location of (1)
electricity shut-offs (“kill switches”), (2) first-aid supplies, and (3) a telephone
so you can find them quickly in an emergency

A LOOK AT ELECTRICITY
Electricity is a natural phenomenon that occurs throughout nature and takes
many different forms. Electricity is briefly defined as the flow of electric
charge, but there’s so much behind this simple statement.
Electron Theory
Electron theory helps to explain electricity. The basic building block for the
matter, anything that has mass and occupies space, is the atom. All matter -
solid, liquid, or gas - is made up of molecules, or atoms joined together. These
atoms are the smallest particles into which an element or substance can be
divided without losing its properties. There are only about 100 different atoms
that make up everything in our world. The features that make one atom different
from another also determine its electrical properties.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom is like a tiny solar system. The center is called the nucleus, made up of
tiny particles called protons and neutrons. The nucleus is surrounded by clouds
of other tiny particles called electrons. The electrons rotate about the nucleus in
fixed paths called shells or rings. Hydrogen has the simplest atom with one
proton in the nucleus and one electron rotating around it. Copper is more
complex with 29 electrons in four different rings rotating around a nucleus that
has 29 protons and 29 neutrons. Other elements have different atomic
structures.
ATOMS AND ELECTRICAL CHARGES
Each atomic particle has an electrical charge. Electrons have a negative (-)
charge. Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons have no charge; they are
neutral.
In a balanced atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. The
balance of the opposing negative and positive charges holds the atom together.
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. The positive protons hold the
electrons in orbit. Centrifugal force prevents the electrons from moving
inward. And, the neutrons cancel the repelling force between protons to hold the
atom's core together.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IONS

If an atom gains an electron, it becomes a negative ion. If an atom loses
electrons, it becomes a positive ion. Positive ions attract electrons from
neighboring atoms to become balanced. This causes electron flow.
ELECTRON FLOW
The number of electrons in the outer orbit (valence shell or ring) determines the
atom's ability to conduct electricity. Electrons in the inner rings are closer to the
core, strongly attracted to the protons, and are called bound electrons.
Electrons in the outer ring are further away from the core, less strongly attracted
to the protons, and are called free electrons.
Electrons can be freed by forces such as friction, heat, light, pressure, chemical
action, or magnetic action. These freed electrons move away from the
electromotive force, or EMF ("electron moving force"), from one atom to the
next. A stream of free electrons forms an electrical current.
SEMICONDUCTORS
The electrical properties of various materials are determined by the number of
electrons in the outer ring of their atoms.
 CONDUCTORS - Materials with 1 to 3 electrons in the atom's outer ring
make good conductors. The electrons are held loosely, there's room for
more, and a low EMF will cause a flow of free electrons.
 INSULATORS - Materials with 5 to 8 electrons in the atom's outer ring
are insulators. The electrons are held tightly, the ring's fairly full, and a
very high EMF is needed to cause an electron flow at all. Such materials
include glass, rubber, and certain plastics.
 SEMICONDUCTORS - Materials with exactly 4 electrons in the atom's
outer ring are called semiconductors. They are neither good conductors,
nor good insulators. Such materials include carbon, germanium, and
silicon

CURRENT FLOW THEORIES

Two theories describe current flow. The conventional theory, commonly used
for automotive systems, says current flows from (+) to (-) ... excess electrons
flow from an area of high potential to one of low potential (-). The electron
theory, commonly used for electronics, says current flows from (-) to (+) ...
excess electrons cause an area of negative potential (-) and flow toward an area
lacking electron, an area of positive potential (+), to balance the charges.
While the direction of current flow makes a difference in the operation of some
devices, such as diodes, the direction makes no difference to the three
measurable units of electricity: voltage, current, and resistance.

TERMS OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity cannot be weighed on a scale or measured into a container, but,
certain electrical actions can be measured. These actions or terms are used to
describe electricity; voltage, current, resistance and power.
 Voltage is pressure
 Current is flow
 Resistance opposes flow
Power is the amount of work performed. It depends on the amount of
pressure and the volume.
VOLTAGE
Voltage is electrical pressure, a potential force or difference in electrical charge
between two points. It can push electrical charge between two points. It can
push electrical current through a wire.
Voltage is measured in volts. One volt can push a certain amount of current, two
volts twice as much and so on. A voltmeter measures the difference in electrical
pressure between two points in volts. A voltmeter is used in parallel.
Voltage Basic Unit Units for Very Small Units for Very Large
Amounts Amounts
Symbol V µV mV kV MV
Pronounce Volt Micro-volt Milli-volt Kilo-volt Mega-volt
d As
Multiplier 1 0.000001 0,001 1.000 1,000,000
CURRENT
Current is electrical flow moving through a wire. Current flows in a wire pushed
by voltage. Current is measured in amperes, or amps, for short. An ammeter
measures current flow in amps. It is inserted into the path of current flow, or in
series, in a circuit.
Current Basic Unit Units for Very Small Units for Very Large
Amounts Amounts
Symbol A µA mA kA MA
Pronounced Ampere Micro- Milli- Kilo- Mega-
As (Amp) Ampere Ampere Ampere Ampere
Multiplier 1 0.000001 0.001 1.000 1,000,000

RESISTANCE
Resistance opposes current flow. It is like electrical "friction." This resistance
slows the flow of current. Every electrical component or circuit has resistance.
And, this resistance changes electrical energy into another form of energy -
heat, light, motion.
Resistance is measured in ohms. A special meter, called an ohmmeter, can
measure the resistance of a device in ohms when no current is flowing.
Resistance Basic Unit Units for Very Small Units for Very Large
Amounts Amounts
Symbol Ω µΩ mΩ kΩ MΩ
Pronounce
d As Ohm Micro- Milli-Ohm Kilo-Ohm Mega-
Ohm Ohm
Multiplier 1 0.000001 0.001 1.000 1,000,000

Factors Affecting Resistance

Five factors determine the resistance of conductors. These factors are length of
the conductor, diameter, temperature, physical condition and conductor
material. The filament of a lamp, the windings of a motor or coil, and the
bimetal elements in sensors are conductors. So, these factors apply to circuit
wiring as well as working devices or loads.
Length
Electrons in motion are constantly colliding as voltage pushes them through a
conductor. If two wires are the same material and diameter, the longer wire will
have more resistance than the shorter wire. Wire resistance is often listed in
ohms per foot (e.g., spark plug cables at 5W per foot). Length must be
considered when replacing wires.
Diameter
Large conductors allow more current flow with less voltage. If two wires are the
same material and length, the thinner wire will have more resistance than the
thicker wire. Wire resistance tables list ohms per foot for wires of various
thicknesses (e.g., size or gauge ... 1, 2, 3 are thicker with less resistance and
more current capacity; 18, 20, 22 are thinner with more resistance and less
current capacity). Replacement wires and splices must be the proper size for the
circuit current.
Temperature
In most conductors, resistance increases as the wire temperature increases.
Electrons move faster, but not necessarily in the right direction. Most insulators
have less resistance at higher temperatures. Semiconductor devices called
thermistors have negative temperature coefficients (NTC) resistance decreases
as temperature increases.
Physical condition
Partially cut or nicked wire will act like smaller wire with high resistance in the
damaged area. A kink in the wire, poor splices, and loose or corroded
connections also increase resistance. Take care not to damage wires during
testing or stripping insulation.
Material
Materials with many free electrons are good conductors with low resistance to
current flow. Materials with many bound electrons are poor conductors
(insulators) with high resistance to current flow. Copper, aluminium, gold, and
silver have low resistance; rubber, glass, paper, ceramics, plastics, and air have
high resistance.
Voltage, Current, And Resistance in Circuits
A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance in
electrical circuits. Understanding this relationship is important for fast, accurate
electrical problem diagnosis and repair.
OHM'S LAW
Ohm's Law says: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage and inversely proportional to the amount of resistance. This means that
if the voltage goes up, the current flow will go up, and vice versa. Also, as the
resistance goes up, the current goes down, and vice versa. Ohm's Law can be
put to good use in electrical troubleshooting. But, calculating precise values for
voltage, current, and resistance is not always practical ... nor, really needed. A
more practical, less time-consuming use of Ohm's Law would be to simply
apply the concepts involved:
SOURCE VOLTAGE is not affected by either current or resistance. It is either
too low, normal, or too high. If it is too low, current will be low. If it is normal,
current will be high if resistance is low or current will be low if resistance is
high. If voltage is too high, current will be high.
CURRENT is affected by either voltage or resistance. If the voltage is high or
the resistance is low, current will be high. If the voltage is low or the resistance
is high, current will be low.
RESISTANCE is not affected by either voltage or current. It is either too low,
okay, or too high. If resistance is too low, current will be high at any voltage. If
resistance is too high, current will be low if voltage is okay.

ELECTRIC POWER AND WORK

Voltage and current are not measurements of electric power and work. Power,
in watts, is a measure of electrical energy ... power (P) equals current in amps
(1) times voltage in volts (E), P = I x E. Work, in watt seconds or watt-hours, is
a measure of the energy used in a period of time ... work equals power in wafts
(W) times time in seconds (s) or hours (h), W = P x time. Electrical energy
performs work when it is changed into thermal (heat) energy, radiant (light)
energy, audio (sound) energy, mechanical (motive) energy, and chemical
energy. It can be measured with a watthour meter.

Power Basic Units for Very Units for Very Large

Unit Small values Amounts
Symbol W mW KW MW
Pronounced Watt Milliwatt Kilowatt Megawatt
As
Multiplier 1 0.001 1.000 1,000,000

Actions of Current
Current flow has the following effects; motion, light or heat generation,
chemical reaction, and electromagnetism.
Heat generation
When current flows through a lamp filament, defroster grid, or cigarette lighter,
heat is generated by changing electrical energy to thermal energy. Fuses melt
from the heat generated when too much current flows.
Chemical reaction
In a simple battery, a chemical reaction between two different metals and a
mixture of acid and water causes a potential energy, or voltage. When the
battery is connected to an external load, current will flow. The current will
continue flowing until the two metals become similar and the mixture becomes
mostly water. When current is sent into the battery by an alternator or a battery
charger, however, the reaction is reversed. This is a chemical reaction caused by
current flow. The current causes an electrochemical reaction that restores the
metals and the acid-water mixture.

Electromagnetism
Electricity and magnetism are closely related. Magnetism can be used to
produce electricity. And, electricity can be used to produce magnetism. All
conductors carrying current create a magnetic field. The magnetic field strength
is changed by changing current ... stronger (more current), weaker (less current).
With a straight conductor, the magnetic field surrounds it as a series of circular
lines of force. With a looped (coil) conductor, the lines of force can be
concentrated to make a very strong field. The field strength can be increased by
increasing the current, the number of coils turns, or both. A strong
electromagnet can be made by placing an iron core inside a coil.
Electromagnetism is used in many ways.
Types of Electricity
There are two types of electricity: static and dynamic. Dynamic electricity can
be either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).
Static electricity
When two non-conductors - such as a silk cloth and glass rod - are rubbed
together, some electrons are freed. Both materials become electrically charged.
One is lacking electrons and is positively charged. The other has extra electrons
and is negatively charged. These charges remain on the surface of the material
and do not move unless the two materials touch or are connected by a
conductor. Since there is no electron flow, this is called static electricity.
Dynamic electricity
When electrons are freed from their atoms and flow in a material, this is called
dynamic electricity. If the free electrons flow in one direction, the electricity is
called direct current (DC). This is the type of current produced by the vehicle's
battery. If the free electrons change direction from positive to negative and back
repeatedly with time, the electricity is called alternating current (AC). This is
the type of current produced by the vehicle's alternator. It is changed to DC for
powering the vehicle's electrical system and for charging the battery.

Conductors
Conductors are materials with electrons that are loosely bound to their atoms, or
materials that permit free motion of a large number of electrons. Atoms with
only one valence electron, such as copper, silver, and gold, are examples of
good conductors. Most metals are good conductors.
Insulators
Insulators, or non-conductors, are materials with electrons that are tightly bound
to their atoms and require large amounts of energy to free them from the
influence of the nucleus. The atoms of good insulators have their valence shells
filled with eight electrons, which means they are more than half filled. Any
energy applied to such an atom will be distributed among a relatively large
number of electrons. Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, and dry
wood.
Resistors
Resistors are made of materials that conduct electricity, but offer opposition to
current flow. These types of materials are also called semiconductors because
they are neither good conductors nor good insulators. Semiconductors have
more than one or two electrons in their valence shells, but less than seven or
eight. Examples of semiconductors are carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and
lead. Each has four valence electrons.

ELECTRONICS
The branch of engineering in which the flow and control of electrons in vacuum
or semiconductor are studied is called electronics. It is also a branch of
engineering that deals with electronic and electrical circuits like Integrated
circuits, Transmitters, receiver etc. Electronics can also be defined as the branch
of engineering in which the electronic devices and their utilization are studied.
The motion of electrons through a conductor gives us electric current. This
electric current can be produced with the help of batteries and generators.
The device which controls the flow of electrons is called electronic device.
These devices are the main building blocks of electronic circuits.
Electronics have various branches include, digital electronics, analogy
electronics, microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, integrated circuit
and semiconductor device.
How Is Electronics Different from Electricity?
Many devices, from toasters to vacuum cleaners, and drilling machines use
electricity as an energy source. These electrical devices transform the electrical
current they receive through your wall socket and transform it into another form
of energy. Your toaster, for example, transforms electricity into heat. Your lamp
transforms electricity into light. Your vacuum cleaner transforms electrical
energy into motion that drives the vacuum's motor.
Electronic devices, however, do more. Instead of transforming electrical energy
into heat, light, or motion, they actually manipulate the electrical current itself.
In this way, electronic devices can add meaningful information to the current
itself. Thus, an electric current can be manipulated to carry sound, video, or
data.
Most devices are both electrical and electronic. For example, your brand-new
toaster may transform electricity into heat and also manipulate the current using
a thermostat that maintains a specific temperature. Similarly, your cell phone
needs a battery to provide electrical energy, but it also manipulates electricity to
transmit sound and pictures.
Electronic Circuits.
The electronic circuit is defined as it is a combination of various electronic
components that allow the flow of electric current. The electronic components
consist of two or more terminals, that are used to connect one component to
another component to design a circuit diagram. The electronic components are
soldered on circuit boards to make a system.
An electronic circuit is a complete course of conductors through which current
can travel. Circuits provide a path for current to flow. To be a circuit, this path
must start and end at the same point. In other words, a circuit must form a loop.
An electronic circuit and an electrical circuit have the same definition, but
electronic circuits tend to be low voltage circuits.
For example, a simple circuit may include two components: a battery and a
lamp. The circuit allows current to flow from the battery to the lamp, through
the lamp, then back to the battery. Thus, the circuit forms a complete loop.

Circuits can be more complex. However, all circuits can be distilled down to
three basic elements:
Voltage source: A voltage source causes current to flow like a battery, for
instance.
Load: The load consumes power; it represents the actual work done by the
circuit. Without the load, there’s not much point in having a circuit.
The load can be as simple as a single light bulb. In complex circuits, the load is
a combination of components, such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, and so
on.
Conductive path: The conductive path provides a route through which current
flows. This route begins at the voltage source, travels through the load, and then
returns to the voltage source. This path must form a loop from the negative side
of the voltage source to the positive side of the voltage source.
The following paragraphs describe a few additional interesting points to keep in
mind as you ponder the nature of basic circuits:
 When a circuit is complete and forms a loop that allows current to flow,
the circuit is called a closed circuit. If any part of the circuit is
disconnected or disrupted so that a loop is not formed, current cannot
flow. In that case, the circuit is called an open circuit.
Open circuit is an oxymoron. After all, the components must form a
complete path to be considered a circuit. If the path is open, it isn’t a
circuit. Therefore, open circuit is most often used to describe a circuit
that has become broken, either on purpose (by the use of a switch) or by
some error, such as a loose connection or a damaged component.

 Short circuit refers to a circuit that does not have a load. For example, if
the lamp is connected to the circuit but a direct connection is present
between the battery’s negative terminal and its positive terminal, too.

Current in a short circuit can flow at dangerously high levels. Short

circuits can damage electronic components, cause a battery to explode, or
maybe start a fire.

The short circuit illustrates an important point about electrical circuits: it

is possible - common, even - for a circuit to have multiple pathways for
current to flow. The current can flow through the lamp as well as through
the path that connects the two battery terminals directly.
Current flows everywhere it can. If your circuit has two pathways through
which current can flow, the current doesn’t choose one over the other; it
chooses both. However, not all paths are equal, so current doesn’t flow
equally through all paths.

Electronic Circuit Symbols

The electronic circuit symbols mainly involve wires, power supplies, resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors, meters, switches, sensors, logic gates, audio
devices, and other components.
Wires
A wire is a two terminal, single and flexible material, that allows the flow of
power through it. These are mainly used to connect the power supplies to the
PCB (Printed Circuit Board) and in between the components. The different
types of wires will be as wires.

Wires
 Wires: A single wire with two terminals will pass the current from one
component to another.
 Wires Jointed: When two or more wires are connected with each other
that is called as wires jointed. The joining or shorted of wires at one point
is indicates the “blob”.
 Wires not Jointed: In complex circuit diagrams, some wires may not
connect with others, in this case, bridging is commonly utilized.
 Cell Circuit: Supplies electrical energy from larger terminal (+) positive
sign.
 Battery Circuit: A Battery is two or more cells; the function of battery
circuit is the same as cell circuit.
 DC Circuit Symbol: Direct current (DC) always flows in one direction.
 AC Circuit Symbol: AC (Alternating Current) flows periodically
reverses direction.
 Fuse Circuit: The fuse will flow sufficient current and it is used to
provide overcurrent protection.
 Transformer: It is used to produce AC power supply, energy is
transferred in between primary and secondary coils in the form of mutual
inductance.
 Solar cell: It will convert light energy into electrical energy.
 Earth: It supplies the 0V to the circuit that will connect to the earth.
 Voltage Source: It will supply voltage to the circuit elements.
 Current Source: It will supply current to the circuit elements.
 AC Voltage Source: It will supply the AC voltage to the circuit
elements.
 Controlled Voltage Source: It generates controlled voltage to the circuit
elements.
 Controlled Current Source: It generates controlled current to the circuit
elements.
 Resistors
 A Resistor is a passive element that opposes current flow in a circuit. It is
a two-terminal element, dissipates its energy in the form of heat. The
resistor will damage due to the overflow of electric current through it.
Resistance is measured in units of ohms and resistance; resistor colour
code calculator is used to calculate the value of the resistor according to
its colours.
 Resistor: It is a two-terminal component, that restricts the flow of
current.
  Rheostat: It is a two-terminal component, that is used to adjust the flow
of current.
 Potentiometer: Potentiometer is a three-terminal component that will
adjust the voltage flow in the circuit.
 Preset: Preset is a low-cost adjustable resistor that operates by using
small tools like Screwdrivers.

Resistors

Capacitors
A Capacitor generally referred to as a condenser, it is a two-terminal passive
component that will capable of storing energy in the form of electricity. These
are the rechargeable batteries mainly used in power supply. In the capacitors,
electrical plates differ by a dielectric medium and these are acts like a filter that
allows only AC signals and blocks DC Signals. The capacitors are classified
into various types that are discussed below

Capacitors
 Capacitor: A capacitor is used to store the energy in electrical form.
  Polarized Capacitor: Stores electrical energy these must be a one way
round.
 Variable Capacitor: These capacitors are used to control the capacitance
by adjusting the Knob.
 Trimmer Capacitor: These capacitors are used to control the
capacitance by using Screwdriver or similar tools.

Diodes
A Diode is an electronic component with two terminals that are anode and
cathode. It allows electron current flow from cathode to anode but it blocks
another direction. The diode will have low resistance in one direction and high
resistance in another direction. The diodes are classified into various types that
are discussed below.

Diodes
 Diode: A diode allows the current flow in one direction.
 Light Emitting Diode: It will emit the light when the electric current
flows through it.
 Zener Diode: It will allow a constant electric current after the breakdown
voltage.
 Photo Diode: Photodiode will convert light into respective current or
voltage.
 Tunnel Diode: Tunnel diode is used for very high-speed operations.
 Schottky Diode: Schottky diode is for forwarding low voltage drop.
Transistors
The transistors are invented in 1947 at Bell Laboratories to replace vacuum
tubes, that it will control the flow of current and voltage in the circuits. It is a
three terminal device and amplifies the current, transistors plays an important
role in all modern electronics.
 NPN transistor: A P-type doped semiconductor material is placed in
between two N-type semiconductor materials. The terminals are the
emitter, base, and collector.
 PNP transistor: A N-type doped semiconductor material is placed in
between two P-type semiconductor materials. The terminals are an
emitter, base, and collector.
 Phototransistor: It is similar to bipolar transistors, but it converts light to
current.
 Field Effect Transistor: FET controls the conductivity with the help of
an electric field.
 N-channel JFET: The Junction Field Effect Transistors are simple of
FET for switching.
 P-channel JFET: P-type semiconductor is placed in between N-type
junctions.
 Enhancement MOSFET: Similar to DMOSFET but an absence of
conducting channel.
 Depletion MOSFET: The current flows from source to drain terminal.

Transistors
Meters
A Meter is an instrument used for measuring voltage and current flow in
electrical and electronic components. These are used to measure the resistance
and capacitance of the electronic components.

Meters

 Voltmeter: It is used to measure voltage.

 Ammeter: It is used to measure current.
 Galvanometer: It is used to measure small currents.
 Ohmmeter: It is used to measure the electrical resistance of a particular
resistor.
 Oscilloscope: It is used to measure voltage with respect to time for
signals.

Switches
A Switch is an electrical/electronic component that will connect electrical
circuits when the switch is closed, otherwise, it will break an electrical circuit
when the switch is open.
 Switches

Push switch: It will pass the current flow when the switch is pressed.
Push to break switch: It will block the current flow when the switch is pressed.
Single pole single throw switch (SPST): Simply, it is an ON/OFF switch
allows flow only when the switch is in ON.
Single pole double throw switch (SPDT): In this type of switch current flows
in two directions.
Double pole single throw switch (DPST): It is a dual SPST switch, mainly
used for electrical lines.
Double pole double throw switch (DPDT): It is a dual SPDT switch.
Relay: A relay is a simple electromechanical switch made up of an
electromagnet & a set of contacts. These are found hidden in all sorts of
devices.

Audio Devices

These devices convert an electric signal into sound signals and vice versa,
which will be audible to humans. These are input/output electronic components
in the circuit diagram.
 Audio Devises

Microphone: converts sound or noise signal to an electrical signal.

Earphone: converts an electrical signal to a sound signal.
Loudspeaker: converts the electrical signal to sound signal but it will amplify
version.
Piezo- transducer: converts flow of electrical energy to sound signal.
Bell: converts the electrical signal to sound signal.
Buzzer: converts an electrical signal to sound signal.

Sensors
Sensors will sense or detect moving objects and devices, it will convert those
signals into electrical or optical. For example, a temperature sensor is used
sense temperature present in the room. The various types of sensors are:

Sensors

Light-dependent resistor: These sensors will sense light.

Thermistor: These sensors will sense heat or temperature.
Logic Gates

Logic gates are the main building blocks in the digital circuits, logic gates will
have two or three inputs and a single output. The output produced by logic gates
based on certain logic. Basic Logic gate values represent in binary if we observe
their truth tables.

Logic Gates

AND Gate: The output value is HIGH when two inputs are HIGH.
OR Gate: The output value is HIGH when one of the inputs is HIGH.
NOT Gate: The output is the complement of the input.
NAND Gate: The complement of the AND gate is a NAND gate.
NOR Gate: The complement of the OR gate is a NAND gate.
X-OR Gate: The output is HIGH when an odd number of HIGH occurs in its
inputs.
X-NOR Gate: The output is HIGH when an even number of HIGH occurs in its
inputs.

Other Components: These are the some of the electronic/electrical

components that are utilized in an electronic circuit or electrical circuit design.
 Other components

Lighting Lamp: It is a bulb that will glow when certain current flows.
Indicator Lamp: It will convert electricity to light.
Inductor: It will generate a magnetic field when current flows through it.
Antenna: It is used to transmit and Receive the radio signals.

Building electronic circuits

There are different ways of creating electronic circuits depending upon
tools available and how permanent a solution is required. When creating a
new circuit, it is common to first create a prototype using a breadboard or
similar before the circuit is made permanent using solder. This allows any
problems to be identified at an early stage where it is easier to change the
design than removing soldered components.

The final design is normally created onto something more permanent such
as a printed circuit board, or strip-board.

Wire wrap / solder pins

A simple circuit can be created by hammering nails into a piece of wood

and then wiring / soldering between the pins.
This is a good way to build very basic circuits when first starting out in
electronic circuits. It is also a good way of teaching as the circuit diagram
can even be drawn onto the wood showing the circuit diagram compared
with the real components. I would not recommend this technique for more
complex circuits and in particular once you start using integrated circuits
breadboards are usually much better.

Solderless Breadboards

Technically, these breadboards are called solderless breadboards because

they do not require soldering to make connections.

Solderless breadboards (also known as plug blocks or plugboards) are a good

way of creating temporary circuits to allow testing prior to committing with
solder. They consist of a plastic board with a matrix of holes. These are then
connected in small rows so that components plugged into the same section are
connected together.

Breadboards are very easy to use and don't damage the components.
Integrated circuits (ICs) can be easily inserted and wired to other
components. Some are also available with mounting frames for
potentiometers etc. Solid core wires are needed for connecting to the
breadboard (if you normally use the more flexible multi-core wires then
you should get some solid core for the breadboard. If you find that you are
creating a lot of circuits then it can be easier to buy a box of pre-cut
lengths, although these are more expensive than just cutting standard wire
to the appropriate length.
Stripboard

Stripboard or Veroboard (trademark name of company that first invented

it) provides a way of creating soldered circuits without the expense and
complexity of creating a custom printed circuit board.

It is a board with a 0.1in (2.54mm) grid of holes with strips of copper

running in a single direction across each row. Normally these extend the
full length of the stripboard, but there are some versions with a break in
the copper tracks suitable for mounting integrated circuits.

This is a very common way of creating permanent circuits for hobby

electronic enthusiasts who may not have the equipment for creating a
complete printed circuit board.

Circuit diagrams

Circuit diagrams, or schematics, are a way to represent a circuit using

symbols for each component. Circuit diagrams, as opposed to breadboard
diagrams, are used by professional engineers when designing circuits, and
they are much more convenient for more complicated circuits. For
example, this circuit diagram shows a basic circuit with a battery, a switch,
an LED, and a resistor.

However, unlike breadboard diagrams, circuit diagrams only show

electrical connections between components. They do not necessarily
correspond to the physical layout of the components on a breadboard. For
example, even though it looks different, this circuit diagram is identical to
the previous one.