Lipids -A fatty acid is saturated if every possible bond is made with a

-Lipids are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds that are Hydrogen atom, such that there exist no C=C bonds.
insoluble in water and soluble in non-polar organic solvents. -Unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, do contain C=C
-They naturally occur in most plants, animals, microorganisms bonds. Monounsaturated fatty acids have one C=C bond, and
and are used as cell membrane components, energy storage polyunsaturated have more than one C=C bond.
molecules, insulation, and hormones.  
 Properties of Lipids Structure of Triglycerides
-Lipids may be either liquids or non-crystalline solids at room -Triglycerides are lipids consisting of one glycerol molecule
temperature. bonded with three fatty acid molecules.
-Pure fats and oils are colorless, odorless, and tasteless. -The bonds between the molecules are covalent and are
-They are energy-rich organic molecules called Ester bonds.
-Insoluble in water -They are formed during a condensation reaction.
-Soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, chloroform, acetone, -The charges are evenly distributed around the molecule so
benzene, etc. hydrogen bonds to not form with water molecules making them
-No ionic charges insoluble in water.
Solid triglycerols (Fats) have high proportions of saturated fatty  
acids. Classification (Types) of Lipids
Liquid triglycerols (Oils) have high proportions of unsaturated Lipids can be classified according to their hydrolysis products and
fatty acids. according to similarities in their molecular structures. Three
major subclasses are recognized:
Simple lipids
(a) Fats and oils which yield fatty acids and glycerol upon
hydrolysis.
(b) Waxes, which yield fatty acids and long-chain alcohols upon
hydrolysis.
 
Fats and Oils
-Both types of compounds are called triacylglycerols because they
are esters composed of three fatty acids joined to glycerol,
trihydroxy alcohol.
-The difference is on the basis of their physical states at room
 
temperature. It is customary to call a lipid a fat if it is solid at
Hydrolysis of triglycerols
25°C, and oil if it is a liquid at the same temperature.
Triglycerols like any other esters react with water to form their
-These differences in melting points reflect differences in the
carboxylic acid and alcohol– a process known as hydrolysis.
degree of unsaturation of the constituent fatty acids.
Saponification:
 
Triacylglycerols may be hydrolyzed by several procedures, the
Waxes
most common of which utilizes alkali or enzymes called lipases.
-Wax is an ester of long-chain alcohol (usually mono-hydroxy) and
Alkaline hydrolysis is termed saponification because one of the
a fatty acid.
products of the hydrolysis is a soap, generally sodium or
-The acids and alcohols normally found in waxes have chains of
potassium salts of fatty acids.
the order of 12-34 carbon atoms in length.
Hydrogenation
 
The carbon-carbon double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids can
Compound lipids
be hydrogenated by reacting with hydrogen to produce saturated
 
fatty acids.
(a) Phospholipids, which yield fatty acids, glycerol, amino alcohol
Halogenation
sphingosine, phosphoric acid and nitrogen-containing alcohol
Unsaturated fatty acids, whether they are free or combined as
upon hydrolysis.
esters in fats and oils, react with halogens by addition at the
They may
double bond(s). The reaction results in the decolorization of the
be glycerophospholipids or sphingophospholipid depending
halogen solution.
upon the alcohol group present (glycerol or sphingosine).
Rancidity:
 
The term rancid is applied to any fat or oil that develops a
(b) Glycolipids, which yield fatty acids, sphingosine or glycerol,
disagreeable odor. Hydrolysis and oxidation reactions are
and a carbohydrate upon hydrolysis.
responsible for causing rancidity. Oxidative rancidity occurs in
They may also
triacylglycerols containing unsaturated fatty acids.
be glyceroglycolipids or sphingoglycolipid depending upon the
Structure of Lipids
alcohol group present (glycerol or sphingosine).
-Lipids are made of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen,
 
but have a much lower proportion of water than other molecules
Derived lipids:
such as carbohydrates. 
Hydrolysis product of simple and compound lipids is called
-Unlike polysaccharides and proteins, lipids are not polymers—
derived lipids. They include fatty acid, glycerol, sphingosine and
they lack a repeating monomeric unit.
steroid derivatives.
-They are made from two molecules: Glycerol and Fatty Acids.
Steroid derivatives are phenanthrene structures that are quite
-A glycerol molecule is made up of three carbon atoms with a
different from lipids made up of fatty acids.
hydroxyl group attached to it and hydrogen atoms occupying the
 
remaining positions.
Functions
-Fatty acids consist of an acid group at one end of the molecule
It is established that lipids play extremely important roles in the
and a hydrocarbon chain, which is usually denoted by the letter
normal functions of a cell. Not only do lipids serve as highly
‘R’.
reduced storage forms of energy, but they also play an intimate
-They may be saturated or unsaturated.
role in the structure of cell membrane and organellar
membranes.  Lipids perform many functions, such as:
-Energy Storage
-Making Biological Membranes
-Insulation
-Protection e.g. protecting plant leaves from drying up
-Buoyancy
-Acting as hormones
-Acting as as the structural component of the body and provide
the hydrophobic barrier that permits partitioning of the aqueous
contents of the cell and subcellular structures.
-Lipids are major sources of energy in animals and high lipid-
containing seeds
-Activatiors of enzymes eg. glucose-6-phosphatase, stearyl CoA
desaturase and ω-monooxygenase, and β-hydroxybutyric
dehydrogenase (a mitochondrial enzyme) require The mainly lipid source of the liver is food. The lipids in food are
phosphatidylcholine micelles for activation mainly TG, and there are a small amount of PL and Ch. In the
small intestine, bile acids and pancreatic enzymes (including
LIPID METABOLISM pancreatic lipase, phospholipase A2, cholesterol esterase, etc.)
in bile hydrolyze lipids into free fatty acids (FFA), glycerol and
Lipid Metabolism and Enzymes Overview Fc. Then these molecules are absorbed by mucosal epithelial
cells of the small intestine (mainly jejunum), and are further
Lipid metabolism is the process that most of the fat ingested by esterified into TG, CE, etc. in intestinal epithelial cells. Finally,
the body is emulsified into small particles by bile and then the TG, Ch and PL with apolipoprotein compose of lipoprotein
lipase secreted by the pancreas and small intestine hydrolyzes chylomicron (CM) which will be absorbed by the lymphatic
the fatty acids in the fat into free fatty acids and system and hydrolyzed by lipoproteinase of vascular
monoglycerides. A small amount of fatty acids is completely endothelial cells to enter the liver. FFA can be converted into
hydrolyzed into glycerol and fatty acids. After hydrolysis these energy by oxidation in hepatocytes for the consumption, or re-
small molecules, such as glycerol, short-chain and medium- synthesize TG, PL and CE with 3-phosphoglycerate.
chain fatty acids, are absorbed into the blood by the small
intestine. After the absorption of monoglycerides and long- The mainly source of endogenous fatty acids is the fat stored in
chain fatty acids, triglycerides will be re-synthesized in small the body's adipose tissue. The fat in the fat cells is hydrolyzed
intestinal cells and along with phospholipids, cholesterol and into glycerol and fatty acids by the action of lipase. After being
proteins to form chylomicron which will enter the blood released into the blood, glycerol is dissolved in plasma while
circulation from the lymphatic system. The liver and pancreas fatty acids are combined with plasma albumin for transport. It
are important sites for lipid metabolism and play an important can be used as a source of energy or ingested by liver cells
role in the process of lipid digestion, absorption, synthesis, again. In addition, hepatocytes also can produce fatty acids
decomposition and transport. from the oxidation process of glucose and amino acids and
synthesize TG by acetyl-CoA in hepatocytes.
Lipids are a general term for fats and lipoids and their
derivatives . Fat is triglyceride, also known as triacylglycerol In addition to ingesting the exogenous cholesterol from food,
(TG); lipoids include phospholipids (PL), glycolipids; cholesterol liver cells also synthesize endogenous cholesterol. Hepatocyte
(Ch) includes free cholesterol (FC) and cholesterol ester (CE). In endoplasmic reticulum cholesterol biosynthesis involves more
normal people, the amount of lipids accounts for 25% of body than 30 enzymes, such as acetoacetyl CoA. Endogenously
weight, and most of them are stored in adipose tissue in the synthesized cholesterol and exogenous free cholesterol taken
form of triglycerides, which are variable lipids. Lipoid is the up by lipoprotein receptors must be transported through the
basic structure of the tissue, called basic or fixed fat, liver. The transport destinations are: (1) decomposition into
accounting for 5% of the total lipid content. The lipids present in primary bile acid and bile salts in the liver, then discharging into
various tissues are body fats, and the body fat stores huge the capillary bile duct and bile through the transport pump on
energy. When the body heat is insufficient, body fat can be the capillary bile duct; (2) free cholesterol and phospholipids
used for energy consumption. A small number of lipids present are directly excreted to the bile by multi-drug resistance
in the blood circulation are blood lipids which are mainly transporter (MDR); (3) cholesterol ester and free cholesterol
phospholipids, triglycerides, cholesterol, free fatty acids, and are converted to each other to form dynamic equilibrium. Free
trace amounts of fat-soluble vitamins and steroid hormones. cholesterol can be esterified into cholesterol ester by
Free fatty acids are mainly decomposed by TG in body fat and cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) and transported to the
then enter the blood circulation. peripheral circulation in the form of VLDL. Cholesterol esters
can be rapidly hydrolyzed to free cholesterol by cholesteryl
Lipids are insoluble in water, and lipids in plasma can only be ester hydrolase (CEH) as a precursor for the synthesis of bile
transported to the body throughout the blood cycle by binding acids; (4) VLDL consisting of apolipoproteins, phospholipids,
to proteins and becoming hydrophilic. Free fatty acids bind to etc. reverses into human blood circulation, reaching hepatic
albumin while the remaining lipids combine with globulin to stellate cells and steroid hormone secreting cells.
form lipoproteins. Lipoproteins containing more TG are with
low density, and those containing less TG have higher density.
According to the density of lipoproteins, plasma lipoproteins
can be divided into four categories: (1) chylomicrons (CM); (2)
very low density lipoprotein (VLDL); (3) low density lipoprotein
(LDL); 4) high density lipoprotein (HDL). After binding to lipids,
proteins take part in transporting lipids in plasma, so they are
called apolipoproteins.
Lipid Metabolism and Enzymes in Pancreas

Pancreatic lipase is mainly secreted by pancreatic acinar cells

and functions to digest the fat in the duodenum, including the
classic pancreatic triglyceride lipase (PTL), pancreatic lipase-
related protein 1 (PLRP1) and 2 (PLRP2), bile salt-stimulated
lipase (BSSL) and pancreatic phospholipase A2 (PLA2), etc.
There are 68% and 65% amino acid sequence homology
between PLRP1 and PLRP2 to PTL, respectively. The source of
pancreatic lipase is quite extensive. As the research progresses,
it has been reported that PLRP2 is also expressed in
lymphocytes and colonic epithelial cells, which are involved in
the inflammatory response and regulating the intestinal flora,
respectively. The mammary gland of some mammals including
humans, can secrete BSSL during lactation, which can be
supplied to infants through milk to participate in their early fat
digestion and absorption. It has also been found that BSSL is
expressed in other tissues including liver, inflammatory cells,
endothelial cells and platelets, suggesting that BSSL may be
involved in the process of inflammation, arteriosclerosis, etc.
These important pancreatic lipases participant in the digestion
of lipids (such as triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids),
so that dietary fat can be fully utilized.