CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Prof. Dr. Erdem ACAR

Outline
 Main structural elements of aircraft structures
 Function of structural elements
 Loads on aircraft
 Maneuvering and V-n diagrams
 Airworthiness
 Materials
 Basic structure types
• Monocoque vs Semi-monocoque
• Stiffeners
• Skin, rib, spar
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 Aircraft components

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Aircraft components

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 Main structural units on an aircraft

Fuselage

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 Wing

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Empennage

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 Powerplant

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Landing gear

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 Structural elements
 Most aircraft structures are made of thin-walled members.
 Minimum weight is required,
• So we aim to use the smallest thickness that can be tolerated.

 Some of these thin-walled members may be loaded in the

elastic range, whereas some other may be loaded in the
inelastic range.
• We have to make sure that these members behave well both in
elastic and inelastic range.

 Aircraft structural analysis involves determination of loads

acting on the structure, and the resulting stresses due to
these loads.

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Aircraft structural analysis

 In general, aircraft structural analysis proceeds as follows:
1. Distribution of the loads on the airframe (basic structure) is
determined (based on aerodynamic analysis) - External
loads.

2. Loads acting on sub-structures are structural details are

determined by using the external loads - Internal loads.

3. Initial size and shape of the structural elements are

determined (based on the internal loads).

4. Stresses on the structural elements are computed using

the internal loads.

5. Stresses are compared to the allowable values, and the

size and shape of the elements are revised if needed.

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 Aircraft structural design
 Main considerations in aircraft structural design:
a. The designed structural elements should be easy and cheap to
manufacture.
b. The structure should be strong enough.
c. The structure should be as light as possible.

 Typical design cycle looks like

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Loads on aircraft (1)

 Loads acting on different part of aircraft structure are
computed through a combined effort of Aerodynamics
discipline and Structures discipline related engineers.
 The loads imposed are:
• Flight loads – loads imposed during flight and maneuvers

• Ground loads – loads imposed during take-off, landing, taxiing

 All these loads can be classified into:

• Surface forces – loads that act on the
surface of the structure in a distributed or
concentrated manner

• Body forces – loads that act over the

volume (gravitational or inertial effects)
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 Loads on aircraft (2)
1. Air loads – the loads imposed due to air pressure
2. Take-off loads – the loads imposed during take-off
3. Landing loads – the loads imposed during landing
4. Engine loads – the loads imposed from engine
5. Weight and inertia loads – the loads due to weight and
maneuvers

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1. Air loads (1)

 Air loads – the loads imposed due to air pressure
• On wings
• On fuselage
• On tails (vertical / horizontal)
• On control surfaces (rudder, elevator, flap, aileron)

 Air pressure can be positive or negative

• Positive pressure acts towards the structure
• Negative pressure acts away from the structure. It is
also called suction.
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 1. Air loads (2)
 Pressure forces acting on a wing – a typical pressure
distribution is shown below

 Since a cambered airfoil restricts the net area through which air flows,
the air velocity on the upper and lower skin increases compared to the
free stream conditions.
 As the camber is higher on the upper skin, the velocity increases more
compared to the lower skin.
 Thus, we have suction on both sides.
 Since the suction is higher on the upper skin, the net effect is a lift
force upwards.
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1. Air loads (3)

 Drag forces also act on aircraft structures due to friction
and induced drag effect.

 The magnitude of air loads depends on

1
• Air density, L  ACL v 2
• Aerodynamic shape and surface area, 2
• Air speed, 1
• Angle of attack, etc. D   ACD v 2
2
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 2. Take-
Take-off loads
 When the aircraft is on ground, the aircraft is subject to
• Aerodynamic loads due to airspeed attained prior to take-off

• Ground load (reactions coming from the ground)

• Weight of the aircraft

• Acceleration loads (inertial loads while the aircraft is accelerated

to take-off speed)

 Besides, in case of a catapulting aircraft (unmanned or

piloted air vehicles that take-off from aircraft carriers), very
high inertial loads occurs.
• These loads are also accounted under inertial loads.

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3. Landing loads
 In landing, impact loads occur.
 They can sometimes be a very critical loading component.
• Very harsh landing may result in damage to the landing gears.

 Landing loads are transferred to the airframe through

landing gears.
 These loads are treated as dynamic loads.

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 4. Engine loads
 Thrust, the force that pulls the aircraft, is produced by the
engines.
 Engine thrust loads act on the connection regions of the
engine to the airframe.

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5. Weight and inertia loads (1)

 Weight of the aircraft, weight of the payloads, and the
inertia loads during acceleration/deceleration/maneuvers
are considered under this classification.

 In addition to the above main loads, there are also forces

generated due to control surface motion.

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 5. Weight and inertia loads (2)
 Ailerons generate rolling motion.
 Rudder generates yawing motion.
 Elevators generate pitching motion.

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Maneuvering and V-
V-n diagrams
 Under unaccelerated flight, L = W, and T = D.
 In case of acceleration or “g force” is imposed on the
structure, it puts a higher load on the structure than the 1g
force of steady level flight.
 Thus, the structure has to be designed to carry more loads
than the steady level flight loads.
• However, it should not be designed too strong, otherwise the
aircraft will be unnecessarily heavy.
 Load factor indicates the amount of the load that the
aircraft structure can carry
Maneuver force in a particular direction
Load factor 
Weight of the aircraft
L
• The normal load factor (in vertical direction): n 
W
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 Example: Pull-
Pull-up Maneuver
 Consider an airplane initially in straight level flight.
• L = W.
 If the angle of attack is increased,
Lift starts to increase. Since L>W,
the aircraft will arch upwards. The
flight path becomes curved in the
vertical plane with R (radius of turn).

v2
L  W cos   man  m
R
 v2 
for   0, L  W 1  
 gR 

The load factor (n) 25

V-n diagram
 V-n diagram is the aircraft operating envelope that ensures
that the design loads are not exceeded.
 The limits of the V-n diagram are obtained from
• Stall speed
• Dive speed
• Structural
failure regions

 V-n diagrams of
different classes of aircraft (transport, acrobatic) are different.
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 Airworthiness
 There are several authorities established.
 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in USA
• Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)
• FAR 25: Airworthiness Standards for Transport Category
– Subpart A: general notes
– Subpart B: flight related specifications
– Subpart C: structure related specifications
– Subpart D: design and construction related specifications
– Subpart E: powerplant related specifications
– Subpart F: systems related specifications
– Subpart G: operating limitations and information

 Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) in Europe

• Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR)
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An Example FAR
 FAR 25 – Subpart C – Structure – General
 FAR 25.303 – Factor of Safety
Unless otherwise specified, a factor of safety of
1.5 must be applied to the prescribed limit load
which are considered external loads on the
structure. When a loading condition is prescribed in
terms of ultimate loads, a factor of safety need not
be applied unless otherwise specified.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970]

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 Another FAR Example
 FAR 25.613 Material strength properties and material design values.
(a) Material strength properties must be based on enough tests of material
meeting approved specifications to establish design values on a statistical
basis.
(b) Material design values must be chosen to minimize the probability of
structural failures due to material variability. Except as provided in
paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section, compliance must be shown by
selecting material design values which assure material strength with the
following probability:
(1) Where applied loads are eventually distributed through a single member
within an assembly, the failure of which would result in loss of structural
integrity of the component, 99 percent probability with 95 percent
confidence.
(2) For redundant structure, in which the failure of individual elements
would result in applied loads being safely distributed to other load
carrying members, 90 percent probability with 95 percent confidence.
(c) The effects of environmental conditions, such as temperature and
moisture, on material design values used in an essential component or
structure must be considered where these effects are significant within the
airplane operating envelope.
(d) [Reserved]
(e) Greater material design values may be used if a “premium selection” of
the material is made in which a specimen of each individual item is tested
before use to determine that the actual strength properties of that
particular item will equal or exceed those used in design.
(f) Other material design values may be used if approved by the
Administrator. 29

Materials used in Airframe Construction

 The airframe materials have the following properties
• High strength to weight ratio
• Light weight
• Fatigue resistant
• Corrosion resistant
• Not flammable

 Examples
• Aluminum alloys
• Steel alloys
• Titanium alloys
• Magnesium alloys (Mg is 3 times lighter than Al)
• Composite materials

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 Composite Materials
 Composite materials are widely used in the Aircraft Industry.
 They allowed engineers to overcome obstacles that have been met
when using the materials individually.
 The constituent materials retain their identities in the composites and do
not dissolve or otherwise merge completely into each other.
 Together, the materials create a 'hybrid' material that has improved
structural properties.

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Basic structure types

 The main function of aircraft structural elements are:
• to transmit and resist applied loads
• to provide an aerodynamic shape
• to protect personnel, payload, and systems from environmental
conditions
 Most aircraft structures consists of
• Monocoque structures: panel type structures consisting of only shell
with no stiffeners
• Semi-monocoque structures: panel type structures consisting of
only shell with no stiffeners

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 Thin sheets
 In aircraft structures, thin sheets are used for covering and
also used to carry loads.
 Thin sheets are very efficient in resisting shear loads and
in-plane tension loads

 However, thin sheets are not very effective in out-of-plane

transverse loads and in-plane compression loads.

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Stiffeners
 Thin sheets must be stiffened by members (stiffeners) that
are capable of resisting compression loads and transverse
loads.

 Various types of stiffeners are used

• J-type (see above),
• I-type, Z-type, hat-type, box-type,
• etc.
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Internal structures of wing, tail & control surfaces
 Wings, horizontal and vertical tails and control surfaces all
essentially have similar internal structural details.
 Therefore, introducing a wing’s internal structure is enough
for our purpose.

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Skin, rib, spar

 Skin:
• serves as a cover for the internal structure,
• carries shear and normal stresses,
• stabilizes the stiffeners and spars.
 Ribs:
• are the forming elements of the structure of a wing,
• are perpendicular to the wing axis,
• distribute the concentrated loads due to engines,
landing gears, etc. to the rest of the structure.
 Spars:
• are the main beams inside the skin,
• resists bending and shear stresses.

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 Torque box
 The region between the front and rear spar is called torque box,
and it is the main load carrying region of the wing.
 The front spar is close to the ¼ chord line, and the rear spar is
close to the ¾ chord line.

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Why do we need a torque box?

 Shear stress is related to T/J.
 For a thin web, J is very small, so shear becomes very high.
 So, a single beam web is incapable of resisting torsion,
thus we need a torque box configuration to resist torsion.

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 Fuselage structure
 Compared to wings (tails, control surfaces, etc.), the
fuselage structure has different external shape and internal
structure.
 A fuselage body is essentially a
curved shell structure, which is
stiffened both longitudinally and
circumferentially.
 Aerodynamic loads on fuselage
skin are relatively low, but the
fuselage structure supports
large concentrated loads
• wing reactions
• tail plane reactions
• landing gear reactions
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Questions?

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