7.

Renal Physiology – studies the functions of

Anatomy and Physiology kidneys
8. Pathophysiology – studies changes in cell and
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY organ functions
Anatomy (ana- = up ; -tomy = process of cutting) 9. Exercise Physiology – studies functional changes
- Scientific discipline that investigates the body’s associated with disease and aging
internal and external structures, and the physical
relationships among the body parts Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
- First studied by dissection (dis- = apart ; -section = act Understand how the body:
of cutting ) o Responds to stimuli
o Environmental changes
Types/Levels of Anatomy o Environmental cues
1. Gross Anatomy – studies body structures without o Diseases o Injury
the use of a microscope o Maintains stable, internal conditions despite
▪ Systemic Anatomy – studies body systems continually changing environment.
▪ Regional Anatomy – studies body regions - Body structures often reflect its functions.
❖ It is important to study these two because
▪ Surface Anatomy – studies external body
structures, functions, and processes are
structure to understand internal body interwoven.
structures through visualizing and
palpation Structural and Functional Organization
2. Microscopic Anatomy – studies structures that
cannot be seen by the unaided eye
▪ Embryology – examines changes from
conception to the end of the 8th week of
development
▪ Cytology (cyto = cell) – examines structural
features of cells
▪ Histology (hist = tissue) – examines tissues
3. Developmental Anatomy – studies structural
changes between conception and adulthood
4. Pathological Anatomy – studies structural
changes (gross to microscopic) associated with
disease
5. Anatomical imaging – uses technologies (x-rays,
ultrasound, MRIs, CT scans) to create pictures of
internal body structures Six levels from chemical to organism:
- allows looking inside the body accurately 1. Chemical Level – involves interactions between
without the risk of exploratory surgery atoms, which are tiny building blocks of matter
- smallest level
➢ Anatomical Anomalies – physical characteristics that
- atoms combine to form molecules
differ from the normal pattern; can either be
harmless or life-threatening 2. Cellular Level
- Cells are the basic structural and functional
units of plants and animals.
Physiology (physio- = nature ; -logy = study of)
- Kinds of cell:
- Scientific investigation of the processes or ▪ Muscle
functions of living things. ▪ Nerve
❖ Examines systems rather than regions because ▪ Epithelial
one function can involve portions of a system in - Molecules combine to form cell organelles
more than one region. o small organs inside the cell - mitochondria,
❖ Major goal is to understand and predict: nucleus, ribosomes, cytoplasm
o the body’s responses to stimuli 3. Tissue Level
o how the body maintains conditions in a - Tissue is composed of a group of similar cells with
constantly changing environment similar structure and function plus extracellular
substances they release.
Types/Levels of Physiology - 4 broad types:
1. Molecular Physiology – studies functions of ▪ Epithelial – covers body surfaces, forms
individual molecules (e.g., proteins, DNA) glands
2. Endocrinology – studies hormones and how they ▪ Connective – connect, protects, supports
control body functions body organs
3. Neurophysiology – studies the nervous system ▪ Muscular – contracts for body parts’
4. Cardiovascular Physiology – studies the heart and movement, generates heat
blood vessels ▪ Nervous – carries information through
nerve impulses
5. Immunology – studies the body’s defenses
4. Organ Level
against disease-causing agents - Organ is composed of two or more tissue types
6. Respiratory Physiology – studies the functions of acting together to perform function(s)
air passageways and lungs - e.g., stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney
5. Organ System Level
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY @RN2025
 - Group of organs contributing to a common 10. Urinary System – removes waste products from the
function blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water
- e.g., digestive system, reproductive system balance.
6. Organism Level - consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and
- All organ systems working together ducts that carry urine.
- Includes associated microorganisms such as
intestinal bacteria 11. Female Reproductive System – produces oocytes and
- Organism is any living thing considered as a is the site of fertilization and fetal development
whole. - produces milk for the newborn
- produces hormones that influence sexual
Major Organs of the Body function and behaviors
- consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus,
vagina, mammary glands, and associated
structures
12. Male Reproductive System – Produces and transfers
sperm cells to the female and produces hormones
that influence sexual functions and behaviors
- consists of the testes, accessory structures,
ducts, and penis

Characteristics of Life
Collectively, all living species show:
1. Metabolism:
- refers to all of the chemical and physical changes
sustaining an organism
Organ Systems of the Body - ability to acquire and use energy in support of
1. Integumentary System – provides protection, these changes
regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and - necessary for other vital functions
▪ Catabolism – breakdown of complex to
helps produce Vitamin D.
simpler chemical substances
- consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands ▪ Anabolism – building up of complex from
2. Skeletal System – provides protection and support, smaller chemical substances
allows body movements, produces blood cells, and 2. Responsiveness:
stores minerals and adipose tissue. - ability to sense and respond to environmental
- consists of bones, associated cartilages, changes
ligaments, and joints - includes both internal and external environments
3. Muscular System – produces body movements, 3. Movement:
maintains posture, and produces body heat. - motion of the whole body
- leg me body muscles move the body from one
- consists of muscles attached to the skeletons by
place to another
tendons
4. Growth:
4. Lymphatic System – removes foreign substances - refers to an increase in the size or number of
from the blood and lymph, combats disease, cells, or both
maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary - size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular
fats from the digestive tract. materials
- consists of the lymphatic fluid, vessels, lymph 5. Differentiation:
nodes, and other lymphatic organs - changes in form and size
5. Respiratory System – exchanges oxygen and carbon - changes in cell structure and function
dioxide between the blood and air and regulates ▪ Differentiation – development of a cell structure
blood pH. and function from an immature, generalized
- consists of the lungs and air passageways, other state to a mature specialized state
respiratory organs
▪ Morphogenesis – is the change in shape of
6. Digestive System – performs the mechanical and
tissues, organs, and the entire organism.
chemical processes of digestion, absorption of
6. Reproduction:
nutrients, and elimination of solid wastes.
- formation of new cells or new organisms
- consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
- generation of new individuals
intestines and accessory organs
- tissue repair
7. Nervous system – a major regulatory system that
detects sensations and controls movements, Homeostasis
physiological processes, and intellectual functions. - is the existence and maintenance of a relatively
- consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and constant environment within the body.
sensory receptors
8. Endocrine System – a major system that regulates
➢ Body Fluids – defined as dilute, watery solutions
body activities by releasing hormones.
- consists of glands that secrete hormones containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of
9. Cardiovascular System – transports nutrients, waste the cell.
product, gases and hormones throughout the body ▪ Intracellular Fluid (ICF) – fluid within cells
- plays a role in the immune response and the ▪ Extracellular Fluid (ECF) – fluid outside cells
regulation of body temperature - Interstitial fluid is ECF between cells
- consists of the blood, heart, and blood vessels ▪ Cellular function depends on the regulation of
composition of interstitial fluid – composition
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY @RN2025
 changes as it moves; movement back and 2. Control center
forth across capillary walls to provide - not the reason of the change but the
nutrients - “analyzer”; analyzes the changes needed by the
body
- receives receptor signal
- establishes set point
- sends signal to effector
3. Effector
- directly causes change in variable
- makes the necessary changes in the body

Variables: measures of body properties that may Positive feedback

change in values - system response causes progressive deviation
Examples: body temperature, heart rate, blood away from set point, outside of normal range
pressure, blood glucose levels, blood cell counts, - not directly used for homeostasis
respiratory rate - some positive feedback under normal conditions
example: childbirth
Set point: normal, or average value of a variable - generally associated with injury, disease
Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease - negative feedback mechanisms unable to
around a set point maintain homeostasis

example: over time, body temperature fluctuates around a

set point of about 98.6
set points for some variables can be temporarily
adjusted depending on body activities, as needed:

Examples Common cause of change

body temperature fever
blood pressure
exercise
respiratory rate

Negative feedback
- mechanism that maintains homeostasis
- negative feedback response:
detection: of deviation away from set point

and...

correction: reversal of deviation toward set

point and normal range

Components of Negative Feedback

What if HOMEOSTASIS fails?
1. Receptor
- Hypothermia or Heat Stroke
- detects changes in variable
- Hypocalcemia or Hypercalcemia
- they are not the one who made the change
- Dehydration
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY @RN2025
 Directional Terms
superior: above
Terminology and the Body Plan inferior: below
anterior: front (ventral)
Anatomical Position: posterior: back (dorsal)
- person standing erect with face and palms
forward
- all relational descriptions based on the Note: In four-legged
anatomical position, regardless of body animals, the terms
orientation ventral (belly) and
Supine - person lying dorsal (back)
face up correspond to anterior
Prone - person lying and posterior in
face down humans

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY @RN2025

 For Linear Structures: Right Hypochondriac - contains the right portion of the
medial - toward the midline liver, the gallbladder, the right kidney, and parts of the
lateral - away from midline small intestine.
Left Hypochondriac - contains part of the spleen, the left
proximal - nearest; close to point kidney, part of the stomach, the pancreas, and parts of
of attachment
the colon.
distal - distant; far from point of
attachment Epigastric - contains the majority of the stomach, part of
superficial - structure close to the the liver, part of the pancreas, part of the duodenum, part
surface of the spleen, and the adrenal glands. This region pushes
deep - structure toward the out when the diaphragm contracts during breathing.
interior of the body
Right Lumbar - consists of the gallbladder, the left kidney,
part of the liver, and the ascending colon.
Body Planes
- Useful to describe the Left Lumbar - consists of the descending colon, the left
body as having imaginary kidney, and part of the spleen.
flat surfaces
Umbilical - contains the umbilicus (navel), and many parts
Sagittal - vertical of the small intestine, such as part of the duodenum, the
plane, between jejunum, and the illeum. It also contains the transverse
right and left colon (the section between the ascending and
surfaces descending colons) and the bottom portions of both the
Medial or midsagittal: left and right kidney.
sagittal plane along the
midline, divides body Right Iliac - contains the appendix, cecum, and the right
into equal left and right halves iliac fossa. It is also commonly referred to as the right
Transverse (horizontal) - runs parallel to the ground, inguinal region. Pain in this area is generally associated
dividing the body into superior and inferior portions with appendicitis.
Frontal (coronal) - runs vertically to divide the body into
anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts. Left Iliac - contains part of the descending colon, the
- vertical plane, between lateral surfaces sigmoid colon, and the right illiac fossa. It is also
commonly called the left inguinal region.
Organs are often sectional
Hypogastric - contains the organs around the pubic bone.
to reveal their internal
These include bladder, part of the sigmoid colon, the
structure. A cut through
anus, and many organs of the reproductive system, such
the length of the organ is
as the uterus and ovaries in females and the prostate in
longitudinal section, and a males.
cut at a right angle to the
length of an organ is a
transverse (cross) section. Body Cavities
If a cut is made across the
length of an organ at other Major trunk cavities:
than a right angle, it is Thoracic cavity – space within chest wall and diaphragm
called an oblique section. Mediastinum (middle wall) – divides thoracic cavity into
left and right parts; space between lungs
- contains heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus,
Body Regions trachea
Upper limbs upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand Abdominal cavity – space between diaphragm and pelvis
Lower limbs thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys
head, neck, trunk (thorax, abdomen Pelvic cavity – space within pelvis
Central region & pelvis) - contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs,
part of large intestine
Subdivisions of the Abdomen
Note: the abdominal and pelvic cavities are not physically
separated and sometimes are called abdominopelvic
cavity.

Serous Membranes
- line the trunk cavities and cover the organs

Structure:
• Visceral serous membrane covers organs – found
covering organs in a body cavity

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY @RN2025

 • Parietal serous membrane – found against outer
wall of a body cavity
• cavity between the above, fluid-filled

Three sets of serous membranes and cavities:

Pericardium
pericardial cavity
- around heart
Pleura
pleural cavity
- around lungs
Peritoneum
- around abdominopelvic peritoneal cavity
cavity and its organs

Pericardium:
1.Visceral
Pericardium – covers
heart
2.Parietal
Pericardium – thick,
fibrous
3.Pericardial cavity –
reduces friction

Pleura:
1.Visceral Pleura –
covers lungs
2.Parietal Pleura – lines
inner wall of thorax
3.Pleural cavity –
reduces friction, adheres
lungs to thoracic wall

Peritoneum:
1.Visceral
peritoneum - covers,
anchors organs –
double layers called
mesenteries
2.Parietal
peritoneum lines
inner wall of
abdominopelvic
cavity
3. Peritoneal cavity –
reduces friction

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY @RN2025