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Motivation to lead: A meta-analysis and distal-proximal model of motivation

and leadership

Article  in  Journal of Applied Psychology · August 2019

DOI: 10.1037/apl0000439

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 Journal of Applied Psychology
© 2019 American Psychological Association 2020, Vol. 105, No. 4, 331–354
ISSN: 0021-9010 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000439

Motivation to Lead: A Meta-Analysis and Distal-Proximal Model of

Motivation and Leadership

Katie L. Badura Emily Grijalva

Georgia Institute of Technology Washington University in St. Louis

Benjamin M. Galvin and Bradley P. Owens Dana L. Joseph

Brigham Young University University of Central Florida
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

To understand how motivation to lead (MTL) fits into the broader leadership literature, we present a
meta-analytic review of MTL and test a Distal-Proximal Model of Motivation and Leadership. Using a
database of 1,154 effect sizes from 100 primary studies, we found that the 3 types of MTL (affective-
identity, social-normative, and noncalculative) had a unique pattern of antecedents and were only
modestly correlated, indicating that MTL may be best operationalized as three separate motivational
constructs instead of as one overarching construct. Further, the 3 MTL types were generally associated
with individuals emerging as leaders, engaging in beneficial leadership behaviors (i.e., more transfor-
mational and transactional leadership, as well as less laissez faire leadership), and performing more
effectively in leadership roles. Finally, meta-analytic path analysis demonstrated that the three MTL
types partially explained the relationship between more distal predictors (i.e., gender, cognitive ability,
the Big Five, past leader experience, and leader self-efficacy) and leadership emergence/effectiveness.
Interestingly, we found that traits often viewed as beneficial for leadership (extraversion, conscientious-
ness, and openness) may have a darker side that is transmitted through MTL. Taken together, this study
advances theory by clarifying the distinctiveness of the three MTL types, establishing MTL’s relationship
with leadership outcomes, and identifying MTL’s role within the broader leadership domain.

Keywords: meta-analysis, motivation to lead, nomological network

Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000439.supp

Motivation to lead (MTL; Chan & Drasgow, 2001) is an indi- in leadership training and development because it helps to assess
vidual difference that represents the desire to attain leadership whether employees will ultimately be willing to exert effort to
roles as well as expend effort to fulfill leader role requirements. fulfill leadership responsibilities (DeRue & Myers, 2014; Gurd-
Understanding MTL is important to addressing questions related to jian, Halbeisen, & Lane, 2014).
who is going to be most attracted to leadership roles and whether Given the potential importance of MTL, it is surprising that it
those who are motivated to pursue leadership become more effec- has not been more fully integrated into efforts aimed at under-
tive leaders. Further, from a practical perspective, an understand- standing the nuanced nomological network of leadership processes
ing of MTL is arguably essential to maximizing costly investments (e.g., DeRue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011; Dinh et al.,
2014; Meuser et al., 2016). We believe three overarching issues
have impeded greater incorporation of the MTL construct into the
leadership literature: (a) confusion about how MTL is conceptu-
This article was published Online First August 8, 2019. alized and measured, (b) a disjointed accumulation of findings that
X Katie L. Badura, Scheller College of Business, Georgia Institute of leave doubt concerning MTL’s role as a valuable predictor of
Technology; Emily Grijalva, Olin Business School, Washington University leader outcomes, and (c) a lack of clarity regarding whether MTL
in St. Louis; Benjamin M. Galvin and Bradley P. Owens, Marriott School increases our understanding of broader leader emergence and
of Business, Brigham Young University; Dana L. Joseph, Department of effectiveness processes.
Management, University of Central Florida. Regarding MTL’s conceptualization and measurement, Chan
We thank Kim Yin Chan and Cody Reeves for their valuable and and Drasgow (2001) introduced three types of MTL: affective-
constructive feedback on an earlier version of the manuscript. This research
identity MTL (AFF-MTL; the degree to which one enjoys leader-
was supported by a grant from the Templeton Foundation (60622) and a
fellowship from the Wheatley Institution at Brigham Young University.
ship roles and sees oneself as a leader), social-normative MTL
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Katie L. (SN-MTL; the degree to which one views leadership as a respon-
Badura, Scheller College of Business, Georgia Institute of Technology, 800 sibility and duty), and noncalculative MTL (NC-MTL; the degree
West Peachtree, NorthWest, Atlanta, GA 30308. E-mail: katie.badura@ to which one views leadership opportunities positively despite
scheller.gatech.edu potential costs and/or minimal personal benefits). However, there
331
 332 BADURA, GRIJALVA, GALVIN, OWENS, AND JOSEPH

has been limited theoretical development concerning how and why tive efforts to accomplish shared objectives” (p. 7). We argue that
the three types of MTL may differ from one another, and there is a core component of this leadership process is the motivation that
inconsistency in the measurement of these subdimensions. Some drives an individual to lead. Historically, researchers trying to
scholars assess all three types of MTL and report their impact understand motivation’s relevance to leadership primarily focused
separately (e.g., Hendricks & Payne, 2007), whereas others com- on an individual’s motivation to manage. Initially formulated by
bine the different types to create a single summary score (e.g., Miner (1965), motivation to manage captures the extent to which
Luria & Berson, 2013), and still others measure only a subset of people are compelled to fulfill the requirements of a managerial
the types and report their findings either separately or together role within a hierarchical organization (Eagly, Karau, Miner, &
(e.g., Seibert, Sargent, Kraimer, & Kiazad, 2017). Johnson, 1994). Other early work investigated leadership motive
To clarify MTL’s dimensionality and evaluate the extent to patterns (Jacobs & McClelland, 1994; McClelland, 1975), and
which the three MTL types are discrete (but related) constructs, we concluded that when individuals have a moderate to high need for
summarize the meta-analytic correlations among the types and power, a low need for affiliation, and a high need for self-control,
examine their patterns of relationships with antecedents. In line then they are more likely to emerge into leadership positions
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

with interpersonal circumplex theory, we expect to observe that (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982).1 However, both motivation to
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AFF-MTL aligns more closely with the agentic domain (e.g., manage and leadership motive patterns used projective measure-
extraversion and individualism), whereas SN- and NC-MTL align ment approaches, which led these constructs to eventually fall out
with the communal domain (e.g., agreeableness and collectivism; of favor due to criticisms related to construct validity and reliabil-
Abele & Wojciszke, 2018; Kiesler, 1996; Leary, 1957). Examining ity (Entwisle, 1972; Fineman, 1977; for a description of projective
differences in the nomological networks among the MTL types measures, please refer to Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2000; Meyer
helps to assess the usefulness and necessity of parsing out the three & Kurtz, 2006).
types and is consistent with how past meta-analytic work has Due in part to these measurement issues, research on the moti-
established the discriminant validity of intercorrelated variables vation underlying leadership underwent a period of decline that
(Berry, Ones, & Sackett, 2007; Dalal, 2005). ended with the publication of Chan and Drasgow’s (2001) intro-
Second, we believe that MTL has been hampered by a lack of duction of the three types of MTL (i.e., AFF-, SN-, and NC-MTL)
understanding regarding its relationship with leader outcomes. In as relatively stable individual differences that stem from a combi-
developing the MTL construct, a greater focus was placed on nation of noncognitive factors such as personality and cultural
identifying relevant antecedents than consequences. Thus, it is values. Currently, Chan and Drasgow’s (2001) conceptualization
beneficial to offer additional theorizing regarding why the three MTL of MTL is the dominant theoretical paradigm; yet, as mentioned
types should relate to leader emergence, behaviors, and effectiveness. above, there has been inconsistency in how scholars conceptualize
Although we expect each MTL type to positively predict leader and measure the three MTL types. We believe this inconsistency is
outcomes, we argue that AFF-MTL is particularly valuable as it a consequence of a limited understanding of how the three types
captures the degree to which one intrinsically enjoys being a leader, differ from one another. To better understand the similarities
rather than more secondary influences, such as social norms (SN- and differences among the MTL types, we first metaanalyze the
MTL) or a lack of concern for personal benefits (NC-MTL; Guillén, intercorrelations among the three types to evaluate whether
Mayo, & Korotov, 2015). If our findings suggest that most or all of these relationships are strong enough to warrant treatment as a
the predictive power is generated by AFF-MTL, then it offers empir- single construct, or in contrast, indicate that MTL should be
ical support for the relatively common practice of measuring and treated as three separate but related constructs. Second, we
reporting AFF-MTL in isolation. examine whether the three types of MTL exhibit different
Third, to further encourage the assimilation of the MTL con- relationships with any antecedent of MTL that has been exam-
struct with the broader leadership literature, we test a model that ined with enough frequency to meta-analyze. This includes
integrates DeRue and colleagues (2011) trait and behavioral theory demographics (e.g., gender, education), Big Five traits, self-
of leadership with Kanfer’s (1990) distal-proximal framework of concept traits (e.g., narcissism, leadership self-efficacy), cul-
motivation. The model allows us to assess whether MTL is a tural values (e.g., individualism, collectivism), and intelligence
mechanism through which individual attributes relate to leadership (e.g., cognitive ability, emotional intelligence).
outcomes. Given that motivation has been identified as an impor- Generally, we expect to observe that the MTL types exhibit
tant driver of employee behavior and performance (Barrick, similar patterns of relationships (i.e., in the same direction); how-
Mount, & Li, 2013; Mitchell & Daniels, 2003), we bridge the ever, we also predict that there are key ways in which they differ
motivation and leadership literatures to advance theory regarding from one another. In particular, interpersonal circumplex theory
the process through which individual attributes translate into models interpersonally relevant characteristics along two indepen-
leader emergence and effectiveness. Overall, we hope this meta- dent dimensions: agency and communion (Abele & Wojciszke,
analytic review will serve to energize further inquiry into the 2018; Kiesler, 1996; Leary, 1957). Agency is conceptualized as
motivational impetus driving leadership and encourage additional seeing oneself as a differentiated individual, and “it is manifest in
integration of MTL into the leadership literature. strivings for mastery and power which enhance and protect that

Motivation to Lead and Dimensionality Concerns 1

Although Chan and Drasgow (2001) make no assumption that “people
have unconscious needs for achievement, power, or affiliation that drive
Yukl (2013) defines leadership as “the process of influencing their MTL” (p. 482), subsequent research has demonstrated that the three
others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and types of MTL are related to the need for achievement, power, and affili-
how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collec- ation (Bobbio & Rattazzi, 2006).
 MOTIVATION TO LEAD 333

differentiation,” whereas communion is conceptualized as seeing tenets from the motivation and identity literatures, we next provide
oneself as part of a larger social entity, and “it is manifested in specific arguments for how we expect AFF-, SN-, and NC-MTL to
strivings for intimacy, union, and solidarity with that larger entity” relate to leadership emergence, behaviors, and effectiveness.
(Wiggins, 1991, p. 89; see also Bakan, 1966). Building upon the
tenets of interpersonal circumplex theory, we argue that AFF-MTL
Leadership Emergence
aligns more closely with agency because these individuals have an
intrinsic interest in leading and tend to identify with a role that is Leadership emergence refers to the outcome of being perceived
prototypically agentic in nature (i.e., leadership is considered agentic as leaderlike by others, such as peers in a leaderless group (Judge,
because of its association with attributes such as dominance and Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008).
assertiveness; Eagly & Karau, 2002). On the other hand, a communal, Past work demonstrates that people are perceived to be leaderlike
other-oriented focus is interwoven into the intentions of people who to the extent that they actively engage in behaviors that match
lead for social-normative or noncalculative reasons (SN-MTL entails agentic leader prototypes (e.g., by voicing ideas and volunteering
a focus on one’s responsibilities to others and NC-MTL captures solutions to problems), and either directly or indirectly communi-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

leading without expecting personal gains for oneself). cate an interest in and motivation to perform leadership functions
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

As a consequence, we expect that AFF-MTL (as compared with (Leaper & Ayres, 2007; Mullen, Salas, & Driskell, 1989). Based
SN- and NC-MTL) will have stronger relationships with agentic on evidence showing that people attempt to maintain consistent
correlates including extraversion, openness to experience, cogni- self-views and seek to align others’ views with their own self-
tive ability (Grijalva & Zhang, 2016), and individualism (Singelis, image (Korman, 1970; Swann, 1987), we argue that being highly
Triandis, Bhawuk, & Gelfand, 1995), as well as positive self- motivated to lead is also associated with being more likely to
concept traits (i.e., narcissism, leadership self-efficacy, core self- engage in prototypical leader behaviors that identify an individual
evaluation, and general self-efficacy). Alternatively, we anticipate as leaderlike to other group members. In other words, if someone
that SN- and NC-MTL (as opposed to AFF-MTL) will each exhibit is high in MTL, then they should be more likely to enact behaviors
stronger relationships with communal correlates including: agree- within groups aimed at claiming leadership (e.g., greater partici-
ableness, conscientiousness (Campbell, Rudich, & Sedikides, pation, sitting at the head of the table, stating that one is a leader;
2002), and collectivism (Singelis et al., 1995). Further, because DeRue & Ashford, 2010), and as a consequence, be more likely to
men score higher on agency and women score higher on commu- emerge as leaders within group settings.
nion (Badura, Grijalva, Newman, Yan, & Jeon, 2018), we expect At the same time, although we expect MTL to generally pro-
that the gender difference will be larger (favoring men) for AFF- mote engagement with the leader role, which in turn enhances the
MTL than SN- and NC-MTL (conversely, we expect that the possibility of emergence—we do not anticipate that this is equally
gender difference will be larger (favoring women) for SN and true for AFF-, SN-, or NC-MTL. Indeed, we predict that AFF-
NC-MTL than AFF-MTL). We make no explicit assumption for MTL will display a stronger relationship with leadership emer-
antecedents that are not clearly categorized as predominantly re- gence than will SN- or NC-MTL. Our arguments for AFF-MTL’s
lating to agency or communion—instead we treat these anteced- predictive superiority rest on its association with intrinsic enjoy-
ents using an inductive approach (i.e., age, past leadership expe- ment of the leadership role and seeing oneself as a leader (Chan &
rience, education, emotional intelligence, and emotional stability). Drasgow, 2001). Intrinsic enjoyment (i.e., “the motivation to en-
gage in work primarily for its own sake, because the work itself is
Hypothesis 1: AFF-MTL is more positively related to agentic interesting, engaging, or in some way satisfying”) has been found
characteristics than (a) SN-MTL and (b) NC-MTL. to be a stronger motivator than external forces (Amabile, Hill,
Hypothesis 2: (a) SN-MTL and (b) NC-MTL are more posi- Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994, p. 950). In addition, because those high
tively related to communal characteristics than AFF-MTL. in AFF-MTL enjoy leadership and see themselves as leaders, we
argue that they are more likely to fully internalize the leader role
into their sense of self and use leadership as a way to define
Leadership Outcomes
themselves relative to others and confirm their identity as a leader
Although understanding the antecedents of MTL is important, (Kwok, Hanig, Brown, & Shen, 2018; McCall & Simmons, 1978;
given the current state of the literature, it is also vital to examine Stets & Burke, 2000). This self-categorization then may evoke a
how the three MTL types relate to leadership outcomes. As mo- stronger need for outside verification that one is indeed perceived
tivation propels individuals to strive to attain desired outcomes as leaderlike by others (Swann, 1987). Therefore, we expect that
through focusing the direction, intensity, and persistence of their individuals high in AFF-MTL will be more likely to participate in
actions (Kanfer, Frese, & Johnson, 2017), people who are moti- proactive behaviors that result in broad engagement with the leader
vated to lead are expected to work harder and longer to obtain role across contexts and that serve to distinguish them as leaderlike
leadership roles and more effectively fulfill the requirements as- to other group members.
sociated with those roles. That being said, when developing the In contrast, SN- and NC-MTL are associated with leading out of
MTL construct, there was not initially a strong theoretical or necessity or selflessness and are expected to exhibit weaker rela-
empirical connection established between MTL and leader out- tionships with leadership emergence than AFF-MTL. In the case of
comes. Chan and Drasgow stated that, “it is not yet known how SN-MTL, individuals feel obligated to lead out of duty. For
MTL relates to constructs such as leader emergence” (p. 483), and example, people may lead because they observe that no one else is
that there was not an explicit assumption “that MTL is directly stepping forward to lead or because they believe themselves to be
related to leader effectiveness” (p. 482). Thus, there is a need to the most qualified to lead, and therefore, it would benefit the team.
clarify MTL’s relevance to valued outcomes. Drawing on core When the locus of the motivation is more driven by external
 334 BADURA, GRIJALVA, GALVIN, OWENS, AND JOSEPH

reasons (e.g., seeing the need to help one’s team or organization) Hypothesis 6: Laissez-faire leadership is negatively related to
and somewhat related to circumstance (e.g., no one else is stepping (a) AFF-MTL, (b) SN-MTL, and (c) NC-MTL. Further, AFF-
forward to lead) it will be a weaker driver of proactive engagement MTL is a stronger predictor of laissez-faire leadership than (d)
in acts that promote leadership emergence. SN-MTL and (e) NC-MTL.
Similarly, NC-MTL is also predicted to have a weaker relation-
ship with leadership emergence than AFF-MTL. The theory asso-
Leader Effectiveness
ciated with NC-MTL acknowledges that “leadership usually in-
volves certain responsibilities or costs” and that “the less Leadership effectiveness captures the extent to which an indi-
calculative that one is about leading others, the less one would vidual fulfills the requirements of a leadership role (Judge et al.,
wish to avoid leadership roles” (Chan & Drasgow, 2001, p. 482). 2002; Yukl, 2013). In general, individuals with higher levels of the
In other words, those high in NC-MTL are noncalculative in that three types of MTL are expected to be more effective because they
they are not discouraged from leading by the potential costs and/or are inherently more interested in and willing to be leaders, and
limited personal benefits. However, a selfless orientation toward thus, are driven to successfully perform role requirements (Chan &
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

leadership that results in a lack of aversion does not necessitate Drasgow, 2001; Hendricks & Payne, 2007). Consequently, we
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

that one will enthusiastically pursue leadership. For this reason, we predict that those who are motivated to lead are more likely to
argue that NC-MTL will have a weaker relationship with leader invest time and energy to fulfill the demands associated with
emergence than will AFF-MTL. In sum, we hypothesize that each leadership and to persist in leadership efforts (Kanfer, 1990;
type of MTL will be positively related to leader emergence, but Mitchell, 1982; Mitchell & Daniels, 2003). In addition, high MTL
that AFF-MTL will more strongly predict leader emergence rela- encourages employees to partake in leadership training and devel-
tive to SN- and NC-MTL. opment opportunities (Maurer, Hartnell, & Lippstreu, 2017; Stiehl,
Felfe, Elprana, & Gatzka, 2015), and research has shown that the
Hypothesis 3: Leader emergence is positively related to (a) accumulation of leadership relevant knowledge, experience, and
AFF-MTL, (b) SN-MTL, and (c) NC-MTL. Further, AFF- skills results in more effective leadership (Van Iddekinge, Ferris,
MTL is a stronger predictor of leader emergence than (d) & Heffner, 2009). Accordingly, we propose that the three MTL
SN-MTL and (e) NC-MTL. types are positively associated with leader effectiveness.
That being said, consistent with our previous arguments, we also
Leadership Behaviors suggest that AFF-MTL plays a stronger role in predicting leader-
ship effectiveness than SN- or NC-MTL because of a deeper
Building on similar logic, we next examine how MTL relates to
enjoyment of and a stronger identification with the leader role.
specific leadership behaviors. Both transformational and transac-
Seeing the role as important to one’s identity is expected to
tional leadership represent behaviors associated with the leader
enhance leadership effectiveness because embracing one’s role as
role (e.g., sharing vision, providing direction), whereas laissez-
a leader drives “a positive, generative process that empowers
faire leadership is the abdication of the leadership role (Bass, 1999;
people to assume the mantle of leader and thereby more effectively
Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Because leadership behaviors are natural
engage in leadership processes that facilitate the accomplishment
outcomes of a positive orientation and desire to engage in leader-
of organizational goals” (DeRue, Ashford, & Cotton, 2009, p. 219;
ship, we generally argue that individuals who are more motivated
see also Day & Harrison, 2007; Hall, 2004). Consistent with this
to lead will be likely to enact both transformational and transac-
idea, stronger role identification has been shown to generally
tional behaviors, and less likely to exhibit laissez-faire leadership.
enhance role performance (Burke & Reitzes, 1981; Burke & Tully,
Again, although we hypothesize that the three MTL types relate
1977). Similarly, a positive affective orientation toward the role
to leadership behaviors, we argue that AFF-MTL will exhibit the
will promote a willingness to invest more time and persist in
strongest relationship. In particular, because those high in AFF-
leadership efforts that are likely to result in greater effectiveness.
MTL enjoy leadership and find it more personally meaningful, this
In contrast, because of SN- and NC-MTL’s weaker theoretical
intrinsic motivation will have a greater influence on one’s engage-
associations with leadership self-identity and the tendency to be
ment and persistence in leadership behaviors than more extrinsi-
associated with leadership out of necessity or selflessness rather
cally, other-focused motives (such as SN- and NC-MTL). Alto-
than enjoyment, these motives likely produce lower total effort, as
gether, we predict that these tendencies will produce a stronger
well as relatively less successful efforts, resulting in weaker asso-
positive relationship between AFF-MTL and transformational
ciations with leadership effectiveness than AFF-MTL.
leadership as well as transactional leadership, and a stronger neg-
ative relationship with laissez-faire leadership, than will be asso- Hypothesis 7: Leader effectiveness is positively related to (a)
ciated with SN- and NC-MTL. AFF-MTL, (b) SN-MTL, and (c) NC-MTL. Further, AFF-
MTL is a stronger predictor of leader effectiveness than (d)
Hypothesis 4: Transformational leadership is positively re-
SN-MTL and (e) NC-MTL.
lated to (a) AFF-MTL, (b) SN-MTL, and (c) NC-MTL. Fur-
ther, AFF-MTL is a stronger predictor of transformational
leadership than (d) SN-MTL and (e) NC-MTL. A Distal-Proximal Framework of Motivation and
Leadership
Hypothesis 5: Transactional leadership is positively related to
(a) AFF-MTL, (b) SN-MTL, and (c) NC-MTL. Further, AFF- Up to this point we have focused on how MTL relates to
MTL is a stronger predictor of transactional leadership than antecedents and leadership outcomes. A third purpose of this
(d) SN-MTL and (e) NC-MTL. meta-analysis is to better understand how MTL fits into the
 MOTIVATION TO LEAD 335

broader nomological network of leadership. We integrate DeRue MTL and leadership effectiveness. For a summary of our model,
and colleagues (2011) trait and behavioral theory of leadership see Figure 1.
with Kanfer’s (1990, 1992) distal-proximal framework of motiva-
tion to develop a theoretical model that explains the role that MTL Hypothesis 8a: The relationship between distal individual
has in the leadership process. DeRue and colleagues (2011) theory difference constructs and leadership emergence is mediated by
is used to establish the necessary elements to include in our the three types of MTL.
theoretical framework and Kanfer’s (1992) distal-proximal model
Hypothesis 8b: The relationship between distal individual
of motivation is used to inform how (i.e., in what causal order)
difference constructs and leadership effectiveness is seri-
MTL should be integrated with other variables.
ally mediated by the three types of MTL such that the
DeRue and colleagues (2011) theory was developed to address
individual difference variables influence MTL, which in
a lack of theoretical integration in the leadership literature by
turn influence leadership behaviors and subsequently lead-
specifying how leaders’ individual differences (e.g., gender, intel-
ership effectiveness.
ligence, Big Five traits) are transmitted through leadership behav-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

iors (i.e., task-, relationship-, and change-oriented behaviors) to

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

affect leadership outcomes. We extend their approach by suggest- Method

ing that an important missing element in this prior synthesis was
the role played by leader motivation. By accounting for the regu- Literature Search and Data Coding for
latory influence of MTL, we should be able to better predict MTL Primary Studies
leadership outcomes by capturing a key mechanism through which
distal dispositional determinants advance purposeful work striv- To evaluate the nomological network of MTL, we performed a
ing. large-scale literature search to identify possible studies for inclu-
Regarding the specific antecedents we examine in our extended sion in this meta-analysis. We first searched PsycINFO, Web of
theoretical model, we use a theoretically derived subset of the 19 Science, Google Scholar, and Proquest Dissertations and Theses
antecedents included in this paper (a practice consistent with other for the following keywords: motivation to lead, motivation to
meta-analytic work; Christian, Bradley, Wallace, & Burke, 2009; manage, leader aspiration, leadership aspiration, desire for lead-
Christian, Garza, & Slaughter, 2011; Kooij, Kanfer, Betts, & ership, and desire to lead (searches were performed through April
Rudolph, 2018). In particular, we supplement DeRue and col- 1, 2019). Using these keywords, we also searched all electronically
leagues (2011) antecedents (i.e., gender, the Big Five traits, and available programs from the annual meetings of the Academy of
cognitive ability) with those identified as being theoretically rel- Management and the Society for Industrial and Organizational
evant to MTL by Chan and Drasgow (2001): past leadership Psychology. Additionally, we conducted a forward search for
experience, cultural values (i.e., horizontal individualism, horizon- papers that have cited seminal MTL research (Chan & Drasgow,
tal collectivism, vertical collectivism, and vertical individualism; 2001; Gray & O’Brien, 2007; Miner, 1977, 1978). Finally, we
Triandis, 1995; Triandis & Gelfand, 1998),2 and leadership self- solicited unpublished datasets from authors who regularly conduct
efficacy (Ng, Ang, & Chan, 2008).3 MTL research.
MTL’s placement in our extended theoretical model of leader- Following this preliminary search, a series of coding rules were
ship is based on Kanfer’s (1992) distal-proximal model of moti- established to determine relevant primary studies. First, studies
vation, which argues that there should be greater attention paid to were excluded if MTL or one of the corresponding antecedents/
the causal ordering of motivation constructs and provides an initial consequences did not align with the a priori construct definitions
framework for this order based on constructs’ proximity to behav- reported in Table 1 (e.g., Dromnes, 1989). Second, only adult
ioral acts. In particular, Kanfer (1992) suggested that demographic samples were included. Third, primary studies had to include
and personality characteristics are considered more distal than either (a) an effect size between one of the MTL types (i.e., AFF,
motives because these characteristics are expected to influence an
individual’s intention or choice to engage in certain behaviors (i.e., 2
Triandis (1995) introduced four cultural values, including vertical
motivation). In the case of leadership, this would suggest that collectivism (seeing the self as part of the collective, and accepting status
attributes such as gender, the Big Five traits, and cognitive ability differences among group members), vertical individualism (seeing the self
indirectly impact leadership behaviors and in turn leadership emer- as independent, and accepting status differences among group members),
gence and effectiveness via a set of more proximal motivational horizontal collectivism (seeing the self as part of the collective, and being
less accepting of status differences among group members), and horizontal
mechanisms, including AFF-, SN-, and NC-MTL. Notably, con- individualism (seeing the self as independent, and being less accepting of
sistent with Chan and Drasgow (2001), we position leadership status differences among group members; Singelis et al., 1995).
3
self-efficacy as an intermediary variable between the other indi- As described by Chan and Drasgow (2001), past leadership experience
vidual attributes and MTL. This decision is in line with research likely influences whether people have incorporated leadership into their
arguing that “self-efficacy falls toward the middle of the distal- self-identity (Hiller, 2005) and received the necessary developmental op-
portunities to feel capable of success in a leadership role (Bobbio &
proximal continuum” (Yeo & Neal, 2008 p. 629), which has led to Manganelli, 2009). Cultural values are relevant because they shape both an
past researchers to treat leadership self-efficacy as a direct conse- employee’s definition of leadership (Chan & Drasgow, 2001) and his/her
quence of personality (Ng et al., 2008) and as an antecedent of willingness to engage in leadership behaviors (Offermann & Hellmann,
MTL (Chan & Drasgow, 2001). Based on DeRue and colleagues 1997; Singelis et al., 1995). Finally, leadership self-efficacy captures the
extent to which individuals feel competent to perform the leader role,
work (2011), we also include leadership behaviors (i.e., transfor- which influences how likely they are to pursue leadership and enact
mational leadership, transactional leadership, and laissez-faire task-relevant behaviors that enhance performance (Barrick et al., 2013, p.
leadership) in our model as an intermediary mechanism between 138).
 336 BADURA, GRIJALVA, GALVIN, OWENS, AND JOSEPH

Distal and Semi-Distal Antecedents Proximal Antecedents Leadership Outcomes

Demographic Characteristics
• Gender Leader Emergence
• Past Leader Experience
Deep-Level Characteristics Motivation
• Cognitive Ability • Affective-Identity MTL
• Extraversion Leader Self-
Efficacy
• Social-Normative MTL
• Agreeableness • Noncalculative MTL
• Openness to Experience Leadership Behaviors
• Conscientiousness
• Emotional Stability • Transformational Leader Effectiveness
• Collectivism • Transactional
• Individualism • Laissez-Faire
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Figure 1. A Distal-Proximal Model of Motivation and Leadership. Based on available data, we included a
subset of the distal antecedents for the leadership emergence and leader effectiveness path analyses. Gender, the
Big Five traits, and cognitive ability were included for leadership emergence, whereas these antecedents as well
as past leader experience and leadership self-efficacy were included for leadership effectiveness.

SN, or NC) and one of the predictor/outcomes included in this original meta-analysis for each bivariate relationship in the corre-
meta-analysis or (b) an intercorrelation between the MTL types. lation matrix or, if available, using the correlation from a previ-
Fourth, we excluded studies using implicit measurement tech- ously published meta-analysis (Viswesvaran & Ones, 1995).4 Ac-
niques (e.g., Miner & Smith, 1982) because implicit measures cordingly, we performed a literature search for past meta-analyses
capture different phenomenon than self/other report measures that may include the intercorrelation between any of the following
(McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989), are unreliable, and variables: gender, cognitive ability, openness to experience, con-
exhibit poor convergent validity (Entwisle, 1972; Fineman, 1977). scientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability,
Fifth, we excluded a handful of studies that manipulated the past leader experience, leader self-efficacy, leader emergence,
MTL items to measure a unique type of motivation (e.g., motiva- transformational leadership, and leader effectiveness. We identi-
tion to lead transformationally; Gilbert, Horsman, & Kelloway, fied a total of 12 previously published meta-analyses that reported
2016). Sixth, when a study measured constructs across multiple at least one of the aforementioned intercorrelations (see the note in
time points, we included the data reported from the first time point Table 2 for a complete list of citations).
(e.g., Rosch, 2015). With respect to leadership effectiveness, we There were no previous meta-analyses for past leader experi-
excluded a study that focused on training effectiveness (e.g., “how ence or leader self-efficacy. Thus, we needed to perform original
much has this leader improved?”) rather than a global rating of meta-analyses to estimate the bivariate relationships between these
leadership effectiveness (e.g., “how effective is this leader?”; constructs and the other variables included in our metacorrelation
Stiehl et al., 2015). Finally, consistent with past meta-analyses matrix. To identify relevant primary studies, we performed an
(Berry et al., 2007; Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001), we only additional literature search in PsycINFO, Web of Science, Google
reported results for antecedent/consequent relationships that in- Scholar, and Proquest Dissertations and Theses using the follow-
cluded three or more primary studies. ing keywords: past leader experience, prior leader experience,
Using the aforementioned coding criteria, we identified 100
leader self-efficacy, and leader efficacy. We also performed this
primary studies with information to be included in our meta-
search substituting the word leadership for leader. Our searches
analysis. We coded relevant effect sizes, sample sizes, and reli-
were completed through April 1, 2019. Using the same coding
ability estimates from each primary study. To ensure the accuracy
criteria reported for the MTL literature search, we identified 90
of the above coding procedures, two authors coded each effect size
primary studies reporting relevant information. Overall, there was
included in the meta-analysis. There was a high level of agreement
a high level of agreement between the two coders (99%) and any
among the coders (98%), and any disagreements were discussed
discrepancies were reconciled prior to data-analysis. Appendix B
until consensus was reached. Appendix A of online supplemental
of online supplemental materials includes a list of these primary
materials includes a list of the MTL primary studies that were
included in the current study and their coded effect sizes. studies and their coded effect sizes.

Literature Search and Data Coding for Additional 4

Notably, the only antecedent variable we were not able to include from
Correlations Needed to Construct the Chan and Drasgow’s (2001) original model was cultural values. This is
attributable to a lack of sufficient data in the literature to estimate a
Metacorrelation Matrix relationship between these cultural values and leadership emergence, be-
haviors, or effectiveness. We also excluded transactional leadership and
To test the Distal-Proximal Model of Motivation and Leadership laissez-faire leadership because we were unable to estimate the bivariate
(see Figure 1), we needed to construct a correlation matrix among association between these behaviors and several antecedents included in
constructs in the model (see Table 2) by either performing an the path model.
 MOTIVATION TO LEAD 337

Table 1
Definitions and Missing Reliability Estimates for Each Variable Meta-Analyzed

Values imputed for

Variable Definition missing reliability

Motivation to lead
Affective-identity MTL An individual’s desire to lead because (s)he either enjoys leading or sees oneself as a leader.e .85n
Social normative MTL An individual’s desire to lead out of a sense of duty or obligation to his/her organization.e .73n
Noncalculative MTL An individual’s desire to lead because (s)he does not compare the costs and benefits of .79n
leading.d

Antecedents
Gender A positive effect size denotes that men scored higher on the given variable of interest. 1.00
Past leader experience The quantity and/or quality of past experience in leadership positions.d .88n
Age Age of the person completing the MTL scale. 1.00
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Education Education level of the person completing the MTL scale. 1.00
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Openness to experience A personality trait reflecting the extent to which a person is imaginative, curious, and .73w
original.b
Conscientiousness A personality trait reflecting the extent to which a person is dependable, hardworking, and .78w
organized.b
Extraversion A personality trait reflecting the extent to which a person is sociable, assertive, and .78w
talkative.b
Agreeableness A personality trait reflecting the extent to which a person is cooperative, courteous, and .75w
good-natured.b
Emotional stability A personality trait reflecting the extent to which a person is calm, less emotional, and has .78w
lower anxiety.b
Core self-evaluations A person’s general evaluation s(he) holds about oneself.g N/A
General self-efficacy An individual’s belief that s(he) is capable of being successful across a wide variety of .86n
situations.i
Leadership self-efficacy An individual’s belief that s(he) is capable of being successful in a leadership role.l .86n
Narcissism A personality trait reflecting the extent to which a person is grandiose, entitled, and lacking .83u
empathy.a
Horizontal collectivism A type of cultural value where individuals see the self as part of the collective, and are less .73n
accepting of status differences among group members.m
Horizontal individualism A type of cultural value where individuals see the self as independent, and are less accepting .72n
of status differences among group members.m
Vertical collectivism A type of cultural value where individuals see the self as part of the collective, and are .72n
accepting of status differences among group members.m
Vertical individualism A type of cultural value where individuals see the self as independent, and are accepting of .73n
status differences among group members.m
Emotional intelligence The ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions N/A
and emotional knowledge to enhance thought.k
Cognitive ability An individual’s “entire repertoire of acquired skills, knowledge, learning sets, and .94p (AFQT Paper
generalization tendencies considered intellectual in nature that is available at any one & Pencil); .97p
period of time.” (p. 32)f (AFQT
Computer
Administered);
.97o (ACT); .98v
(WAIS); .86q
(Other)

Consequences
Leadership emergence The extent to which an individual is seen as a leader by others.h .84s
Transformational A set of leadership behaviors (i.e., idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual .90t
leadership stimulation, and individualized consideration) that attempt to move followers beyond
immediate self-interests.c
Transactional leadership A set of leadership behaviors that relate to the exchange relationship between leaders and N/A
followers.c
Laissez faire leadership The absence of leadership.j .67t
Leadership effectiveness The extent to which an individual fulfills the requirements of a leadership role (e.g., guiding .88s
followers to achieve unit goals).h
Definitions were obtained from the following sources: a American Psychiatric Association (2013). b Barrick & Mount (1991). c Bass (1999). d Chan
and Drasgow (2001). e Chan, Rounds, & Drasgow (2000). f Humphreys (1971). g Judge & Bono (2001). h Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt
(2002). i Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen (2003). j Judge & Piccolo (2004). k Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade (2008). l Ng et al. (2008). m Singelis,
Triandis, Bhawuk, & Gelfand (1995). Missing reliability estimates were obtained from the following sources: n An average of reliability estimates used in
current manuscript. o ACT (2014). p ASVAB (2009). q Gonzalez-Mulé, Mount, & Oh (2014). s Joseph, Dhanani, Shen, McHugh, & McCord
(2015). t Judge & Piccolo (2004). u O’Boyle, Forsyth, Banks, & McDaniel (2012). v Pearson Education Inc. (2008). w Viswesvaran and Ones (2000).
N/A means that there were no missing reliabilities for that particular variable.
 This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

338

Table 2
Meta-Analytic Correlation Matrix Used to Perform the Path Analyses

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. Gender —
2. Openness .03m —
1/17,637
3. Conscientiousness ⫺.07m ⫺.06k —
1/17,637 338/356,680
4. Extraversion ⫺.06m .17k .00k —
1/17,637 418/252,004 632/683,001
5. Agreeableness ⫺.09m .11k .27k .17k —
1/17,637 236/144,205 344/162,975 243/135,529
6. Emotional stability .22m .16k .26k .19k .25k —
1/17,637 423/254,937 587/490,296 710/440,440 561/415,679
7. Cognitive ability .16j .22h ⫺.04h .02h .00h .09h —
10/9,631 46/13,182 56/15,429 61/21,602 38/11,190 61/21,404
8. Past leader experience .05a .31a .22a .38a .18a .19a .09a —
18/4,441 16/7,485 20/8,551 20/8,551 17/7,753 19/8,709 8/3,703
9. Leader self-efficacy .07a .41a .34a .46a .27a .32a .02a .57a —
31/9,167 17/7,233 22/8,322 23/8,475 19/7,269 21/7,973 10/4,426 25/10,232
10. AFF-MTL .05a .36a .31a .57a .11a .24a .09a .49a .67a —
43/13,070 26/8,799 30/9,493 32/10,049 27/8,695 28/9,435 12/4,759 35/12,902 38/13,321
11. SN-MTL .06a .25a .31a .41a .28a .20a ⫺.04a .31a .48a .56a —
27/8,836 19/5,807 21/5,930 23/6,486 20/5,734 20/6,003 9/3,343 26/8,894 27/9,770 63/16,998
12. NC-MTL ⫺.09a .15a .27a .20a .35a .23a .01a .25a .24a .29a .35a —
23/6,319 20/6,564 22/6,687 24/7,243 20/6,360 20/6,629 11/4,288 25/8,606 23/7,673 60/16,740 56/15,134
13. Leader emergence .09b .24f .33f .33f .05f .24f .19g — — .25a .15a .11a —
136/19,073 20/NR 17/NR 37/NR 23/NR 30/NR 65/NR 8/1,372 6/1,096 5/1,030
14. Transformational leadership ⫺.05e .15c .13c .24c .14c .17c .16d .00a .39a .35a .32a .28a — —
BADURA, GRIJALVA, GALVIN, OWENS, AND JOSEPH

44/29,770 19/3,887 18/3,516 20/3,692 20/3,916 18/3,380 6/826 3/347 7/1,467 9/1,630 8/1,570 7/1,382
15. Leader effectiveness ⫺.02l .24d .28d .31d .08d .24d .15g .23a .23a .31a .19a .07a — .64i —
99/101,676 39/7,762 39/10,056 63/12,640 45/10,507 51/8,960 34/NR 5/1,151 14/2,869 12/2,481 7/1,414 7/1,357 27/5,415
Note. Each cell contains the correlation corrected for attenuation in the predictor and criterion, followed by the number of effect sizes in the meta-analysis (k) and the total sample size in the
meta-analysis (N). AFF-MTL ⫽ Affective-Identity MTL; SN-MTL ⫽ Social-Normative MTL; NC-MTL ⫽ Noncalculative MTL. — denotes that correlations were excluded from the correlation matrix
because they were not included in our analyses. NR denotes that the sample size was not reported in the original meta-analytic source. For correlations with gender, positive correlations indicate that
men scored higher than women.
a
Original meta-analysis. b Badura, Grijalva, Newman, Yan, & Jeon (2018). c Bono & Judge (2004). d DeRue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey (2011). e Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & van
Engen (2003). f Judge et al. (2002). g Judge, Colbert, & Ilies (2004). h Judge, Jackson, Shaw, Scott, & Rich (2007). i Judge & Piccolo (2004). j Lynn & Irwing (2004). k Ones, 1993. l Paus-
tian-Underdahl, Walker, & Woehr (2014). m Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik (2008).
 MOTIVATION TO LEAD 339

Data Analysis analysis using the metafor package in R (Viechtbauer, 2010).

Using the interpretive guidelines reported by Borenstein and col-
We performed 89 original meta-analyses using the formulas leagues (2009; p. 292), publication bias did not impact the sub-
outlined by Schmidt and Hunter (2015; Chapter 3). We cor- stantive conclusions of this article (results are reported in Appen-
rected for attenuation resulting from measurement error in both dix C of online supplemental materials).
the predictor and criterion. To perform this correction, we
coded the relevant reliability information reported in our pri-
mary studies. For missing reliability data, we imputed estimates Results
based on the average reliability reported in the current meta- Our review revealed 100 independent samples that were in-
analysis or, in a few instances, we used the reliability reported cluded in our meta-analytic examination of MTL. There were 55
in a single study (i.e., if it had a larger sample size than that published studies, 38 dissertations/theses, and seven unpublished
available in the current meta-analysis; reliability values that studies. Across all of the samples, 29,323 participants contributed
were imputed are reported in Table 1). data—39% of participants were students, 39% were employees,
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In addition, we took two steps to maintain the independence of and 12% were members of the military (the remaining 10% of
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

effect sizes in this meta-analysis. First, when a primary study participants were from studies including a mixture of working
reported more than one effect size for a given relationship, we used adults and students). Of the 11,391 working adults, 35% were
composite formulas (Ghiselli, Campbell, & Zedeck, 1981). We managers and 12% were nonmanagers (53% of participants were
used the average correlation when information necessary to cal- from studies that had a mixture of managers and nonmanagers).
culate a composite was not available. Second, when two separate The sample-weighted average age of participants was 29.43 years,
primary studies included the same or overlapping data, we retained and 52% of participants were men.
only the primary study with the larger sample size (e.g., Hong,
2005; Hong, Catano, & Liao, 2011). If the sample sizes were the
Antecedents of MTL
same across primary studies, we retained the published primary
study (vs. the nonpublished primary study; e.g., Chan, 1999; Chan Intercorrelations between the MTL types. To evaluate the
& Drasgow, 2001). distinctiveness of the MTL types, we first evaluated the intercor-
To evaluate whether there were statistically significant differ- relations among AFF-, SN-, and NC-MTL. Results are reported in
ences across the nomological networks of the three MTL types, we Table 3. Notably, all three MTL types exhibited statistically sig-
used Raju and Brand’s (2003) z test. Next, to assess whether the nificant, positive relationships with each other [AFF- and SN-MTL
three MTL types mediate the relationship between distal individual (␳ ⫽ .56); AFF- and NC-MTL (␳ ⫽ .29); SN- and NC-MTL (␳ ⫽
differences and leader outcomes, we performed two path analyses .35)]. At the same time, the strength of these relationships were
using the metacorrelation matrix reported in Table 2 (analyses relatively modest, consistent with the idea that the types should be
were conducted in LISREL 9.2). The first path analysis was treated as three separate constructs.
focused on establishing the role that MTL has in the leader Summary of bivariate relationships for antecedent-MTL
emergence process, and involved the following sequence of ef- relationships. We investigated 19 antecedents of the three MTL
fects: distal individual differences (i.e., gender, cognitive ability, types. In general, we found that gender, extraversion, openness,
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability, past leader
emotional stability) ¡ MTL (i.e., AFF, SN, and NC) ¡ leader experience, general self-efficacy, leader self-efficacy, core self-
emergence.5 Because the effect sizes reported in the correlation evaluation, emotional intelligence, and horizontal collectivism
matrix are based on different sample sizes, we used the smallest each exhibited statistically significant, positive relationships with
meta-analytic sample size (N ⫽ 1,030; using the smallest meta- the three MTL types. Narcissism, education, horizontal individu-
analytic sample size is a more conservative decision when the alism, and vertical individualism were also positively (and signif-
sample size for particular bivariate correlations inflate the har- icantly) related to AFF- and SN-MTL, whereas narcissism and
monic mean sample size in a way that may facilitate Type I error; vertical individualism were negatively (and significantly) related
for a recent example see Dhanani, Beus, & Joseph, 2018). to NC-MTL. Notably, results indicated that only AFF-MTL had a
The second path analysis examined the role that MTL has in the statistically significant (positive) relationship with cognitive abil-
leadership effectiveness process. We evaluated the following se- ity and vertical collectivism was positively related to SN and
quence of effects: distal individual differences (i.e., gender, cog- NC-MTL. For the full results, including the corrected correlations
nitive ability, openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agree- and confidence intervals used to evaluate statistical significance,
ableness, emotional stability, and past leader experience) ¡ leader please see Table 3.
self-efficacy ¡ MTL (i.e., AFF, SN, and NC) ¡ transformational Differences across the nomological networks of the three
leadership ¡ leader effectiveness. The sample size used for this MTL types. We proposed that predictors across the nomological
analysis was again based on the smallest meta-analytic sample size networks of the three MTL types would vary as a function of
(N ⫽ 347). To establish the significance of the indirect effects whether they are agentic (AFF-MTL) or communal (SN and NC-
implied by the above path models, we constructed 95% confidence MTL). In partial support of our predictions, results revealed that
intervals using Monte Carlo simulations in R (Preacher & Selig, AFF-MTL was more strongly predicted by the following agentic
2012).
Finally, we performed Duval and Tweedie’s (2000) trim and fill 5
We excluded past leadership experience and leader self-efficacy be-
publication bias test for each antecedent-MTL relationship and cause there were not sufficient data to estimate these variables’ bivariate
each MTL-outcome relationship included in the current meta- associations with leadership emergence.
 340 BADURA, GRIJALVA, GALVIN, OWENS, AND JOSEPH

Table 3
Antecedents of the Three Types of Motivation to Lead

Motivation k N r ␳ˆ SD␳ 95% CI 80% CV

Intercorrelations
AFF- and SN-MTL 63 16,998 .44 .56 .16 [.40, .47] [.35, .76]
AFF- and NC-MTL 60 16,740 .23 .29 .23 [.18, .28] [⫺.01, .58]
SN- and NC-MTL 56 15,134 .27 .35 .21 [.23, .31] [.08, .62]

k N d ␦ˆ SD␦ 95% CI 80% CV

Gender
AFF-MTL 43 13,070 .10 .10 .22 [.02, .17] [⫺.18, .39]
SN-MTL 27 8,836 .12 .14 .20 [.04, .21] [⫺.12, .40]
NC-MTL 23 6,319 ⫺.17 ⫺.19 .23 [⫺.06, ⫺.27] [⫺.49, .11]
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k N r ␳ˆ SD␳ 95% CI 80% CV

Past leadership experience

AFF-MTL 35 12,902 .41 .49 .26 [.34, .47] [.16, .82]
SN-MTL 26 8,894 .23 .31 .26 [.16, .30] [⫺.02, .64]
NC-MTL 25 8,606 .20 .25 .19 [.14, .25] [.01, .48]
Age
AFF-MTL 36 9,368 ⫺.01 ⫺.01 .07 [⫺.04, .02] [⫺.10, .08]
SN-MTL 20 4,905 ⫺.05 ⫺.05 .11 [⫺.10, .01] [⫺.19, .09]
NC-MTL 20 4,997 .05 .06 .12 [.00, .11] [⫺.09, .21]
Education
AFF-MTL 10 3,161 .08 .09 .05 [.03, .12] [.02, .15]
SN-MTL 9 2,751 .04 .05 .02 [.01, .08] [03, .07]
NC-MTL 8 2,029 .04 .04 .04 [⫺.02, .09] [⫺.02, .10]
Openness to experience
AFF-MTL 26 8,799 .29 .36 .08 [.26, .32] [.25, .46]
SN-MTL 19 5,807 .18 .25 .17 [.12, .25] [.03, .47]
NC-MTL 20 6,564 .12 .15 .18 [.05, .18] [⫺.08, .37]
Conscientiousness
AFF-MTL 30 9,493 .24 .31 .16 [.20, .29] [.10, .52]
SN-MTL 21 5,930 .23 .31 .14 [.18, .28] [.13, .49]
NC-MTL 22 6,687 .21 .27 .17 [.15, .27] [.05, .49]
Extraversion
AFF-MTL 32 10,049 .48 .57 .08 [.45, .51] [.47, .67]
SN-MTL 23 6,486 .31 .41 .10 [.27, .34] [.29, .53]
NC-MTL 24 7,243 .16 .20 .17 [.10, .22] [⫺.02, .42]
Agreeableness
AFF-MTL 27 8,695 .09 .11 .15 [.04, .14] [⫺.08, .30]
SN-MTL 20 5,734 .21 .28 .19 [.14, .27] [.04, .52]
NC-MTL 20 6,360 .27 .35 .19 [.20, .33] [.10, .59]
Emotional stability
AFF-MTL 28 9,435 .20 .24 .11 [.16, .24] [.11, .38]
SN-MTL 20 6,003 .15 .20 .09 [.11, .19] [.08, .32]
NC-MTL 20 6,629 .18 .23 .18 [.12, .25] [.00, .46]
Emotional intelligence
AFF-MTL 5 1,538 .24 .28 .05 [.18, .30] [.22, .35]
SN-MTL 4 724 .19 .24 .02 [.12, .27] [.22, .27]
NC-MTL 5 1,538 .18 .22 .08 [.10, .26] [.12, .32]
Core self-evaluations
AFF-MTL 5 1,123 .30 .35 .00 [.27, .32] [.35, .35]
SN-MTL 3 781 .18 .23 .00 [.17, .19] [.23, .23]
NC-MTL 4 1,003 .30 .36 .06 [.22, .37] [.29, .43]
General self-efficacy
AFF-MTL 10 3,505 .35 .40 .16 [.25, .44] [.20, .61]
SN-MTL 8 2,026 .33 .41 .23 [.19, .47] [.12, .70]
NC-MTL 8 1,750 .23 .28 .24 [.09, .38] [⫺.03, .58]
Leadership self-efficacy
AFF-MTL 38 13,321 .57 .67 .16 [.52, .61] [.46, .87]
SN-MTL 27 9,770 .37 .48 .16 [.32, .41] [.27, .68]
NC-MTL 23 7,673 .20 .24 .25 [.11, .28] [⫺.08, .57]
Narcissism
AFF-MTL 4 955 .51 .59 .00 [.45, .58] [.59, .59]
SN-MTL 4 955 .31 .38 .07 [.23, .40] [.29, .47]
 MOTIVATION TO LEAD 341

Table 3 (continued)

Motivation k N r ␳ˆ SD␳ 95% CI 80% CV

NC-MTL 3 675 ⫺.15 ⫺.17 .00 [⫺.11, ⫺.19] [⫺.17, ⫺.17]

Horizontal collectivism
AFF-MTL 6 3,776 .14 .18 .09 [.08, .21] [.07, .29]
SN-MTL 5 2,392 .33 .44 .10 [.24, .41] [.31, .58]
NC-MTL 5 2,392 .35 .44 .00 [.31, .38] [.44, .44]
Horizontal individualism
AFF-MTL 7 4,414 .20 .24 .05 [.16, .23] [.17, .31]
SN-MTL 6 3,030 .10 .14 .12 [.03, .17] [⫺.01, .29]
NC-MTL 6 3,030 .00 .00 .12 [⫺.08, .08] [⫺.15, .16]
Vertical collectivism
AFF-MTL 6 3,776 .05 .07 .14 [⫺.04, .15] [⫺.12, .25]
SN-MTL 5 2,392 .33 .46 .08 [.26, .40] [.35, .56]
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NC-MTL 5 2,392 .26 .33 .22 [.10, .41] [.05, .61]

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Vertical individualism
AFF-MTL 7 4,414 .25 .31 .04 [.21, .29] [.26, .36]
SN-MTL 6 3,030 .18 .26 .05 [.14, .23] [.20, .32]
NC-MTL 6 3,030 ⫺.21 ⫺.28 .06 [⫺.16, ⫺.26] [⫺.21, ⫺.36]
Cognitive ability
AFF-MTL 12 4,759 .07 .09 .07 [.03, .12] [.00, .17]
SN-MTL 9 3,343 ⫺.04 ⫺.04 .05 [⫺.08, .01] [⫺.11, .03]
NC-MTL 11 4,288 .01 .01 .03 [⫺.02, .04] [⫺.02, .05]
Note. Positive effect sizes mean that men scored higher than women. k ⫽ number of effect sizes in the meta-analysis; N ⫽ total sample size in the
meta-analysis; r ⫽ sample-size weighted mean correlation; ␳ˆ ⫽ correlation corrected for attenuation in the predictor and criterion; SD␳ ⫽ standard deviation
of the corrected correlation; 95% CI ⫽ 95% confidence interval; 80% CV ⫽ 80% credibility interval. Effect sizes are statistically significant when the
confidence interval does not include zero. AFF-MTL ⫽ Affective-Identity MTL; SN-MTL ⫽ Social-Normative MTL; NC-MTL ⫽ Noncalculative MTL.

variables as compared with SN-MTL: extraversion (z ⫽ 2.18; p ⬍ pared with AFF-MTL (i.e., of four possible communal anteced-
.05), leader self-efficacy (z ⫽ 3.39; p ⬍ .05), and narcissism (z ⫽ ents, two were more strongly related to SN-MTL than AFF-MTL
2.63; p ⬍ .05), but not openness (z ⫽ 1.21; p ⬎ .05), cognitive and three were more strongly related to NC-MTL than AFF-MTL).
ability (z ⫽ 1.49; p ⬎ .05), core self-evaluation (z ⫽ 1.18; p ⬎ We note that gender did not significantly differ in its predictive
.05), general self-efficacy (z ⫽ .13; p ⬎ .05), horizontal individ- power for any of the three MTL types (z test AFF-MTL vs. SN-MTL;
ualism (z ⫽ 1.34; p ⬎ .05), or vertical individualism (z ⫽ .70; p ⬎ z ⫽ .11, p ⬎ .05; z test AFF-MTL vs. NC-MTL; z ⫽ 1.52, p ⬎ .05; z
.05). test SN-MTL vs. NC-MTL; z ⫽ 1.62, p ⬎ .05). Although not formally
Likewise, the following antecedents were stronger predictors of hypothesized, we also found that SN-MTL exhibited a stronger
AFF-MTL compared with NC-MTL: extraversion (z ⫽ 4.64; p ⬍ positive relationship with several agentic antecedents as compared
.05), openness to experience (z ⫽ 2.34; p ⬍ .05), narcissism (z ⫽ with NC-MTL: extraversion (z ⫽ 2.30; p ⬍ .05), narcissism (z ⫽
8.53; p ⬍ .05), leader self-efficacy (z ⫽ 6.15; p ⬍ .05), vertical 5.44; p ⬍ .05), leader self-efficacy (z ⫽ 3.03; p ⬍ .05), and
individualism (z ⫽ 8.63; p ⬍ .05), and horizontal individualism vertical individualism (z ⫽ 7.00; p ⬍ .05). We discuss the impli-
(z ⫽ 3.29; p ⬍ .05)— however, there were no significant differ- cations for the pattern of relationships observed in the Discussion
ences in the predictive power of cognitive ability (z ⫽ .96; p ⬎ section.
.05), general self-efficacy (z ⫽ 1.36; p ⬎ .05), or core self-
evaluation (z ⫽ .11; p ⬎ .05). Altogether, these findings provide
Consequences of MTL
partial support for Hypotheses 1a and 1b which argued that AFF-
MTL is more strongly linked to agentic attributes as compared We next examined the impact of MTL on leadership emergence,
with SN- and NC-MTL (i.e., of nine possible agentic antecedents, behaviors, and effectiveness—and compare whether AFF-MTL is
three were more strongly related to AFF-MTL than SN-MTL and a stronger predictor of these leadership outcomes relative to SN-
six were more strongly related to AFF-MTL than NC-MTL). and NC-MTL. Results are reported in Table 4.
With respect to communal antecedents, SN-MTL exhibited a Leadership emergence. We predicted that individuals who
stronger positive relationship, as compared with AFF-MTL, with are motivated to lead would be more likely to emerge into lead-
horizontal collectivism (z ⫽ 3.89; p ⬍ .05) and vertical collectiv- ership roles. As expected, our results indicated that all three MTL
ism (z ⫽ 5.76; p ⬍ .05) and NC-MTL had a stronger positive types were positively related to emergent leadership: AFF-MTL
association with agreeableness (z ⫽ 2.60; p ⬍ .05), horizontal (␳ ⫽ .25), SN-MTL (␳ ⫽ .15), and NC-MTL (␳ ⫽ .11; supporting
collectivism (z ⫽ 3.97; p ⬍ .05), and vertical collectivism (z ⫽ Hypotheses 3a–3c). Contrary to our hypothesis, although the effect
3.60; p ⬍ .05). SN- and AFF-MTL did not significantly differ in size for AFF-MTL was larger, it was not a significantly stronger
their relationship with conscientiousness (z ⫽ .00; p ⬎ .05) or predictor of leadership emergence as compared with SN-MTL
agreeableness (z ⫽ 1.71; p ⬎ .05), nor did conscientiousness (z ⫽ .84; p ⬎ .05) or NC-MTL (z ⫽ 1.23; p ⬎ .05; failing to
differentially predict NC- and AFF-MTL (z ⫽ .45; p ⬎ .05). These support Hypotheses 3d–3e).
results partially support Hypotheses 2a and 2b that SN- and NC- Leadership behaviors. With regard to leadership behaviors,
MTL are more closely linked to communal antecedents as com- AFF-MTL (␳ ⫽ .35), SN-MTL (␳ ⫽ .32), and NC-MTL (␳ ⫽
 342 BADURA, GRIJALVA, GALVIN, OWENS, AND JOSEPH

Table 4
Leadership Outcomes Associated With the Three Types of Motivation to Lead

Motivation k N r ␳ˆ SD␳ 95% CI 80% CV

Leader emergence
AFF-MTL 8 1,372 .22 .25 .00 [.19, .26] [.25, .25]
SN-MTL 6 1,096 .12 .15 .00 [.07, .18] [.15, .15]
NC-MTL 5 1,030 .10 .11 .05 [.02, .17] [.04, .18]
Transformational leadership
AFF-MTL 9 1,630 .30 .35 .21 [.17, .42] [.08, .62]
SN-MTL 8 1,570 .28 .32 .27 [.11, .45] [⫺.02, .67]
NC-MTL 7 1,382 .24 .28 .24 [.08, .40] [⫺.03, .58]
Transactional leadership
AFF-MTL 4 776 .12 .13 .23 [⫺.08, .32] [⫺.16, .43]
SN-MTL 3 718 .30 .38 .05 [.19, .40] [.32, .44]
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NC-MTL 3 718 .13 .15 .18 [⫺.05, .32] [⫺.07, .38]

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Laissez faire leadership

AFF-MTL 3 637 ⫺.27 ⫺.33 .03 [⫺.20, ⫺.33] [⫺.29, ⫺.37]
SN-MTL 3 637 ⫺.14 ⫺.18 .00 [⫺.08, ⫺.21] [⫺.18, ⫺.18]
NC-MTL 3 637 ⫺.24 ⫺.31 .07 [⫺.16, ⫺.33] [⫺.22, ⫺.40]
Leader effectiveness
AFF-MTL 12 2,481 .23 .31 .23 [.13, .32] [.01, .60]
SN-MTL 7 1,414 .15 .19 .25 [⫺.01, .31] [⫺.13, .50]
NC-MTL 7 1,357 .06 .07 .12 [⫺.02, .15] [⫺.08, .22]
Note. k ⫽ number of effect sizes in the meta-analysis; N ⫽ total sample size in the meta-analysis; r ⫽ sample-size weighted mean correlation; ␳ˆ ⫽
correlation corrected for attenuation in the predictor and criterion; SD␳ ⫽ standard deviation of the corrected correlation; 95% CI ⫽ 95% confidence
interval; 80% CV ⫽ 80% credibility interval. Effect sizes are statistically significant when the confidence interval does not include zero. AFF-MTL ⫽
Affective-Identity MTL; SN-MTL ⫽ Social-Normative MTL; NC-MTL ⫽ Noncalculative MTL.

.28) were positively related to transformational leadership (sup- leader outcomes accounted for by each MTL type. This analysis
porting Hypothesis 4a– 4c). However, AFF-MTL was not a supplements the aforementioned z tests by simultaneously ac-
stronger predictor of transformational leadership than SN-MTL counting for the impact of the three MTL types on leader outcomes
(z ⫽ .28; p ⬎ .05) or NC-MTL (z ⫽ .65; p ⬎ .05; failing to (rather than performing pairwise comparisons) and better informs
support Hypotheses 4d and 4e). Further, results indicated that conclusions regarding the appropriateness of using only a single
SN-MTL was the only facet that exhibited a statistically sig- MTL type in a given study. Overall, the three MTL types ex-
nificant relationship with transactional leadership [AFF-MTL plained 6% of the variance in leader emergence, 17% of the
(␳ ⫽ .13), SN-MTL (␳ ⫽ .38), and NC-MTL (␳ ⫽ .15); variance in transformational leadership, 16% of the variance in
providing support for Hypothesis 5b, but not 5a and 5c]. AFF- transactional and laissez-faire leadership, and 10% of the variance
MTL did not significantly differ in its predictive power relative in leader effectiveness. Our results revealed that AFF-MTL ac-
to NC-MTL (z ⫽ .17; p ⬎ .05) and AFF-MTL was a weaker counted for the most variance in leader emergence [AFF-MTL
predictor of transactional leadership than SN-MTL (z ⫽ 2.20; (76%), SN-MTL (15%), and NC-MTL (9%)], transformational
p ⬍ .05; failing to support Hypotheses 5d and 5e). Finally, the leadership [AFF-MTL (43%), SN-MTL (30%), and NC-MTL
three MTL types each exhibited significant negative relation- (27%)], laissez-faire leadership [AFF-MTL (49%), SN-MTL (7%),
ships with laissez-faire leadership [AFF-MTL (␳ ⫽ ⫺.33), and NC-MTL (44%)], and leader effectiveness [AFF-MTL (80%),
SN-MTL (␳ ⫽ ⫺.18), and NC-MTL (␳ ⫽ ⫺.31); providing SN-MTL (18%), and NC-MTL (2%)], whereas SN-MTL ac-
support for Hypotheses 6a-c]. z tests revealed that AFF-MTL counted for the most variance in transactional leadership [AFF-
was not a stronger predictor of laissez-faire leadership than MTL (8%), SN-MTL (85%), and NC-MTL (7%)]. Thus, AFF-
SN-MTL (z ⫽ 1.16; p ⬎ .05) and NC-MTL (z ⫽ .16; p ⬎ .05; MTL explains the greatest percentage of variance in most
failing to support Hypotheses 6d and 6e). leadership outcomes relative to the other MTL types (with the
Leadership effectiveness. As proposed, individuals were exception of transactional leadership, which is primarily driven by
more effective leaders when they reported having higher levels of SN-MTL).
AFF-MTL (␳ ⫽ .31); however, there was not a statistically sig-
nificant association between leader effectiveness and SN-MTL Mediation Results
(␳ ⫽ .19) or NC-MTL (␳ ⫽ .07). As expected, AFF-MTL was a
Next, we proposed that the three MTL types would mediate the
stronger predictor of leader effectiveness as compared with NC-
relationships between distal individual differences and leadership
MTL (z ⫽ 2.06; p ⬍ .05), but did not out predict SN-MTL (z ⫽
outcomes (see Figure 1). To test this hypothesis, we performed two
1.06; p ⬎ .05). Altogether, Hypotheses 7a and 7e were supported,
separate path analyses using the correlation matrix depicted in
whereas Hypotheses 7b through 7d were not.
Table 2. Consistent with DeRue and colleagues (2011), we used
fully saturated path models (i.e., we specified the model such that
Supplemental Analysis
(a) all distal individual differences predicted the three MTL types
Using the metacorrelation matrix, we performed relative impor- and (b) all distal individual differences and MTL types predicted
tance analyses in SPSS to evaluate the amount of variance in leader outcomes). This approach is advantageous because it estab-
 MOTIVATION TO LEAD 343

lishes the extent to which the three MTL types mediate each leader ents affect leadership emergence and effectiveness. We describe
attribute-outcome relationship, while also recognizing the possi- how these three contributions influence leadership and motivation
bility that the distal attributes may exert a direct effect on leader theory below.
outcomes. Results for the leader emergence process are reported in
Tables 5 and 6. Theoretical Implications
In general, we found that AFF- and SN-MTL partially mediated
Contribution 1: Establishing the distinctiveness of the three
the relationship between the distal attributes and leader emergence;
MTL types. A primary purpose of the current study was to
in contrast, NC-MTL did not serve as a mediator (partially sup-
reconcile inconsistencies in the conceptualization and measure-
porting Hypothesis 8a). To elaborate, there was a statistically
ment of MTL by evaluating the distinctiveness of the three types
significant positive indirect effect for one path: agreeableness ¡
(AFF-, SN-, and NC-MTL). Notably, Berry and colleagues (2007)
AFF-MTL ¡ leader emergence (␤ ⫽ .02; 95% CI [.01, .04]). In
argue that there are three pieces of evidence that establish the
addition, there were statistically significant negative indirect ef-
distinct nature of constructs: (a) whether confirmatory factor anal-
fects for the following paths: (a) openness ¡ AFF-MTL ¡ leader
yses reveal that items load onto a single factor or multiple factors,
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emergence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.07; 95% CI [⫺.04, ⫺.09]), (b) conscientious-

(b) whether there are different correlates for the constructs in
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ness ¡ AFF-MTL ¡ leader emergence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.08; 95% CI

question, and (c) whether the intercorrelations among constructs
[⫺.05, ⫺.11]), (c) extraversion ¡ AFF-MTL ¡ leader emergence
are below the conventional discriminant validity threshold (r ⬍
(␤ ⫽ ⫺.12; 95% CI [⫺.08, ⫺.16]), (d) gender ¡ AFF-MTL ¡
.70). Because meta-analysis does not produce the type of data
leader emergence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.02; 95% CI [⫺.01, ⫺.03]), (e) open-
necessary to perform confirmatory factor analyses, the focus of our
ness ¡ SN-MTL ¡ leader emergence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.02; 95% CI
meta-analysis was on the latter two conditions.
[⫺.01, ⫺.04]), (f) conscientiousness ¡ SN-MTL ¡ leader
Accordingly, we first examined the pattern of antecedents
emergence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.03; 95% CI [⫺.02, ⫺.05]), (g) extraver-
among the three MTL types. Notably, there was some conceptual
sion ¡ SN-MTL ¡ leader emergence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.04; 95% CI
similarity observed between AFF-, SN-, and NC-MTL. In partic-
[⫺.02, ⫺.06]), (h) agreeableness ¡ SN-MTL ¡ leader emer-
ular, our results revealed that both AFF- and SN-MTL encapsulate
gence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.01; 95% CI [⫺.01, ⫺.03]), and (i) gender ¡
overlapping agentic content (i.e., AFF- and SN-MTL have similar
SN-MTL ¡ leader emergence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.01; 95% CI
associations with openness to experience, core self-evaluation,
[⫺.01, ⫺.03]). All other indirect effects were not statistically
general self-efficacy, cognitive ability, and individualistic values),
significant. Notably, we expected that the indirect effects
whereas SN- and NC-MTL include overlapping communal content
through MTL would be positive.6 We discuss the implications
(i.e., SN- and NC-MTL have similar associations with collectiv-
of these negative indirect effects below.
istic values, agreeableness, and conscientiousness).
The results for the leader effectiveness mediation analyses are
Despite these similarities, there were important differences in
reported in Tables 7 and 8. SN-MTL mediated the relationship
the pattern of antecedents predicting the three MTL types. That is,
between distal individual differences and leader effectiveness for
(a) AFF-MTL exhibited more agentic content relative to SN- and
the following paths: (a) openness ¡ SN-MTL ¡ leader effective-
NC-MTL (e.g., AFF-MTL was more strongly predicted by extra-
ness (␤ ⫽ ⫺.02; 95% CI [⫺.01, ⫺.05]), (b) conscientiousness ¡
version, narcissism, and leader self-efficacy), (b) SN- and NC-
SN-MTL ¡ leader effectiveness (␤ ⫽ ⫺.04; 95% CI
MTL possessed more communal content relative to AFF-MTL
[⫺.02, ⫺.06]), and (c) extraversion ¡ SN-MTL ¡ leader effec-
(e.g., SN- and NC-MTL were more strongly predicted by collec-
tiveness (␤ ⫽ ⫺.04; 95% CI [⫺.02, ⫺.08]). Likewise, there were
tivistic values), and (c) SN-MTL had more agentic content relative
several statistically significant indirect effects for pathways
to NC-MTL (e.g., SN-MTL was more strongly predicted by ex-
through NC-MTL, including: (a) conscientiousness ¡ NC-
traversion and leader self-efficacy). Altogether, this meta-analytic
MTL ¡ transformational leadership ¡ leader effectiveness (␤ ⫽
finding provides support for Berry and colleagues (2007) second
.03; 95% CI [.01, .06]), (b) conscientiousness ¡ NC-MTL ¡
condition of discriminant validity by indicating that there are
leader effectiveness (␤ ⫽ ⫺.05; 95% CI [⫺.02, ⫺.09]), and (c)
nuanced differences in the antecedents for the three MTL types. In
agreeableness ¡ NC-MTL ¡ leader effectiveness (␤ ⫽ ⫺.07;
general, relative to the other MTL types, AFF-MTL reflects a
95% CI [⫺.04, ⫺.10]). None of the pathways through AFF-MTL
greater agentic orientation, NC-MTL reflects a greater communal
were statistically significant. These findings offer partial support
orientation, and SN-MTL reflects a dual focus toward agency and
for Hypothesis 8b.
communion.
Finally, in support of the third condition of distinctiveness, the
Discussion MTL types were only modestly correlated with one another [AFF-
and SN-MTL (␳ ⫽ .56); AFF- and NC-MTL (␳ ⫽ .29); SN- and
Motivation has long been recognized as a key determinant of an
NC-MTL (␳ ⫽ .35)]. Altogether, these findings have important
employee’s decision to pursue particular organizational roles, as
implications for the measurement of MTL. Through meta-analytic
well as to devote resources (e.g., time and effort) toward complet-
ing job responsibilities (Kanfer, 1990; Kanfer et al., 2017; Latham
& Pinder, 2005). To enhance understanding regarding how mo- 6
To ensure that negative effects were not due to multicollinearity, we
tives fit within the broader leadership literature, we conducted a evaluated the variance inflation factors (VIF) for all predictors included in
meta-analysis of the MTL domain. Our results shed light on (a) the our path models. All VIF values were below the conventional threshold of
10 (i.e., VIFs ranged from 1.12 to 2.75), including AFF-MTL (VIF ⫽
distinctiveness of the three MTL types, (b) the utility of using 2.75), SN-MTL (VIF ⫽ 1.73), and NC-MTL (VIF ⫽ 1.33). Therefore, it is
MTL to predict leader outcomes, and (c) the extent to which the unlikely that our results were significantly impacted by multicollinearity
three MTL types are mechanisms that explain why distal anteced- among the predictor variables (Kutner, Nachtsheim, Neter, & Li, 2005).
 344 BADURA, GRIJALVA, GALVIN, OWENS, AND JOSEPH

Table 5
Path Coefficients for the Theoretical Process Model Predicting Leader Emergence

Independent IV ¡ Leader emergence

variable IV ¡ AFF-MTL IV ¡ SN-MTL IV ¡ NC-MTL (direct unmediated effect)

Gender .09ⴱ .13ⴱ ⫺.07ⴱ .12ⴱ

Cognitive ability .01 ⫺.10ⴱ ⫺.00 .13ⴱ
Openness to experience .30ⴱ .22ⴱ .10ⴱ .27ⴱ
Conscientiousness .36ⴱ .30ⴱ .18ⴱ .49ⴱ
Extraversion .54ⴱ .37ⴱ .12ⴱ .47ⴱ
Agreeableness ⫺.11ⴱ .13ⴱ .24ⴱ ⫺.14ⴱ
Emotional stability .00 ⫺.04 .10ⴱ .05
AFF-MTL ⫺.22ⴱ
SN-MTL ⫺.11ⴱ
NC-MTL ⫺.01
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Note. Standardized path coefficients (␤s) are presented. N ⫽ 1,030. AFF-MTL ⫽ Affective-Identity MTL;
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

SN-MTL ⫽ Social-Normative MTL; NC-MTL ⫽ Noncalculative MTL.

ⴱ
p ⬍ .05.

means, we provide support for the contention that MTL should be Beyond these main effects, the current meta-analysis evaluated
conceptualized as three separate motivational constructs. Just as whether AFF-MTL out performed SN- and NC-MTL as a predic-
was done for the organizational justice (Colquitt, 2001), organiza- tor of leader outcomes. In general, AFF-, SN-, and NC-MTL each
tional commitment (Dunham, Grube, & Castañeda, 1994), and exhibited similar relationships with leader emergence, behaviors,
workplace deviance (Berry et al., 2007) literatures, we believe and effectiveness. However, a relative importance analysis re-
confirming the distinctiveness of MTL is vital for shaping this vealed that upon simultaneously comparing the three MTL types,
literature going forward. AFF-MTL accounted for the majority of variance in many of the
Contribution 2: Clarifying how the three MTL types influ- outcomes studied (i.e., leader emergence, transformational leader-
ence leadership outcomes. Through conducting our review, it ship, laissez faire leadership, and leader effectiveness). The rela-
became evident that the focus within the MTL literature has been tively greater predictive power of AFF-MTL in comparison to SN-
on identifying antecedents, leaving the connection between MTL and NC-MTL is particularly notable because it is common for
and leader outcomes less well established. Although Chan and researchers to use a subset of the MTL types (the current review
Drasgow (2001) concluded that individuals with higher levels of found that of those studies using the Chan and Drasgow measure,
MTL may be seen as having more leader potential, they did not 40% examined a subset of the three MTL dimensions).
explicitly examine whether people were more likely to emerge into Given the aforementioned findings that the three MTL types
leader roles nor did they assume that MTL facilitates effective exhibit a similar pattern of relationships with leader outcomes and
leadership. As a consequence, it was unclear whether the three AFF-MTL explains the greatest amount of unique variance in
MTL types were useful predictors of leadership emergence, be- leadership (with the exception of SN-MTL explaining the greatest
haviors, and effectiveness. Our meta-analysis clarified this issue amount of unique variance in transactional leadership)—we draw
by showing that the three MTL types positively predicted leader the general conclusion that in some cases it is likely appropriate to
emergence and transformational leadership, and negatively pre- focus on AFF-MTL. We do not want to imply, however, that
dicted laissez-faire leadership. AFF-MTL also positively predicted researchers should stop measuring SN- or NC-MTL— especially
leadership effectiveness, whereas SN-MTL exhibited a positive because each had different patterns of antecedents and each ex-
relationship with transactional leadership. plained unique variance in the leader outcomes (especially lead-

Table 6
Effect Decomposition for the Three Types of Motivation to Lead Predicting Leader Emergence

Indirect effect (IV ¡ AFF-MTL ¡ Indirect effect (IV ¡ SN-MTL ¡ Indirect effect (IV ¡ NC-MTL ¡
Independent variable Leader emergence) Leader emergence) Leader emergence)

Gender ⫺.02ⴱ (⫺.01, ⫺.03) ⫺.01ⴱ (⫺.01, ⫺.03) .00 (⫺.00, .01)
Cognitive ability ⫺.00 (⫺.01, .01) .01 (.00, .02) .00 (⫺.00, .00)
Openness to experience ⫺.07ⴱ (⫺.04, ⫺.09) ⫺.02ⴱ (⫺.01, ⫺.04) ⫺.00 (⫺.01, .01)
Conscientiousness ⫺.08ⴱ (⫺.05, ⫺.11) ⫺.03ⴱ (⫺.02, ⫺.05) ⫺.00 (⫺.01, .01)
Extraversion ⫺.12ⴱ (⫺.08, ⫺.16) ⫺.04ⴱ (⫺.02, ⫺.06) ⫺.00 (⫺.01, .01)
Agreeableness .02ⴱ (.01, .04) ⫺.01ⴱ (⫺.01, ⫺.03) ⫺.00 (⫺.02, .01)
Emotional stability .00 (⫺.01, .01) .00 (⫺.00, .01) ⫺.00 (⫺.01, .01)
Note. Standardized path coefficients (␤s) are presented. N ⫽ 1,030. Monte Carlo 95% confidence intervals used to test the significance of the indirect
effects are reported in parentheses. AFF-MTL ⫽ Affective-Identity MTL; SN-MTL ⫽ Social-Normative MTL; NC-MTL ⫽ Noncalculative MTL.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05.
 MOTIVATION TO LEAD 345

Table 7
Path Coefficients for the Theoretical Process Model Predicting Leader Effectiveness

IV ¡ Leader IV ¡ IV ¡ IV ¡ IV ¡ Transformational IV ¡ Leader effectiveness

Independent variable self-efficacy AFF-MTL SN-MTL NC-MTL leadership (direct unmediated effect)

Gender .08ⴱ .04 .12ⴱ ⫺.08 ⫺.11ⴱ .06

Cognitive ability ⫺.08ⴱ .04 ⫺.09 ⫺.01 .21ⴱ ⫺.08ⴱ
Openness to experience .28ⴱ .15ⴱ .16ⴱ .09 ⫺.08 .31ⴱ
Conscientiousness .26ⴱ .23ⴱ .25ⴱ .17ⴱ ⫺.08 .43ⴱ
Extraversion .28ⴱ .39ⴱ .31ⴱ .10 .01 .32ⴱ
Agreeableness .06 ⫺.13ⴱ .12ⴱ .24ⴱ ⫺.03 ⫺.02
Emotional stability .07 ⫺.02 ⫺.05 .11ⴱ .03 .10ⴱ
Past leader experience .30ⴱ .07 ⫺.02 .12ⴱ ⫺.40ⴱ .39ⴱ
Leader self-efficacy .35ⴱ .18ⴱ ⫺.07 .48ⴱ ⫺.58ⴱ
AFF-MTL .12 ⫺.06ⴱ
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SN-MTL .13ⴱ ⫺.14ⴱ

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

NC-MTL .21ⴱ ⫺.29ⴱ

Transformational leadership .84ⴱ
Note. Standardized path coefficients (␤s) are presented. N ⫽ 347. AFF-MTL ⫽ Affective-Identity MTL; SN-MTL ⫽ Social-Normative MTL;
NC-MTL ⫽ Noncalculative MTL.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05.

ership behaviors). Instead, we seek to highlight the comparative diary variables between several leader attributes and effectiveness,
benefits of the dimensions and suggest that theory should guide but we were surprised to find that being motivated to lead out of
decisions about what type(s) of MTL to measure. enjoyment (AFF-MTL) did not mediate the relationship between
As a starting point, given our finding that both AFF- and leader attributes and effectiveness. Further, consistent with DeRue
SN-MTL have agentic features—it may be appropriate to focus on and colleagues (2011) model we expected that MTL would affect
these MTL types when studying contexts or outcomes that empha- leader behaviors and subsequently effectiveness, but we found that
size agency. In particular, scholarship on AFF- and SN-MTL may SN-MTL primarily served as a direct mediator, whereas NC-MTL
be well suited in ‘western’ (or individualistic societies), in jobs/ operated directly and through transformational leadership. These
industries that are historically male-dominated (e.g., engineers, results raise interesting questions about how motivation influences
mechanics), or when the outcome of interest is task-related (e.g., leader effectiveness, and we encourage additional research into the
initiating structure behaviors). Further, because SN and NC-MTL behaviors (e.g., task- and relationship-oriented behaviors) that
have communal features—these two MTL types may be more connect MTL with effective leadership behavior. In sum, we
theoretically relevant to evaluate when the context or outcomes of conclude that SN-MTL appears to be particularly important for
interest are oriented toward communion. For instance, researchers explaining why personality traits (e.g., extraversion, conscien-
may find greater relevance for SN- and NC-MTL in ‘eastern’ or tiousness) relate to both emergence and effectiveness, whereas
collectivistic societies, jobs/industries that place importance on AFF-MTL helps to explain leader emergence and NC-MTL helps
giving back to the community and behaving in ways that are to explain leader effectiveness.
socially responsible (e.g., social workers, nurses), and when the These findings have implications for both the motivation and
outcome of interest has a greater relational or other-oriented focus leadership literatures. To date, neither of these literatures appear to
(e.g., servant leadership). Altogether, we encourage continued have “claimed” MTL as an important and meaningful construct.
research on how the three MTL types impact a host of outcomes For instance, past integrative reviews of leadership have predom-
related to leadership. inately focused on integrating distal leader attributes (e.g., the Big
Contribution 3: Evaluating the distal-proximal model of Five traits) and behaviors (e.g., transformational leadership)—
motivation and leadership. To further establish the importance while only briefly mentioning MTL in the discussion section as a
of MTL within the broader leadership literature, we performed variable that deserves additional attention (e.g., DeRue et al., 2011;
meta-analytic path analyses to assess whether the MTL types Meuser et al., 2016). Likewise, in the motivation literature, re-
explain why distal individual differences predict leader emergence searchers generally focus on how leaders motivate followers rather
and effectiveness. In general, our findings provided partial support than how they themselves are motivated to lead. Because our study
for the integrated trait and behavioral perspective of leadership provided evidence that MTL plays a role in the leader emergence
(DeRue et al., 2011), as well as Kanfer’s (1990) distal-proximal and effectiveness processes, we contend that future leadership
framework of motivation. That is, leadership motives stemming research should more explicitly account for motives when studying
from pure enjoyment (AFF-MTL) and being motivated to lead out leadership.
of obligation (SN-MTL) partially explained why people emerged At the same time, we would also like to highlight that motiva-
as leaders. However, being motivated to lead out of selflessness tion has an unexpectedly complex role in the leadership process.
(NC-MTL) did not serve as a pathway through which leader Specifically, although the zero-order correlations for leader emer-
attributes influenced leadership emergence. gence/effectiveness’ association with (a) the Big Five traits and (b)
Regarding leadership effectiveness, motives stemming from ob- the three MTL types were positive, our mediation analyses showed
ligation (SN-MTL) and selflessness (NC-MTL) served as interme- that the indirect effects of the distal antecedents on leader emer-
 346 BADURA, GRIJALVA, GALVIN, OWENS, AND JOSEPH

gence/effectiveness were negative for extraversion, openness, and

Affective-Identity MTL; SN-MTL ⫽ Social-Normative MTL; NC-MTL ⫽ Noncalculative MTL; LSE ⫽ Leadership Self-Efficacy; TFL ⫽ Transformational Leadership; Leff ⫽ Leader Effectiveness.
Note. N ⫽ 347. Standardized path coefficients (␤s) are presented. Monte Carlo 95% confidence intervals used to test the significance of the indirect effects are reported in parentheses. AFF-MTL ⫽
⫺.09ⴱ (⫺.01, ⫺.18)

⫺.17ⴱ (⫺.12, ⫺.23) ⫺.34ⴱ (⫺.23, ⫺.44)

⫺.16ⴱ (⫺.11, ⫺.22) ⫺.07 (.01, ⫺.15)
⫺.15 (⫺.10, ⫺.21) ⫺.07 (⫺.17, .02)
.01 (⫺.09, .11)
⫺.03 (⫺.11, .06)
.03 (⫺.06, .11)
(IV ¡ TFL ¡

.18ⴱ (.09, .26)

conscientiousness. These results are an example of what Tzelgov

Leff)
and Henik (1991) refer to as negative suppression—a situation
where variables that have positive correlations with a criterion
Indirect effects not involving MTL
receive negative ␤ weights in multiple regression (see also Dar-

⫺.16ⴱ (⫺.11, ⫺.22)

lington, 1968). Notably, Judge and colleagues (2007, 2009) argue

⫺.05 (⫺.09, .00)

⫺.03 (⫺.08, .01)

⫺.04 (⫺.09, .01)
(IV ¡ LSE ¡

.05 (.00, .09)

Leff) that extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness are complex
attributes with both positive and negative features, which may help
to explain the negative suppression observed in our path model.
ⴱ Altogether, our findings indicate that traits often viewed as posi-
⫺.03 (⫺.00, ⫺.07)

tive for leaders may have a darker side that operates through one’s
(IV ¡ LSE ¡

.02 (⫺.01, .06)

.03 (⫺.00, .06)
TFL ¡ Leff)

.03 (.00, .07)

.11ⴱ (.07, .16)

.10ⴱ (.06, .15)
.11ⴱ (.07, .16)

.12ⴱ (.08, .17)

MTL (and that the positive aspects of openness, extraversion, and
conscientiousness may operate through other mechanisms includ-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

ing leadership self-efficacy and transformational leadership). Be-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

cause finding that MTL explained the darker side of distal ante-
⫺.05ⴱ (⫺.02, ⫺.09)

⫺.07ⴱ (⫺.04, ⫺.10)

⫺.03 (⫺.00, ⫺.06)
⫺.03 (⫺.07, ⫺.00)

cedents was inconsistent with logic proposed in past theory (Chan

(IV ¡ MTL ¡

.02 (⫺.00, .05)

.00 (⫺.03, .03)
⫺.03 (⫺.06, .01)

⫺.03 (⫺.07, .01)

& Drasgow, 2001; DeRue et al., 2011; Kanfer, 1992), we encour-

Leff)

age future scholars to further investigate what it is about MTL that

Indirect effects via NC-MTL

transmits these negative effects.

⫺.01 (⫺.04, .00)
.00 (⫺.02, .02)
.02 (⫺.00, .04)

.02 (⫺.00, .04)

.04 (⫺.00, .04)
(IV ¡ MTL ¡
TFL ¡ Leff)

.03ⴱ (.01, .06)

.02 (.00, .04)

.02 (.00, .05)

Limitations and Future Research Directions

Like any study, the current paper has some potential limitations.
First, although the sample sizes were generally large for each
(IV ¡ LSE ¡

analysis (ranging from 347 to 84,869 individuals) and allowed for

.00 (⫺.00, .00)
.00 (⫺.00, .00)
.00 (⫺.01, .00)
.00 (⫺.01, .00)
.00 (⫺.01, .00)
.00 (⫺.01, .00)
.00 (⫺.00, .00)
.00 (⫺.01, .00)
MTL ¡ TFL
¡ Leff)

greater generalizability and statistical power beyond the findings

typically reported in a primary study, the sample size was smaller
Effect Decomposition for the Three Types of Motivation to Lead Predicting Leader Effectiveness

than we would have liked for a few of the analyses. Second,

⫺.02ⴱ (⫺.01, ⫺.05)
⫺.04ⴱ (⫺.02, ⫺.06)
⫺.04ⴱ (⫺.02, ⫺.08)
⫺.02 (⫺.00, ⫺.04)

although we meta-analyzed 24 different correlates of MTL (19

(IV ¡ MTL ¡

⫺.02 (⫺.04, .00)

.01 (⫺.00, .03)

.01 (⫺.01, .02)

.00 (⫺.01, .02)

antecedents and five consequences), there are potentially important

Leff)

antecedents (for example, self-regulatory focus; Kark & Van Dijk,

Indirect effects via SN-MTL

2007) and consequences (for example, servant leadership; Liden,

Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2008) not included in this meta-
⫺.01 (⫺.03, .00)

⫺.01 (⫺.02, .01)

.00 (⫺.02, .01)
(IV ¡ MTL ¡

analysis because there were not enough primary studies. Thus,

TFL ¡ Leff)

.01 (.00, .03)

.02 (.00, .04)

.03 (.00, .06)
.03 (.00, .07)
.01 (.00, .03)

future research can continue to build the nomological network of

MTL with particular emphasis placed on examining a broader
array of antecedents and consequences.
Additionally, sufficient primary data were not available to esti-
(IV ¡ LSE ¡

.00 (⫺.00, .00)

.00 (⫺.00, .00)

.00 (⫺.00, .00)

.00 (⫺.00, .00)
MTL ¡ TFL

.01 (.00, .01)

.01 (.00, .01)
.01 (.00, .01)

.01 (.00, .01)

¡ Leff)

mate the relationship between certain antecedents and leadership

outcomes (e.g., the relationship between leadership self-efficacy
and leadership emergence). Therefore, our mediation analyses
included a subset of the predictors that have been examined in the
.00 (⫺.01, .00)
.00 (⫺.01, .00)
.02 (⫺.00, .04) ⫺.01 (⫺.03, .01)
.02 (⫺.00, .05) ⫺.01 (⫺.04, .01)
.04 (⫺.01, .09) ⫺.02 (⫺.06, .02)
.01 (⫺.00, .02)
.00 (⫺.00, .01)
.00 (⫺.02, .00)
(IV ¡ MTL ¡

MTL literature. That being said, our variable selection was driven
Leff)

by past theory (Chan & Drasgow, 2001; DeRue et al., 2011) and
Indirect effects via AFF-MTL

relatively expansive in that we included seven antecedents for

leader emergence and nine for leader effectiveness. We encourage
.00 (⫺.00, .02)
.00 (⫺.00, .02)

.00 (⫺.00, .01) ⫺.01 (⫺.03, .00)

.00 (⫺.01, .01)
.01 (⫺.00, .02)
MTL ¡ TFL (IV ¡ MTL ¡
TFL ¡ Leff)

future research to continue to explore how MTL mediates the

relationship between distal individual differences and leadership
outcomes.
We also note that there were several limitations of the meta-
(IV ¡ LSE ¡

.00 (⫺.00, .01)

.00 (⫺.01, .00)
.01 (⫺.00, .02)
.01 (⫺.00, .02)
.01 (⫺.00, .02)

.00 (⫺.00, .01)

.01 (⫺.00, .02)

analytic method. Although we would have liked to examine

¡ Leff)

whether (a) the MTL types moderate the relationships between the
distal antecedents and leader outcomes and (b) whether the three
MTL types interact to predict leader outcomes—we were unable to
Openness to experience
Independent variable

Past leader experience

evaluate these interactive effects because this kind of analysis

Emotional stability
Conscientiousness
Cognitive ability

typically requires access to an author’s raw data. Second, we were

Agreeableness

p ⬍ .05.
Extraversion

limited in the types of between study moderators that could be

Table 8

Gender

assessed because most of the primary data included in our meta-

analysis used heterogeneous samples (i.e., samples involved par-
ⴱ
 MOTIVATION TO LEAD 347

ticipants from many jobs and industries; for methodological mod- efficacy through facilitating opportunities for incremental suc-
erators results see Appendix D of online supplemental materials). cesses as a leader.
Given the limited empirical work examining the moderators of
MTL, we underscore the need for future MTL research to incor-
porate contextual factors—with a particular emphasis toward Conclusion
studying both between-individual moderators (for example, To further establish its place in the literature and inform future
whether MTL’s relationships are impacted by job [e.g., autonomy, directions, this meta-analysis sought to establish the distinctive-
contact with beneficiaries], organizational [e.g., company size, ness of the three MTL types and document the consequences of
firm growth rate], or cultural characteristics [e.g., power distance, MTL. Based on these efforts, we conclude that the three MTL
gender egalitarianism]) and within-individual moderators (for ex- types are meaningful components of the leadership emergence/
ample, whether AFF-MTL’s positive association with leader emer- effectiveness processes. We hope that our findings will serve as a
gence/effectiveness is strengthened when people have higher lev- catalyst spurring further theoretical elaboration and empirical ex-
els of SN- or NC-MTL). amination of the three MTL types across a variety of organiza-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Third, some of the individual studies used to test our meta- tional contexts.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

analytic path analysis relied on cross-sectional rather than longi-

tudinal designs and thus did not incorporate the temporal prece-
dence of the relationships depicted in our model. The reliance on References
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ⴱ
Waldman, D. A., Galvin, B. M., & Walumba, F. O. (2013). The devel-
opment of motivation to lead and leader role identity. Journal of Lead- Received July 2, 2017
ership & Organizational Studies, 20, 156 –168. http://dx.doi.org/10 Revision received June 3, 2019
.1177/1548051812457416 Accepted July 6, 2019 䡲

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