NAME: SAIF ULLAH

PROGRAM: M.ED
ROLL NUMBER: CC605606
SEMESTER: AUTUMN 2020
ASSIGNMENT NO. 01
COURSE CODE NO. 0837

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 ‫بسم ہللا الرحمن الرحیم‬
Q.1 Explain expert opinion, rationality and magic as sources of knowledge.
To what extent they are useful now-a-days?

Ans: Expert opinion

Sometimes in search of knowledge one can take the testimony of experts who, because of
their intellect, training, expert experience or aptitudes, are better informed than other people.
Contacts and discussions with experts are also helpful to get knowledge. The participation of
researchers in conferences, seminars and workshops and listening to the learned experts are very
helpful in getting knowledge and locating research problems.

However, an effort must be made to find out whether the experts are recognized by other
authorities in the field and whether they are in a position to know the facts about the particular
problems under consideration.

Expert opinion is a source of truth claims. As bountiful a source as you’re interested in!
There are bumper crops of these just grown up or longstanding and still considered fresh,
bristling in thick sheaves and rows from and through innumerable fields, incessantly sown. Reap
away. What about validity, though?

Like any truth claim, the truth value of an expert claim can be evaluated by comparison
of claims to basics: where “basis” is reality. Wrinkle:
1. Only applies where claim’s specific basis is reality that obtrudes into one’s
experience or life, in a persistent form with features and aspects available for scrutiny.
2. …because outside that case, we’re talking about a truth that comes in nowhere. Nowhere
in one’s life or experience. Its truth or falsity is therefore irrelevant. Trivial. Doesn’t
pertain. Does not apply.
3. Expertise is reverse ad-hominem, any time someone makes as if personal features of the
speaker have any bearing on truth  of the statement. Truth value of an argument is utterly
unrelated to the speaker. The truth is in the case made, whether that same case was
spoken by a really precocious three-year old, a wizened and lauded sage of academia and
industry, or a gutter-bum trying to get us to listen. The only real assessment of truth value
is claims-to-basics direct comparison. Which as noted above, is in all trivial cases not
practicable.
4. So in the absence of real truth evaluation, say all we care about is making a guess as to
which persons seem more trustworthy or authoritative. Even then, expert credential or
reputation is only as strong or reliable as the organizations or persons awarding it. How
prestigious is that vetting process? Do you know? For human trustworthiness, our best
go-by in lieu of real-thing-truth would be in knowledge of this expert’s track record.
How their judgment and performance shines within it. That doesn’t mean they can’t pull
a boner in a given case, but for a trusty and upright expert, at least we can probably count
on them to retract it once the light shines in.

Rationality:

Rationalism is a system by which knowledge is gained by reason and not by experiencing

the world. It is also called metaphysics. It is a rational approach to knowledge of ultimate
causation and reality. It deals with the causes and principles of existing things, not with
experience.

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 Rationalism regards human reason as the only reliable guide to knowledge. Rationalists
do not believe that it is necessary to verify knowledge either by faith or experience. Finally
rationality can provide a valuable means of knowing.

Rationality is not a source of knowledge. It is a faculty of human reason by which

knowledge can be derived from reality, prized from testimony and reportage, and further refined
from prior settled knowledge. Threads pulled up and lose, broken and rest itched, grasps noted
false, weak, dialed in and flipped up, strengthened and refined to better grasps. Rationality’s
classic mode is: to break down in mind to all relevant elements, examine and scrutinize each in
part and relation, and build back up in mind to a whole better-understood, as a whole, and in
granular detail.

As such it’s no source of knowledge at all. It’s a cognitive processing option. It operates
on all incoming source via sensory stream, and it also operates to reopen, reassess, reexamine,
falsify, rectify and reconcile all throughout one’s current best knowledge store. Not a knowledge
source.

A knowledge factory and forge. And I suppose you can call that a “source” if you will,
but absolutely no knowledge comes from rationality, and no knowledge is ever finished
being put through it unless one’s a dope. So. Let it stand back and a bit above detached, and
superintend. This knowledge did not come from it. It just has done your best with it.

Magic:

Another way an individual can gain knowledge and control the world is through magic.
According to Craig (1985, P.6) whenever magic octurs in its unadulterated form it assumes that
in nature one event follows another, necessarily and invariably, without intervention. There are
two broad classes of magic. One is imitative magic and other is contagious.

In imitative magic people attempt to produce a desired effect by imitating that .effect. On
the other hand, contagious magic is based on associations between objects or events.

I don’t know what you mean. What sort of magic do you propose as a potential source of
knowledge? Source of wonder  sure, I getcha. Knowledge is not wonder though.

I will say in my experience magic is no source of knowledge. It’s interesting and curious
and a fun way to zoom boom the possible for the mind to wander ’round in suddenly flown and
blown-open scope, but none of what you glimpse or see to pursue in such mind-flung moments
ever comes from magic. It’s just something in the real dull solid-all-through world that you
missed seeing before. Quite this way.

Not a source of knowledge. Perhaps a whack on the skull-helm with a whiffle bat to
shake up the scope. Recalibrate the eyes. This is no more a source of knowledge than a stiff push
from behind, as you gaze in wonder at the wine-dark ocean invincibly strewn with infinite
blinding diamonds - shards of a sea-caught sun - caught in your eyes from atop the cliff as the
shove flies stiff and you plummet, undone.

It isn’t really knowledge at that point. I’d like to say it’s not even rational, but as a
skeptic inquiry suspense-of-judgment-monger, I probably need to know a bit more about it. Like
who did what to who and such.

Extent they are useful now-a-days:

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 Doubtless to say that the secret of our cultural development has been research, pushing
back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths, which in turn, lead to better ways of
doing things and better products. There is no alternative to truth and therefore, to research. To
research is to get nearer to truth.

Likewise, the human knowledge works at two levels. At the primary level it functions as
the basis of useful human activities, as when a teacher solves mathematical problems for the
students or as when a doctor uses his knowledge to cure diseases. At the secondary level,
knowledge is employed to obtain increments in the existing knowledge.

The activity that produces this new knowledge is known as research. All research is an
advance on existing frontiers of knowledge. It takes us beyond the frontiers of present
knowledge. Both are breaking fresh ground and improving existing knowledge and the proper
functions of research.

However, the research adds to the existing knowledge in an orderly way. This orderliness
is to be particularly emphasized. Mere aimless and confused grouping for new knowledge does
not stand for research. The knowledge which accrues from research is verified and verifiable by
anybody who may like to do so.

The process by which it has been derived is replicable i.e. it can be repeated and the
stated results confirmed. It is objective and capable of third party' verification.

However, people have always tried to understand, discuss, explain and control the things
and events around them. Sense perception, reason, tradition, authority, metaphysics, magic,
expert opinion, personal experience, deduction and Induction and science are among the system
that have been used to acquire the knowledge.

References:

1. https://www.quora.com/Explain-expert-opinion-rationality-and-magic-as-sources-of-
knowledge-To-what-extent-are-they-useful-nowadays
2. Craig,J.R. & Metze, L.P. (1985) Method of Psychology 2"Ed.).
California: Brooks

3. Kerlinger, F. N. (1983) Foundations of Behavioural Research (2

Ed.). Delhi: Surjeet Publications.

4. VanDalan, D. B. (1973) Understanding Educational Research

New York, McGraw Hill Book
Company.

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Q.2 Write key points of different aspects of research in your own
words.

Ans: Key points of different aspects of research:

The main goal of data sharing is that other researchers should be able to reuse the data.
Therefore, reusability should constantly be taken into account when designing systems that store
and create data. All parties working with research data should think about handling the data in a
way that makes it optimally usable downstream. We believe that data reuse could be optimized
by aligning the 10 aspects of research listed below. This pyramid – loosely modeled
on Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs – can be seen as an extension of the FAIR Data
Principles (data should be Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) and can function as
a roadmap for the development of better data management processes and systems throughout the
data lifecycle. We will discuss each aspect in turn.

1. Stored
The first step in the hierarchy of research needs is that research that have been acquired
need to be stored. At this moment, many research groups do not have clearly defined ways of
making sure their data are stored somewhere, making it difficult for researchers within and
outside the group to reuse the data for purposes other than the initial experiment. This problem is
increasingly recognized by research institutes and funders, who have introduced data
management plans to ensure that research groups define the ways to store their datasets before
their experiments. New technology such as electronic lab notebooks  is a viable option for
storing the observations and results of experiments. Both domain-specific and general data
repositories sometimes allow researchers to store their data without making these public, which
provides a good way for researchers to store their data for the duration of the research project.
2. Preserved
A closely related point is that data need to be preserved for the long term. Once research
data is stored, it then needs to be preserved in a format-independent manner or risk data
obsolescence. Information can only be valuable when it is in a format we can use, and few of us
have the time to dig through old archives to recover, reprocess and digitize data. Making sure
research data is archived correctly and will be saved for a long period of time is very important.
Fortunately, there are organizations, such as Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) in
the Netherlands that provide information about data preservation and an infrastructure for it.
Also, data repositories can play an important role here, especially when they have solid dark
archives in place, which guarantee that data will not be lost even if the data repository ceases to
exist.
3. Accessible
Even when data is stored and preserved, this does not necessarily mean it is
automatically accessible. Both researchers and machines may want to access the data, for
example, for meta-analyses or other kinds of re-use. Researchers are increasingly being required
by their institution or funder to make their data accessible, which has caused researchers to start
thinking about solutions. Luckily, there are a number of different ways researchers can make
their data accessible. They can do this either by depositing their data in a public repository, or by
using a data sharing system such as Mendeley Data, where researchers create private data
sharing spaces that can be opened to larger communities or the wider public.
4. Discoverable
Even if data are stored, preserved and in principle accessible, this is not very worthwhile
if the data cannot be discovered by others. Where finding scientific papers is now a very
straightforward process, this is not yet the case for research data. The discoverability of data can
be enhanced via the research article but also independently. Regarding the former, an important
way to make data more discoverable is to link articles to the data sets these articles are based on.
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Both Elsevier and other publishers support various mechanisms to set up such links, for instance,
through inclusion of data DOIs or data accession numbers, which automatically link to
associated data in public databases. In addition, recent funding proposals encourage the
development of data search engines to make data independently searchable; initiatives such as
the National Data Service and the Data Discovery Index aim to provide a data “discovery layer”
over research data. In a project co-funded by a National Science Foundation EAGER Grant,
Elsevier is working on a data search pilot with the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer
Science  to develop superior ways to access and query tabular content extracted from articles and
imported from research databases.
5. Citable
Data citations are very important for two reasons: they provide a way to track, record and
report on data submissions and reuse, and they ensure that researchers get credit for their work.
One of the barriers to data sharing has been that it requires extra work from researchers for little
reward. Data citations have the potential to change that because they can be easily incorporated
in the current reward system based on article citations. Therefore, researchers should think about
providing their data with a unique, persistent and resolvable ID, for which in some cases
accession numbers can be used. However, the best example of a unique persistent identifier is
the Digital Object Identifier, which both articles and data can be identified by. In
addition, FORCE 11 has developed a set of principles  to describe how data should be cited.
6. Comprehensible
To enable data to be reused, it needs to be clear which units of measurements were used, how the
data was collected and which abbreviations and parameters are used. Data provenance is crucial
for comprehension. Preferably, proper metadata are added right at the point of storing the data.
Which metadata need to be added will differ between disciplines, but the more elaborate the
metadata, the greater the comprehensibility will be. Publishers can help here, and several
publishers now publish dedicated data journals, such as Elsevier’s Data in Brief. In these data
journals, scientists can provide a thorough description of their datasets, which makes it easier for
other researchers to understand the data, process they used to capture the data, and anomalies in
the data (or in the capturing process) that a re-user of the data should be aware of, supporting
proper data reuse. For data published within the article, we have developed a suite of tools to
improve data comprehension such as in-article data visualizations, like interactive plots
7. Reviewed
While it is very common for research articles to be peer reviewed, this is still quite uncommon
for research data. However, it is an important step when it comes to quality control and
trustworthiness of data. Publishers can also play a role here because they have the procedures in
place to carry out
the review process. Peer review can make the difference between data that is just posted and data
that is published (and thus can be trusted). In many cases, datasets are shared by posting them
through the web, but data that have gone through the peer review process can be published.
When looking at current practices, there are different degrees of peer review. In other cases,
image data might be automatically checked for manipulation before inclusion in an article. In
still other cases, the data might be validated for having a proper description attached as metadata
– with which the data can be fully understood and re-used. In Elsevier’s Open Data Pilot,
reviewers are asked to check that the submitted files are raw data that can be parsed and are
commonly used within the relevant domain; for data journals, data are more thoroughly checked.
8. Reproducible
Reproducibility of research results is a big concern for science. To increase the credibility of
research results, a Reproducibility Initiative was introduced to validate (for a fee) key
experimental results via independent replication. Irreproducibility often originates from missing
elements to research data, which are needed in order to achieve the same research results. For
example resources (e.g., antibodies, model organisms, and software) reported in the biomedical
literature often lack sufficient detail to enable reproducibility or reuse. The Research Data
Alliance (RDA) also has an interest group to address reproducibility.

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9. Reusable
The key benefit for the wider research community of having research data being shared is
the ability to reuse this data. Only when research data is sufficiently trustworthy and
reproducible will other researchers re-use the data. This may be to enlarge a sample or to use
information in ways it may not originally have been intended for. It is therefore recommended to
allow for attaching a user license to datasets already at the very first step of data sharing: at the
time of storage and preservation. This will enable any user to clearly understand what they can
and cannot do with the data, and can also help ensure they give researchers and data creators the
appropriate credit. There are a variety of user license available with the most common ones
being Creative Commons. All the steps and initiatives described here should ultimately lead to
this goal: facilitating reuse to make research more reproducible and efficient.
10. Integrated
We believe that it is important to integrate these nine aspects of “highly effective research data.”
For instance, data should be preserved so that it can be reused. To be citable, it needs to be
accessible. But also, in building systems for data reuse or data citation, the practices of current
systems for storing and sharing data need to be taken into account. These nine layers and 10th
integration step are intended as a guiding principle by which research data management practices
can be ordered and checked, rather than as a prescription for perfect performance.
Reference
1. https://www.elsevier.com/connect/10-aspects-of-highly-effective-research-data

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Q.3 Describe in your own words the advantages of educational
research.
Ans: Advantages of educational research:
Educational research is considered to be a 'prominent key' which is essential to the
opening of new doors in education. Educational research must be squarely aimed at finding
solutions to unsolved problems, at creating ways and at devising, new media to meet certain
functional needs which have never been met before, at finding better process and content than
those currently in vogue. It cannot be simply library research'; it must be research and
development, tied to action.
Keeping this in view, effort has been made in this unit, to highlight the concept, need,
scope of research in education particularly in distance education.
It might be helpful to highlight some of the accepted connotations of research. These
includes.
1. Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized
tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a
problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem than
would be possible facts, analyses these critically, and reaches decisions based on the
actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of mere exercise of personal opinion. It
evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove something. It is
quantitative, seeking to know not only 'what' but 'how much', and measurement is
therefore, a central feature of it.
2. Research 'per se constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method
of critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating
hypothesis or suggested solution; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
3. The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method, interpreted in its
broader sense, to the solution of educational problems; conversely, any systematic study
designed to promote the development of education as a science can be considered
educational research. Best (1992) thinks, "Research is considered to be the more formal,
systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves
a more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal
record of procedures and a report of result or conclusions".
4. Moreover, research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks
questions which have not been asked, it seeks to answer them by following a fairly
definite procedure, is not a mere theorizing, rather it is an attempt to elicit facts and to
face them once they have assembled.
5. Research is also called a kind of human behavior. However, one definition of research
would be that which refers to the 'activity of collecting information in an orderly and
systematic fashion.. Research is literally speaking a kind of human behavior, and 'activity
in which people engage In education, teachers, administrators, scholars, or others engage
educational research when they systematically assemble information abou schools school
children, the social matrix in which a school system is determined, the characteristics of
the learner or the interaction between the school and pupils.
6. Educational research is normally considered as scientific research. The educational
research is meant here the whole of the efforts carried out by public or private bodies in
order to improve educational methods and educational activity in general whether
involving scientific research and a high level or more modest experiments concerning the
school system and educational methods.

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7. The Webster's International Dictionary proposes a very inclusive definition of research as
"careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; diligent investigation in
order to ascertain something",
8. D. Slesinger and M.Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as
"The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether the knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in the practice of an art".
9. While discussing the nature and significance of educational research some scholar say,
"Educational research is that activity which is directed towards development of a science
of behaviour in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide
knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by the most effective
methods".
10. Some scholars considered research as a process of developing process According to them
"Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be
derived partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of
opinion, historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests,
answers to questions, experimental data of any sort, and so forth. The final purpose of
educational research is to ascertain principles and develop procedures for use in the field
of education; therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The
mere collection and tabulation of facts is not research, though it may be preliminary to it
on even a part of thereof".
Educational research acquires the same general and natural characteristics as other
research. Educational research follows the scientific method of investigation. Its scope is,
however, restricted to educational issues. Its goal is to discover laws or generalizations
concerning educational issues with a view to making predictions, controlling events and
improving the quality of instruction and education.

Education research, therefore, should help the teachers, headmasters and supervisors to
narrow down the proverbial gap between theory and practice in education. Educational research
is not mere reporting, defining and stating amassing of facts. On the other hand, on the basis of
these activities, educational research should result in better education by providing better
development and formulation of instructional aims, better motivation of pupils, better teaching
methods, better evaluation and better supervision and administration.

Educational research involves a systematic and orderly study of the complex

relationships that constitute research activity. It is the study by scientific methods of the
educational process. It is, therefore, obvious that educational research does liut mean acceptance
of all the observations that have been presented. It implies a scientific enquiry in a definite
direction. Educational research is not merely a report of facts but it interests itself in facts about
facts of nature. Educational research should end at the discovery of new knowledge, either by
reopening the settled issues and offering new solution, or exploring new vistas of knowledge.

Decisions made on systematic research in education would surely save time, money,
energy and a lot of failure and frustration and show us the path of progress. Educational research
economizes effort, prevents wastages, increases efficiency and reacts to vitalize and dignify the
work of the teacher.
Knowledge gained by educational research is that of the highest order.
Knowledge gained by research is more authentic and valid than the knowledge based on
the evidence of tradition, learned authority and personal experience.

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 Educational research is "progress depending on experience, it is rightly, observed, is
accidental and slow, whereas research seeks to settle the question here, and now and avails itself
of experiment rather than experience. Moreover, research further analyses 'experience and trick
to synthesize 'tradition' and abstract forms like good teaching', 'creative activity'', etc, in a
scientific process, the contents and results of which can be used, verified and accepted or
corrected, if necessary by others.

References:
1. Sukhira, S.P., Mehrotra, P.V. & Elements of Educational Research (3 Ed.),
.Mehrotra, R.N. (1991) New Delhi: allied Publishers Limited.

2. Sidhu, K.S. (1987) Methodology of Research in Education

(2) Ed.), New Delhi: Sterling Publishers
Private Limited.

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Q.4 Describe action research in your own words. Why action
research is not much conducted in Pakistan?
Ans: Action research
The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order
to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions is called action research.

There is no doubt that research work done by professional students of educational

research is seldom noticed by the workers in the actual field of action. Now it is increasingly
being realized that the practitioners of education must be involved in research work. Action
research is a step ahead of common sense approach. A good teacher does not merely depend
upon tradition, or experience of others or recommendations of expert bodies. In action research
he is deliberately more systematic and scientific in dealing with the problem.

A useful definition of 'Action Research is the research a person conducts in order to

enable him to achieve his purposes more effectively. A teacher conducts action research to
improve his own teaching. A school administrator conducts action research to improve his
administrative behavior.

Some people differentiate action research from applied research in as much as the former
is confined to classroom situations and the latter probes into practical problems of greater
complexity and wider applicability.

There are eight aspects of the process of action research. These include the
following:
1. Self-dissatisfaction. The teacher feels dissatisfied with the situation.
2. Identification of the problem. The teacher pinpoints the problem. Defining the
problem.
3. Defining the problem. After identifying the problem, the teacher defines the
problem.
4. Problem analysis. The teacher then locates the causes of the weakness.
5. Action hypothesis. Action hypothesis is formed.
6. Use of tools. The teacher decides about the research tools to be used.
7. Action programme. The teacher works out the experiment.
8. Evaluation. The teacher finds out the difference in the result.
Moreover, the Action Research has the following advantages.
1. The person must improve if the problem is to be solved is active in the
changed process from the beginning.
2. Facts and evidences are stressed which keep the changed process anchored
more continuously to reality.
3. The approach is experimental and tentative rather than dogmatic.
4. An integral part of action research is the experiment which actually is
changed-evaluated.
5. Action research emphasizes a desirable decentralization of decision making
and action.
The main functions of action research in the field of distance education are:
1. Action research will powerfully and rapidly develop the technique of
teaching.
2. Action research assists in vitalizing and dignifying the work of the teacher.
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 3. Action research assists in developing professional experiences, openeyed and
open-minded scientific spirit of enquiry.
4. Action research assists in creating new interest and new confidence in the
ability of the individual teacher.

Sources of problems for Action Research are given below:

1. The first important source for locating and electing problems for an
experiment or project or research is the classroom itself. For example a
teacher who finds that the performance of the students in mathematics in his
class is poor. He may think that perhaps it is because of his method of
teaching which is not helpful in developing mathematical abilities or it is
because the students are not making use of the instructional material or it is
because the students of the class lack speed of calculations.
2. The second source for identifying problems for an experiment or research is
the staff meeting of the school.
3. The third source is the chairman of department or regional director who can
suggest student’s problems for enhancing the classroom efficiency.
4. The institution library seems to be an important source for locating problems
for research.
5. Sometimes the ministry of education or some national agencies dealing with
education throw out some new problems for experimenting in the institution,
e.g. a department may conduct an experiment to see whether the suggestive
activities in the new syllabus are effective to achieve the desired outcomes.
However, Action Research has the following drawbacks:
1. Action research is relatively of poor quality.
2. The applicability of the findings of action research to another school in the
event of teacher transfer is questionable.
3. The classroom teacher does not have enough time to conduct action research.

Action research is not much conducted in Pakistan

Over the years, numerous commentators have written about a lack of research in
Pakistan. The issue is discussed frequently in academic institutions too. In nearly all such
discussions, lack of funding and of adequate facilities are presented as the major reasons that
research has not been conducted in the country on a large enough scale.

To some extent I agree. Funds and facilities are indeed important. However, they are not
the only reasons for our failure to carry out good research. Lack of funding has become a
convenient generalization, no, an excuse for our failure to look at scientific problems from
various angles.

Research gives rise to curiosity and a desire to look for, and find, better solutions to our
everyday problems or better explanations for whatever happens around us.

Perhaps the single most significant impediment in Pakistan to research, and also quality
higher education, is the near-zero tolerance for dissent. We have in place a hierarchical system,
which operates at every level of society — at the home, school, college, university and
workplace.

As opposed to this, research thrives on discussion. It flourishes when various groups

freely discuss differing viewpoints. It is stifled when juniors are discouraged from speaking

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before their seniors. Unless we create an environment in our educational institutions that is
conducive to a free exchange of ideas, we simply cannot have meaningful research in Pakistan.

To be sure, even in the absence of such an environment we might have research, but it
would neither be original nor would it be addressing our people’s problems. In such
circumstances, there is a general tendency to stick to ‘safe’ topics, or to work in areas where
some research has already been carried out elsewhere.

In my 40 years of experience in higher education — in the public as well as private

institutions — one of the biggest problems I confronted was how to encourage students to think
independently. It would take months of persuasion before students would start airing their
opinions.

More than 100 students did their MPhil degrees — only six went on to doctorates —
from the department that I headed, yet most of them failed to become independent thinkers.

Subsequent promotions were based on seniority, not performance. They generally felt
that there was no further need for them to carry out research, as they only had to sit firmly in
their seats and they would become professors and heads of departments in time.

This places great responsibilities on the shoulders of senior academics, particularly heads
of departments and deans. But, above all, it is the duty of the vice-chancellors and other heads of
institutions to help create an environment in which students and junior faculty members are
encouraged to think independently, and to formulate and express their opinions irrespective of
the prevalent opinions around them.

This can be done by arranging seminars and debates on different topics and by setting up
journal clubs. A good teaching method is ‘problem-based learning’, which encourages students
to explore literature and to come up with answers themselves.

Now that the government is providing substantial research funds to public-sector

universities, a major hurdle has been removed. The step is long overdue and thus commendable.
It is now up to the universities to produce the desired results.

References:

1. https://www.scidev.net/global/opinions/why-pakistan-lags-behind-in-research/
2. Aggarwal, J.C. (1991) Educational Research: An Introduction,
New Delhi: Arya Book Depot.
3. Borg, W.R. (1987) Applying Educational Research: A Practica
Guide for Teachers (2nd Ed.), New York:
Longman.

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Q.5 Define historical research. Discuss the characteristics and significance
of historical research.

Ans: Historical research:

The use of historical sources and techniques in the field of educational research is known
as historical research method. Historical research justifies it when used to find out the solutions
of the present day problems on the basis of the experiences of the past.

However, the value of historical research in education is given as under:-

1. It inspires respect for sound scholarship and reverence for great teachers.
2. The history of education enables the educational worker to deter" fads and frills.
3. Past educational experiences may serve as a basis for tentative generalizations in
analyzing current educational issues and problems
4. The history of education enables the educational worker to view present educational
problems in the light of their origin and growth.

Historical research has certain characteristics which are given below:

1. It is based on reports of observations which cannot be repeated.

2. It is liable to be subjective.
3. In history, rational process of analysis and inference is verbalized.
4. Science predicts the future course of events, and history uses presen evidence to
retrodict the past.

There are three main steps involved in historical research. These include:
1. The collection of data through primary and secondary sources;
2. It involves internal and external criticism of the data collected;
3. Presentation of facts which involves problems of organization composition,
exposition and interpretation.

In collecting data of historical research, the sources are normally classifie into two main
categories - primary sources and secondary sources.

Primary sources are those original documents which are the first witnesses a fact.
However, some include information in the form of oral or written testimony or the records
written or preserved by actual participants or witnesses of an event. for example, charters,
official records, constitutions, court decisions, autobiographies, diaries, letters, pictures, films,
paintings, books and recordings etc. Other primary sources include remains or relics, tools,
wrapons, house-hold articles, cloths etc.

Secondary sources are sources of information transmitted by one who was not present on
the scene of the original event. He was neither a participant nor an eye witnesses of the original
event. In fact, information supplied is second hand. Most of the encyclopedias and history text
books come under the category of secondary sources. The secondary sources sometimes prove
very helpful as they provide information about primary sources.

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 Moreover, the historical report writing involve the mechanical problem of
documentation, the logical problem of selecting the topics, the logical problem of arrangement
of topics and sub-topics, and the philosophical problem of interpretation. However, the
following guidelines should be observed in historical research.

1. The primary sources should be used as extensively as possible.

2. Personal bias should not be allowed to influence research procedure.
3. Proper recognition should be given to the inter-relationship of education with other
social institutions and forces.
4. The significant facts must be distinguished from trivial or range facts in a situation.
5. The facts should be synthesized and integrated into meaningful generalizations.
6. Care should be taken in interpreting the words and expressions in the light of their
usage in earlier times.
However, the scope of historical research may be mentioned in the areas of biography,
history of institutions and organizations, development of ideas through the ages, sources and
influences, legal bases of education and bibliographical studies.

Characteristics and significance of historical research.

Some key Characteristics of Historical Research include studying past events and

historical information, analyzing evidence to verify accounts of past events, and collecting
information to support historical data. Aside from that, Historical Research is also a qualitative
technique in research. Further, included in the characteristics of historical research is that its
design is involved systematic investigation of past events so that it can deliver an accurate
account of past events. Moreover, historical researchers cannot manipulate variables unlike those
involved in experimental research.
Additional Characteristics of Historical Research

 Steps of Historical Research

1. Data collection
2. Data criticism
3. Presentation of facts
 Purpose of Historical Research
1. Verify history
2. Explain information
3. Learn from and understand historical accounts
 Sources Used in Historical Research
1. Primary Sources - data from individuals who were directly involved in the
historical account being studied
2. Secondary Sources - data from individuals who were not directly involved in the
historical account being studied.

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 Historical research design analyzing the past events and develops the present concept and
conclusion. Analyzing the previous information or events minutely and testing their validity.
The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from
the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. Describes what occurred in the
past. Depends upon data observed by other rather than investigator.
Characteristics Historical research involves the careful study and analysis of data about
past events. It is a critical investigation of events, their development, experiences of past. The
purpose is to gain a clearer understanding of the impact of past on present and future events
related to life process. Involves the review of written materials but may include oral
documentation as well.
Typically relies on available data which are in form of diaries, letters, newspaper, reports
and so on. It covers categories such as historical legal, documentary, bibliographical,
biographical, institutional, ideational and organizational. Important existing sources for nurse
researchers are hospital records, order sheets, nursing charts, physicians and care plan
statements

First step: data collection Comprehensive gathering of data is undertaken. Historical

sources of data are usually classified into two main categories: Primary sources: Primary sources
are firsthand information that include: Remains or relic associated with persons, groups, periods
or events. Fossils, skeletons, tools, weapons, utensils, clothing, furniture, pictures, painting,
coins and art objects are examples of remains that were not deliberately intended for use in
transmitting information or to be used as a record.

Second step: criticism of data • the second step necessitates a comprehensive review of
gathered materials. Christy (1975) describes the analytic process of document review as a two-
pronged activity. 1. External criticism: the establishment of validity by determining the
authenticity of the source. ? External criticism is covered basically with the authenticity and
genuineness of data. It primarily deals with data relating to form and appearance rather than
meaning of contents, while internal criticism weighs the testimony of document in relation to
truth.
The nurse ascertained that all the documents were original. First-hand oral and written
accounts were accepted as valid. 2. Internal criticism: the determination of reliability by
correctly interpreting the contents of the documents. The use of original, authentic sources;
awareness of one’s biases; the substantiation of the document in question by another
collaborating source are a few of the safeguards used to ensure that interpretations are correct.
To ensure reliability, the nurse examined each document to make sure that the meaning
of facts and statements was clearly understood. After authenticity of a historical document or
relic has been established, the next question is to establish the validity of its contents or to
determine the accuracy and value of the statement made. In performing internal criticism,
historians must make several determinations, which require historical knowledge beyond perusal
of the materials in question.
AREAS OF HISTORICAL STUDY 1. Periods: Historical studies focus on events and
developments that occurred during particular blocks of time in the past. Historical researcher
gives these periods of time names in order to allow the organization of ideas and classificatory
generalization to be used by these researchers, 2. Geographical location: particular geographical
locations can form the basis of historical study. For example: continents, countries and cities. 3.

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Military history: concentrates on the study of conflicts that have happened in human society.
This includes examining the wars, battles, military strategies, and weaponry.

References:

1. https://brainly.ph/question/2526553
2. https://www.slideshare.net/education4227/historical-research-
design#:~:text=Characteristics%20%EF%83%98%20Historical%20research
%20involves,events%20related%20to%20life%20process.

THE END

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