912488

research-article20202020
SMSXXX10.1177/2056305120912488Social Media <span class="symbol" cstyle="Mathematical">+</span> SocietyJiang and Ngien

Original Article

Social Media + Society

The Effects of Instagram Use, Social

April-June 2020: 1­–10 
© The Author(s) 2020
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DOI: 10.1177/2056305120912488
https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120912488

Anxiety: A Survey Study in Singapore journals.sagepub.com/home/sms

Shaohai Jiang and Annabel Ngien

Abstract
Social media have been growing rapidly during the past decade. However, it remains unclear whether social media make
people more emotionally healthy or less. This study aims to explore the effect of Instagram use on individuals’ social anxiety.
With a general basis of the three-stage model of interactive media use for health promotion, we conducted a cross-sectional
online survey study (N = 388) in the context of Singapore and empirically tested a mediation pathway linking Instagram use
to social anxiety. The results indicated that Instagram use did not directly increase social anxiety. Instead, social comparison,
a proximal outcome, and self-esteem, an intermediate outcome played mediating roles, supporting the complete mediation
effects. This finding provides important theoretical and practical implications for the design of health campaigns and education
in this digital era to enhance the positive effect of social media on health and emotional well-being.

Keywords
Instagram, social comparison, self-esteem, social anxiety, Singapore

Introduction activities in online interactions (Hampton et al., 2015).

Despite the concern about the negative effects of social
Today, social media have been increasingly used to connect media, in the current literature, there remains three important
with one another, consume news content, and share informa­ gaps. First, there is a lack of examination of mediating fac­
tion. In the United States, about 70% of the public have used tors underlying the relationship between social media use
social media (Pew Research Center, 2018). In Singapore, the and social anxiety. The focus on the direct effect ignores the
context of this study, a similar percentage was found. The complexity of how social media use influences emotional
Digital in a 2017 report found that 70% of Singaporeans use health. Street (2003) underscored the need to identify spe­
social media (A. Tan, 2017). The high adoption of social cific mediators that can influence the impact of interactive
media is especially important to Singapore, given that the media on health outcomes. Without looking at this under­
government’s “Smart Nation” initiative aims to utilize infor­ lying process, important media effects may be obscured.
mation communication technologies to improve living and Second, most studies have examined Facebook. As techno­
build a closer community among Singaporeans (Hoe, 2016). logical functions of social media have been evolving rapidly,
As highlighted by the Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee it is important to examine emerging social media platforms.
Hsien Loong, at the Smart Nation launch, social media offer Instagram is considered to be one of the fastest-growing
an ideal platform to keep in contact with family members, social media. As of April 2017, there were approximately
friends, and those whom we may not meet frequently (Smart 700 million users on Instagram (Zhan et al., 2018). A defin­
Nation and Digital Government Office, 2014). ing feature of Instagram is that it allows users to beautify
Congruent with the growth of social media use, there are
also increasing worries that social media might lead to social
anxiety in users (Jelenchick et al., 2013). Social anxiety is National University of Singapore, Singapore
one’s state of avoiding social interactions and appearing
Corresponding Author:
inhibited in such interactions with other people (Schlenker &
Shaohai Jiang, Department of Communications and New Media, National
Leary, 1982). Scholars indicated that social anxiety could University of Singapore, Blk AS6, #03-41, 11 Computing Drive, Singapore
arise from managing a large network of social media friends, 117416.
feeling jealous of their lives, and the “fear of missing out” on Email: [email protected]

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and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages
(https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
2 Social Media + Society

their photos by applying a range of enhancement filters. This feel socially anxious. Social comparison consists of people’s
function changed the way people present themselves online, biological inclination to evaluate their situation, skill, and
and the peer portrayal of idealized beauty may affect view­ overall identity in comparison to others, based on the infor­
ers’ emotional and psychological responses (Chua & Chang, mation they receive about others (Festinger, 1954). P. Gilbert
2016). Third, the large majority of prior research investi­ (2000) stated that upward social comparison (e.g., compar­
gated this research topic in the United States and Europe, ing with others who are perceived as better in a particular
with limited empirical evidence found in the context of aspect) might lead to increased social anxiety. Some people
Singapore. Singapore has a unique mixed culture, which is a rank lower than others, which could increase mental access
combination of the East and the West. On the one hand, eth­ to negative self-assessment and self-imagery during interac­
nic Chinese make up over 75% of Singapore’s population. tions with other people, resulting in greater social anxiety
Thus, Eastern culture has exerted significant impacts, such (Stein, 2015). Even downward social comparison (e.g., com­
as suppression of individuality to maintain harmonious paring oneself with others who are perceived to be inferior)
relationships in the social context, high power distance, could enhance one’s social anxiety. Antony et al. (2005)
and personal achievement through diligence and persever­ found that people with greater tendency toward either upward
ance (Leong et al., 2014). On the other hand, Western culture or downward social comparison were associated with greater
also has profound influences in Singapore. For example, concern about how one is being evaluated by others. Because
Singapore remains a largely Anglophone country, where of this concern, no matter whom they compare themselves
about 37% of residents cited English as their most-used lan­ with, they would make efforts to craft own behaviors to con­
guage at home (Bolton & Ng, 2014). Also, Singapore’s mod­ form to certain standards or norms (P. Gilbert, 2001). Over
ern administrative unit is a Western entity, originating in time, this excessive self-consciousness as a result of social
British colonialism (Ang & Stratton, 1995). In addition, comparison could lead to one’s perception of lack of social
young people in Singapore are frequent consumers of skills, and even fear of social interactions (American
Western movie and music (Fu, 2014). Psychiatric Association, 2013).
To fill the three abovementioned research gaps, this study Past empirical studies have documented the positive rela­
aims to conduct a survey in the context of Singapore to tionship between social comparison and social anxiety. For
investigate how Instagram use may affect individuals’ social example, Weeks et al. (2009) in a survey study found that
anxiety, by exploring its underlying working mechanisms. In social comparison was positively related to social interaction
doing so, we proposed our conceptual framework with a gen­ anxiety, as well as the fear of public scrutiny. Mitchell and
eral basis of the three-stage model of health promotion using Schmidt (2014) conducted an experiment and supported the
interactive media (Street, 2003; Street & Rimal, 1997). Stage causal relationship between comparison and social anxiety.
1 is implementation and use of interactive media, which Gregory and Peters (2017) concluded in their systematic
merges into Stage 2, user-media-message interaction. What review of cognitive behavioral therapy that beliefs relating to
unfolds during Stage 2 depends on the interplay of user, social comparisons played an important role in influencing
media, and message characteristics, such as users’ education social anxiety disorder.
level, health status, desire for information, media’s ease of On social media, people often selectively reveal them­
use, degree of interactivity, modalities, and message’s topic, selves and construct their preferred identities or characteris­
format, genre, readability, and credibility. The user-media- tics (e.g., emotions, personality traits, opinions; Vogel et al.,
message interaction can then lead to intermediate outcomes 2014). When users are notified about other people’s life
(e.g., motivation, knowledge, self-efficacy, attitude change, updates through social media postings, they would spontane­
and problem-solving skills), which in turn influence health ously and unintentionally practice social comparison (D. T.
outcomes at Stage 3 (e.g., health improvement, lifestyle Gilbert et al., 1995). Social media generates ubiquitous com­
change, and better emotional well-being). Specifically, in parison information and accessible feedback, such as the
this study, we argued that Instagram use might affect indi­ number of followers, likes, comments, and retweets. Such
viduals’ social anxiety indirectly, mediated by social com­ information allows people to form impressions of others
parison and self-esteem. The next section provides literature quickly. Compared with the offline setting, comparison
review to demonstrate the proposed mediation pathways. information on social media is more salient and visible
(Appel et al., 2016). In addition, social media support the
maintenance of one’s offline social networks as well as
Literature Review building new online social networks, which could strengthen
Path 1: Instagram Use to Social Comparison to the effect of social media use on social comparison (Gross &
Acquisti, 2005).
Social Anxiety Empirical evidence has been found regarding the positive
Social anxiety results from the personal evaluation of real or relationship between social media use and social compari­
imagined social situations (Schlenker & Leary, 1982). Prior son. For instance, de Vries and Kühne (2015) conducted a
research indicated that social comparison could make people survey study among young adults in the Netherlands, and
Jiang and Ngien 3

Figure 1.  Conceptual framework.

demonstrated that higher intensity of Facebook use was A couple of empirical studies illustrated the negative rela­
associated with more social comparison. A similar relation­ tionship between self-esteem and social anxiety. For instance,
ship was also found in a study of Instagram, demonstrating a survey study in Pakistan demonstrated that self-esteem
that social media can predict individual differences in social negatively predicted social anxiety, and this effect was stron­
comparison orientation and behavior (Stapleton et al., 2017). ger among males (Fatima et al., 2017). Another study con­
A systematic review of social media use in health care ducted in China also found that higher self-esteem was
showed that patients use social media to compare themselves correlated with lower social anxiety, highlighting that self-
with other patients to find out how “bad” their health condi­ esteem enhancement practice can be used as a preventive
tions are and how well the treatments work (Smailhodzic therapy to reduce social anxiety (J. Tan et al., 2016).
et al., 2016). Social comparison is argued to be a contributing factor to
In the light of the above, one pathway linking Instagram low self-esteem. Since idealistic information presented
use to social anxiety would likely be indirect, mediated by through social media has increased social comparison norms,
social comparison. Thus, the first hypothesis is proposed: the more time people spent on social media, the more likely
they would believe that others have better lives and are
happier and more successful, reducing their self-esteem
H1: Instagram use will have an indirect effect on social (Stapleton et al., 2017). Also, social comparison may result
anxiety, mediated by social comparison. in one believing that external conditions or socially approved
benchmarks are more important than internal and personal
Path 2: Instagram Use to Social Comparison to traits. As one perceives his or her inherent characteristics to
be less important in gaining social recognition, the sense of
Self-Esteem to Social Anxiety self-esteem will be lowered (J. B. White et al., 2006).
Self-esteem is a person’s positive or negative self-evaluation, Past studies offer ample support for the negative link
or the degree to which he or she believes oneself to be worth­ between social comparison and self-esteem. In a survey
while (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). Low self-esteem can study among college students, Vogel et al. (2014) found that
increase social anxiety for several reasons. First, individuals participants who scored higher on social comparison orienta­
with reduced self-esteem often have less interactions with tion experienced reduced self-esteem and poorer self-percep­
others, hindering the development of intimate or supportive tion balance. Another survey also showed that when people
relationships that are important for one’s well-being (Fatima perceived their social media friends as having better lives,
et al., 2017). Second, people with lower self-esteem tend to their self-reported self-esteem level was lower (Wang et al.,
depend on extrinsic social approval for a better sense of self. 2017). The existing research has mainly examined Facebook
They often perceive that they are looked down upon by oth­ use, while Instagram has some different technological fea­
ers, and interpret responses from others to be hostile, which tures that may increase users’ social comparison and its effect
could lead to increased social anxiety (Cuming & Rapee, on self-esteem. For example, with more options of enhance­
2010). Third, people suffering from low self-esteem are ment filters, Instagram users exhibit more tendency to select
prone to be self-victimizing and blaming others for their and exaggerate positive life scenarios than Facebook users
social failures, instead of taking responsibility for their per­ (Lup et al., 2015). Also, unlike Facebook that is more text-
sonal decisions. Such tendencies would cause avoidance of centered, where users often display their intellectual or liter­
people, unfamiliar contexts, and a general social detachment, ary finesse, Instagram is used mainly for photos and video
increasing the risks of social anxiety (Tracy & Robins, 2003). sharing. Visual content creates higher impression formation
4 Social Media + Society

by escalating social presence (Johnson & Knobloch- Table 1.  Descriptive Statistics.
Westerwick, 2016), and visuals are also easier to recall than
Variables N = 388
text-based information (Noldy et al., 1990). Thus, social
comparison and its effects on self-esteem become more M SD
salient on Instagram.
Age 33.80 13.84
As noted earlier, our second hypothesis related to another
Gender (being male)a 46.9%  
mediation pathway from Instagram use to social comparison, Education 5.52 0.95
to self-esteem, and finally to social anxiety, is put forth: Income 1.81 0.81
Instagram use 2.64 1.48
H2: Instagram use will have indirect effects on social Social comparison 3.08 0.71
anxiety, mediated by social comparison and self-esteem. Self-esteem 3.75 0.70
Social anxiety 2.12 0.77
In summary, as shown in Figure 1, this study tested a a
Represents a frequency for dichotomous variable.
mediation pathway that Instagram use increased social com­
parison, which in turn led to reduced self-esteem, which
finally resulted in greater social anxiety. with respect to what I have accomplished in life” and “I
always like to know what others in a similar situation would
do.” A five-point Likert-type scale was used, ranging from
Method 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree. These 11 items
were added up and then averaged (M = 3.08, SD = 0.71,
Sample
Cronbach’s alpha = .87).
These survey data were collected in July 2018 in Singapore. Self-esteem was assessed using the Rosenberg Self-
Convenience sampling was used. A weblink to the online Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). Respondents reported the
questionnaire was disseminated through social networking extent to which they agree with 10 statements of general
sites to recruit participants. Snowballing method was also feelings about themselves, on a five-point Likert-type scale
adopted to increase the sample size. The final sample con­ where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree. Sample
sists of 388 participants. In our sample, the average age was items include “I feel that I have a number of good qualities”
33.8 (ranging from 21 to 72), 46.9% were male, 75.3% had and “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.” The average
an annual income below $50,000, 78.1% had some college of the 10 items was created for data analysis (M = 3.75,
or have obtained college degrees. Details of descriptive sta­ SD = 0.70, Cronbach’s alpha = .89).
tistics are shown in Table 1. Despite the use of a convenience Social anxiety was measured by the Social Interaction
sample, our respondents’ average age and gender ratio gener­ Anxiety Scale-6 that has been widely used in prior research
ally fit with the Singaporean population. According to the (Mattick et al., 1989). Respondents were asked to identify
Department of Statistics Singapore (2019), the median age in their agreement with six statements on a five-point Likert-
the country is 40.8; 49% are males. However, the general type scale, ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly
population’s annual income level (medium = $53,000) is Agree. Sample items include, “I tense up if I meet an acquain­
higher than that of our sample, and the education level at the tance on the street,” and “I have difficulty making eye con­
population level (46.7% had some college or have obtained tact with others.” The mean for these six items was calculated
college degrees) is lower than that in our sample. Among the (M = 2.12, SD = 0.77, Cronbach’s alpha = .82).
388 respondents, 56.7% (N = 220) were Instagram users. Demographic variables include age, gender (1 = male,
0 = female), education (ranging from 1  = below primary
school to 6 = university or above), and personal annual
Measurement
income (ranging from 1  = 
below $20,000 to 3  = above
Instagram use was measured in terms of usage frequency, by $50,000), and are treated as control variables to reduce con­
one single item drawn from prior research (Lup et al., 2015; founding effects.
Vannucci et  al., 2017). Respondents first self-reported
whether they have Instagram accounts. If yes, they were
Statistical Analysis
asked to indicate on average how many minutes per day they
spend on Instagram. A six-point scale was adopted, ranging Path analysis with structural equation modeling (SEM) was
from 1 = less than 10 min to 6 = more than 180 min (M = 2.64, performed to investigate the proposed mediation pathways.
SD = 1.48). In the covariance structure analysis, maximum likelihood
Social comparison was measured by the Iowa-Netherlands of estimation was used. In SEM, the exogenous variables
Comparison Orientation Measure (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999). were control variables, while Instagram use, social com­
Respondents were required to rate the degree of agreement parison, self-esteem, and social anxiety were endogenous
on 11 items, such as “I often compare myself with others variables. Paths were drawn from exogenous variables to
Jiang and Ngien 5

Table 2.  Predictors of Endogenous Variables in SEM.

Effect Age Gender Education Income Instagram use Social comparison Self-esteem
Instagram use Direct −0.30*** −0.08 0.11 −0.01  
  Indirect NA NA NA NA  
Social comparison Direct −0.30*** 0.06 −0.05 −0.07 0.23***  
  Indirect −0.07** −0.02 0.03 −0.01 NA  
Self-esteem Direct 0.18* 0.10 0.22** 0.10 NA −0.22**  
  Indirect 0.08** −0.01 0.01 0.02 −0.05*** NA  
Social anxiety Direct −0.10 −0.04 −0.07 0.03 P 0.28*** −0.27***
  Indirect −0.17*** −0.01 −0.07* −0.05 0.08*** 0.06** NA

Note. Coefficients are standardized.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

all endogenous variables. In line with Figure 1, paths were Table 2, the relationship between social comparison and
also drawn from Instagram use to social comparison, from self-esteem was negative and significant (β = −.22, p < .01),
social comparison to self-esteem, from self-esteem to social and self-esteem also had a negative and significant effect
anxiety, and finally, from both Instagram use and social on social anxiety (β = −.27, p < .001). The bootstrapping
comparison to social anxiety. To examine the mediation approach offered support for this indirect pathway that
effects more closely, the PROCESS macro (Model 6 with involved two mediators (95% C = [0.0010, 0.0144]).
two mediators) was employed to generate bootstrapped Given that the direct path from Instagram use to social
confidence interval (CI) (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). When anxiety was insignificant, our finding demonstrated that
the lower and upper 95% CIs do not include zero, the medi­ social comparison and self-esteem completely mediated the
ation effects can be supported. effect of Instagram use on social anxiety.

Results Discussion
Hu and Bentler (1999) indicated that a good SEM model Instagram has been growing rapidly since its launch in 2010.
should achieve Comparative Fit Index (CFI)  ≥ 0.96, However, academic research related to this media platform
Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) ≤ 0.10, still remains limited (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017). Only a
and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation few studies investigated the effect of Instagram use on users’
(RMSEA) ≤0.06. Our initial SEM model failed to meet these emotional health status. This study has broken new ground in
criteria, as the RMSEA is larger than 0.06, χ2 (1) = 2.718, exploring the social mechanism that underlies the impact of
p = .099; RMSEA = 0.088 (90% CI = [0.000, 0.222]); Instagram use on social anxiety in the context of Singapore.
CFI = 0.990; and SRMR = 0.014. We found that only the path An important result pertains to the mediation effect of
from Instagram use on social anxiety was not significant social comparison. Our data revealed that more frequent
(β = −.03, p = .632). This results showed that Instagram use Instagram use was associated with a higher level of social
failed to directly influence social anxiety. Prior research sug­ comparison. Social media allow users to create personal pro­
gested that to seek a more parsimonious explanation for a files, and offer opportunities to get exposure to information
given phenomenon, non-significant paths can be trimmed about other people’s lives (Fardouly et al., 2015). As a photo
(McCoach, 2003). Thus, this insignificant path was pruned and video sharing social networking site, Instagram offers
to maintain a more parsimonious model. The pruned model abundant opportunity for self-presentation that may increase
had a satisfactory fit: χ2 (2) = 2.950, p = .229; RMSEA = 0.046 viewers’ social comparison (Yang et al., 2018). Also, it is
(90% CI = [0.000, 0.150]); CFI = 0.994; and SRMR = 0.014. common to keep public profiles on Instagram, which enables
H1 posited that social comparison mediated the effect of users to follow, view, like, and comment on people they do
Instagram use on social anxiety. This hypothesis was sup­ not know personally, including influencers and celebrities.
ported. As indicated in Table 2, Instagram use was positively And the use of hashtags can further drive social comparison,
related to social comparison (β = .23, p < .001), which in turn given that all photos with the hashtag are searchable, making
increased social anxiety (β = .28, p < .001). The bootstrapping it more accessible to a larger amount of people (Lup et al.,
method offered support for this mediation path (95% 2015).
CI = [0.0151, 0.0729]). Our results also showed that social comparison increased
H2 proposed another pathway from Instagram use to one’s social anxiety. Social media users often compare them­
social comparison, to self-esteem, and finally, to social anxi­ selves with others’ appearance, ability, popularity, and social
ety. This hypothesis was also supported. As displayed in skills (Feinstein et al., 2013). Such comparisons trigger
6 Social Media + Society

strong psychological responses, particularly when others emotional states (Street, 2003). Therefore, a general state­
selectively present more positive information (Yang & ment that social media use is associated with good or poor
Robinson, 2018). Instagram provides various filters to edit emotional health would be uninformative, because it fails to
and enhance photos, and the exposure to these idealized specify under what underlying mechanism social media can
images of others can activate negative emotions, contribut­ play a role.
ing to poor psychological well-being such as social anxiety Our finding that social comparison mediated the effect of
(Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2018). social media on social anxiety is particularly important to the
Also, the mediation effect of self-esteem is significant to context of Singapore. On the one hand, Singaporeans’ emo­
note. Our finding indicated that social comparison signifi­ tional health is concerning. According to a 2017 survey of
cantly decreased self-esteem. This result is consistent with students from 72 countries by the Organization for Economic
previous studies showing that individuals with higher social Cooperation and Development, 76% of respondents in
comparison orientation reported poorer self-perception, Singapore reported that they felt very anxious even if they
lower self-esteem, and more negative feelings (Jang et al., are well prepared for a test. This percentage is significantly
2016). The identity processing theory explains that social higher than the global average of 55% (Davie, 2017). In
comparison contributes to low self-esteem by prompting addition, the mental health for working adults in Singapore is
adoption of identity processing styles (Berzonsky, 1988, also problematic. The 2016 Working in Asia Survey showed
2008). For example, with the normative style, social com­ that 52% of Singaporean workers said that their stress level
parison increases awareness of certain salient norms (e.g., has gone up over the past 6 months, exceeding the percent­
beauty standard, correctness of opinion). When users per­ ages in other Asian countries such as Hong Kong (43%) and
ceive that they are different from the norms, they are likely to China (45%) (Siow, 2016). On the other hand, social com­
have a negative evaluation of themselves, which motivates parison tendency is more salient in Singapore than that in
them to make changes to follow expectations and values of Western countries. The Singaporean culture has a strong
the referent group. Also, with the diffuse-avoidant style, focus on material life and peer comparison (Chua & Chang,
social media users choose to ignore online voices, as a way 2016). Scholars found that this is a common phenomenon
to protect their self-images. However, such avoidance in the among Asian populations that sought more social compari­
long term would isolate people from online communities, sons, particularly with those perceived to be better (White &
lowering their self-esteem (Yang et al., 2018). Our study also Lehman, 2005). Wajda et al. (2008) contended that the dif­
found that lower self-esteem was associated with greater ference in the level of social comparison was rooted in the
social anxiety, a finding that echoes with prior research (de individualism–collectivism cultural difference. Individuals
Jong, 2002; Ritter et al., 2013). As one’s self-esteem falls, from Eastern societies, with a collectivist culture, are more
the person’s perceived inferiority may prompt negative navi­ apt to hold an interdependent view of self and others.
gation and interpretation of reactions from social networks, Therefore, an individual’s self-conception of his or her role,
and such perceived disapproving responses would increase function, and status might be a result of comparisons with
social anxiety (Heatherton & Wyland, 2003). McCarroll others.
et al. (2009) concluded that self-esteem is one factor that
accounts for individual differences in emotional states when Limitations and Future Research
interacting with others, with high self-esteem helping to
overcome negative feelings about reactions of others and
Directions
reducing the likelihood of negative social interactions. Despite these key findings, our study has several limitations.
Another crucial finding pertains to the insignificant direct First, the cross-sectional design made it hard to test causal
effect. Our results demonstrated that Instagram use failed to relationships. To confirm the causal directions, future
directly influence social anxiety. Instead, its impact was research should use longitudinal design. For example, stud­
completely mediated by social comparison and self-esteem. ies can collect data about social media use at Time 1, mediat­
This finding is generally in line with the core principle of the ing variables at Time 2, and finally social anxiety at Time 3.
three-stage model, and other derivative research (Jiang & Cross-lagged panel analysis can be used to ascertain the
Street, 2017; Street, 2003). The process of using social media directionality. Second, the study participants were recruited
is complex, involving users’ interactions with media plat­ from convenience samples, limiting the generalization of our
form and message content (Jung et al., 2016; Oh & Sundar, findings. A common problem associated with convenience
2015). In our study, Instagram use affects social anxiety, samples is the homogeneity of study participants. As illus­
through social comparison, which is considered as a user- trated in this study, our sample is skewed toward highly edu­
media-message interaction process. Specifically, when users cated people. Thus, readers need to be cautious not to
see other people’s beautified photos and videos (media fea­ overgeneralize the results to people with lower levels of edu­
ture), they would mentally compare themselves with what is cation. To overcome this limitation, future research should
shown in the photos and videos (message processing), and ideally use probability samples that cover a wider range
due to this process, social media can exert effects on users’ of study participants. Third, this study only measured the
Jiang and Ngien 7

frequency of Instagram use, using one single item. Future Practical Implications
research can focus on other operationalizations of this vari­
able (e.g., attention, diversity), and use multiple items to This study also offers significant practical implications.
enhance the reliability of measurement. Fourth, this study First, regarding social media users, particularly those with
only examined one mediation pathway. A variety of media­ greater inclination for social comparison, they should be
tors that tap into the user-media-message interaction process mindful of social media use and try to avoid frequently
can be at play as well. For example, degree of interactivity on comparing abilities and opinions with others. If they expe­
social media and the readability of online messages can rience unpleasant feelings resulting from social compari­
influence how users process information they see from social son, they should understand that other people’s online
media, which in turn, affects outcomes of interest. Therefore, self-presentation might only reflect a partial image. To
it should be noted that this study is exploratory in its nature. combat comparison-triggered emotions, social media users
Future studies can continue the investigation of mechanisms can also utilize cognitive reframing strategies, such as
underlying the effect of social media on health outcomes. viewing others’ triumphs or beautiful moments shared on
Finally, the use of Singapore sample in this study might limit social media as inspirations, or taking a step back to think
the generalizability of our findings to other countries, due to about their own strengths and achievements (Hobfoll,
different cultural and societal characteristics. Given the 2001).
increasing popularity of Instagram around the globe, we call Second, for health educators and promoters, enhancing
for more future research on its usage and impact in various emotional well-being is of significance. Our study demon­
cultural contexts. strated that improving self-esteem is an effective way to
reduce anxiety. Thus, we call for more targeted health
education programs to strengthen people’s sense of self-­
Theoretical Implications acceptance and facilitate a more optimistic attitude toward
Despite the limitations, this study has important theoretical themselves. These programs need strong partnerships
implications. First, this study incorporated the social com­ between health educators and communities. For example, a
parison perspective into the three-stage model. This offers a self-esteem intervention on school-age children in the
more comprehensive theoretical framework to explore how United States was based on the collaboration between health
interactive media use exerts health impact. Social compari­ centers and elementary schools. Health educators organized
son is considered as a user-message-media interaction pro­ a series of programs for participants to discuss examples
cess that explores how individual users cognitively process from age-appropriate magazines and television to identify
and elaborate the content (e.g., photos or video) seen from activities they can do at home and school to raise their self-
media (e.g., Instagram). esteem (Dalgas-Pelish, 2006).
Second, this study supports that the three-stage model, Third, for health communicators, it is crucial to imple­
which was proposed in Western societies, can be well applied ment campaigns to increase people’s self-esteem in the
to a different context. Our findings are in line with the basic digital era. A good example is the body positivity move­
tenet of the three-stage model, demonstrating that in spite of ment on Instagram. A group of Instagram influencers cele­
differences in economic, political, media, and cultural envi­ brated their bodies without using filters or strategic
ronment, the applicability of this model for understanding enhancement to fit societal ideals of body perfection; they
interactive media use and its effect on health outcomes can shared their photos and thoughts and created body-positive
be realized in the context of Singapore. This opens up a new hashtags to spread their messages (Cwynar-Horta, 2016).
research trajectory to applying the three-stage model in dif­ Campaigners can also circulate media articles, share stories
ferent cultural contexts. to foster self-love, and collaborate with popular reality TV
Third, this study also contributes to the social media lit­ shows to boost self-esteem.
erature by identifying a mediation pathway that includes Fourth, given the particular popularity of Instagram
proximal and intermediate outcomes, underlying the effect among younger populations (e.g., students in middle school,
of social media on emotion-related outcomes. It is important high school, and college), school educators should take some
to explore steps along the pathway from communication to responsibility to guide the appropriate use of Instagram to
more distal outcomes. To identify the social mechanisms, our enhance students’ emotional health. For example, schools
project highlights the need to situate social media use within can invite students and their parents for screenings of docu­
the context of social (e.g., social comparison) and personal mentaries such as “LIKE” and “Angst,” which explore social
(e.g., self-esteem) determinants of health. Future research media, technology, and anxiety. Also, many schools have
should continue exploring mediating factors by taking into used hashtags such as #examstress and #GramFam to help
account a broader context, such as technological, media, students through difficult revision and exam seasons. In
organizational, and political factors that may have subse­ addition, Instagram can serve as an online supportive envi­
quent health impacts. ronment where students can learn from their peers and sup­
port each other (Thompson, 2019).
8 Social Media + Society

Conclusion Cwynar-Horta, J. (2016). The commodification of the body positive

movement on Instagram. Stream: Inspiring Critical Thought,
Instagram has become one of the fastest-growing social 8, 36–56.
media platforms, particularly among younger populations. Dalgas-Pelish, P. (2006). Effects of a self-esteem intervention pro­
With its increasing popularity, many people are concerned gram on school-age children. Pediatric Nursing, 32, 341–348.
about whether Instagram might lead to greater emotional Davie, S. (2017, August 20). Singapore students suffer from high
burdens, such as stress and anxiety, or to better emotional levels of anxiety. The Straits Times. https://www.straitstimes.
well-being. This study examined how Instagram use could com/singapore/education/spore-students-suffer-from-high-
influence one’s social anxiety. Our findings showed that levels-of-anxiety-study
de Jong, P. J. (2002). Implicit self-esteem and social anxiety:
Instagram use alone would not directly increase social anxi­
Differential self-favouring effects in high and low anxious
ety. Instead, its effect was completely mediated by social individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 501–508.
comparison and self-esteem. Future research should con­ Department of Statistics Singapore. (2019). Singapore population.
tinue the investigation of mechanisms underlying the impacts https://www.singstat.gov.sg/modules/infographics/population
of social media on emotional well-being, and help health de Vries, D. A., & Kühne, R. (2015). Facebook and self-percep­
educators and campaigners design better programs to sup­ tion: Individual susceptibility to negative social comparison
port the public’s positive development of wellness in this on Facebook. Personality and Individual Differences, 86,
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Djafarova, E., & Rushworth, C. (2017). Exploring the credibility
Declaration of Conflicting Interests of online celebrities’ Instagram profiles in influencing the pur­
chase decisions of young female users. Computers in Human
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect Behavior, 68, 1–7.
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Fardouly, J., Diedrichs, P. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Halliwell, E.
(2015). Social comparisons on social media: The impact of
Funding Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author­ Body Image, 13, 38–45.
ship, and/or publication of this article. Fatima, M., Niazi, S., & Ghayas, S. (2017). Relationship between
self-esteem and social anxiety: Role of social connected­
ORCID iD ness as a mediator. Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, 15(2), 12–17.
Shaohai Jiang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8265-9778 Feinstein, B. A., Hershenberg, R., Bhatia, V., Latack, J. A.,
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33, 375–389.
White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J. C. (2006). Annabel Ngien (BA National University of Singapore) is a student
Frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and of communication at the National University of Singapore. Her
behaviors: The dark side of social comparisons. Journal of research interests include health communication, social media, and
Adult Development, 13, 36–44. emotional well-being.