SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Module No. 5: Mass Relationships in Chemical Reaction

Time Frame: September 20-24, 2021

1. Overview
This module covers the Mass Relationships in Chemical Reaction which is also known as
stoichiometry. You will apply what you have learned from the previous modules about chemical reactions
and the mole concept. Your knowledge on the relationships among number of moles, molar mass, and the
number of particles can be used to see how a balanced chemical reaction communicates information about
the amount of reactants and products involved in a specific chemical reaction.

2. Most Essential Learning Competencies

 Construct mole or mass ratios for a reaction in order to calculate the amount of reactant
needed or amount of product formed in terms of moles or mass
 Explain the concept of limiting reagent in a chemical reaction
 Identify the excess reagent(s)
 Calculate percent yield and theoretical yield of the reaction
 (LAB) Determine mass relationship in a chemical reaction

3. Content / Discussion / Learning Resources / Links

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 1 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Activity 1: Motivation

If you want to make chocolate chip cookies, you need to have a recipe that you will
follow. A recipe tells you all the ingredients, including their exact amounts, necessary to
make a certain quantity of cookies. The table below shows you a recipe for making
chocolate chip cookies.

½cup of white sugar 2 ½ cups of all- purpose flour

1 cup packed brown sugar 1 teaspoon baking soda
1 teasponn vanilla extract 2 teaspoon salt
2 eggs 2 cups semisweet chocolate chips

You can use the recipe above to make 3 dozens of cookies. Based on the recipe, you will know the specific
amount of each ingredient that you will need. For example, how many eggs are needed to make 3 dozens of
cookies? Supposed you have 1 ½ cups of white sugar, how much brown sugar will you need? Or if you want
to make 9 dozens of cookies, how many cups of all-purpose flour are you going to use? You see, having a
recipe is very much helpful when you want to know how much of the ingredients you actually need even if
you change the amount final product you want to make.

Just like the chocolate chip cookies, chemists have recipes as well. Instead of calling them recipes, chemists
call them balanced chemical equations. Furthermore, instead of using cups and teaspoons, they use number
of moles. Lastly, instead of eggs, butter, sugar, etc. they use chemical compound as ingredients

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 2 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Lesson 5: Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry is the study of the relative quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction. The
word stoichiometry was derived from two Greek words “stoikhein” which means elements and “metron”
which means to measure. Taking two meaning together, stoichiometry literally means “to measure
elements”. In stoichiometry a balanced chemical equation is used as the basis for computing the amount of
reactants required to produce specific quantities of products.
Consider the chemical equation:

4NH3 + 5O2  6H2O + 4NO

There are several numbers involved. What do they all mean?

Recall that Chemical formulas represent numbers of atoms:

NH3 1 nitrogen and 3 hydrogen atoms

O2 2 oxygen atoms
H2 O 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom
NO 1 nitrogen atom and 1 oxygen atom

Recall that Chemical formulas have molar masses:

NH3 17 g/mol
O2 32 g/mol
H2 O 18 g/mol
NO 30 g/mol

Recall that Chemical formulas are balanced with coefficients:

4 x NH3 = 4 nitrogen + 12 hydrogen

5 x O2 = 10 oxygen
6 x H2 O = 12 hydrogen + 6 oxygen
4 x NO = 4 nitrogen + 4 oxygen

4NH3 + 5O2  6H2O + 4NO

With stoichiometry we find out that 4 : 5 : 6 : 4

4 : 5 : 6 : 4 are what we call a mole ratio.

Can mean either: 4 molecules of NH3 react with 5 molecules of O2 to produce 6 molecules of H2O
and 4 molecules of NO or 4 moles of NH3 react with 5 moles of O2 to produce 6 moles of H2O and
4 moles of NO

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 3 | Page

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SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 4 | Page

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1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 5 | Page

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1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 6 | Page

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SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 7 | Page

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SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Activity 2: Answer the following problems involving stoichiometry. Show complete solution.
Answers should be in 3 significant figures.

Given: 4 NH3 + 5 O2  6 H2O + 4 NO

1. How many moles of H2O can be made using 1.6 mol NH3?

2. What mass of NH3 is needed to make 0.75 mol NO?

3. How many grams of NO can be made from 47 g of NH3?

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 8 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Lesson 5.1: Limiting and Excess Reactants/ Reagents

Recall the recipe to make chocolate chip cookies. That recipe tells us the ingredients and their exact amounts
needed to prepare 3 dozens of cookies. Suppose the amount of ingredients are not exactly equal to the
amounts specified in the recipe, for example, there are six eggs and twice of everything else. Can you make 9
dozens of cookies? Of course not! Based on the recipe, six eggs are required to make 9 dozens of cookies but
the amount of all the other ingredients must be thrice the amount specified in the recipe in order for you to
make 9 dozens of cookies. In this case you will have extra eggs that will be left in making the cookies. The
amounts of the other ingredients limit the amount of cookies that can be made.

This observation can also happen in a chemical reaction. Rarely in actual chemical reactions are that
reactants present in the exact ratios specified by the balanced chemical equation. In general, one or more
reactants are present in excess and the takes place until all of one reactant is used up. The reactant that is
consumed first is called the limiting reactant. The amount of the limiting reagent limits the extent of the
reaction, and, thereby, determines the amount of product. The reactant left after the reaction, that is the
reactant that is not totally consumed, is called the excess reactant.

Fruits Available

4 servings of fruit salad

Fruits left

Which among the fruits above serves as the limiting reagent? How about the excess reagents?
The number of bananas limits the number of servings of fruit salad while 1 apple and 2 kiwis are left in
excess
Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 9 | Page
 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Chemical reactions can be viewed in the same way. Consider the reaction between nitrogen (N2) and
hydrogen (H2) to form ammonia (NH3). If for example, at the start of the reaction three N2 (6 Nitrogen) and
three H2 (6 Hydrogen) molecules are present, how many molecules of NH3 can be formed? You can visualize
that initially, all N2 and H2 molecules are separated into individual atoms.

3 nitrogen molecules 3 hydrogen molecules 2 ammonia molecules 2 nitrogen molecules

(6 nitrogen atoms) (6 hydrogen atoms) (4 nitrogen atoms)

The amount of NH3 produces is limited by the amount of H2 molecules present. Therefore, H2 is the limiting
reactant while N2 is the excess reactant.

Determining the amount of the product when a reactant is limiting

The amount of the product formed is based on the amount of the limiting reagent. Thus, if the amounts of
the reactants are given, you must first determine which of these reactants is the limiting reagent.

Sample Problem 1:
Tetraphosphorus decoxide (P4O10) is formed from the reaction between solid white phosphorus and
oxygen. If 25.0 g of phosphorus and 50.0 g of oxygen are initially used to formed P4O10:
a. Which is the limiting reactant and which is the excess reactant?
b. How many grams of P4O10 are produced?
c. How much of the excess reactant are left after the reaction?

Required:
You have to determine which between phosphorus and oxygen is the limiting reactant and excess reactant.
You also need to compute the amount of product based on the limiting reactant and the amount of excess
reactant left when the reaction is completed.
Given:
Mass of P4= 25.0g
Mass of O2=50.0 g

Strategy:
Step 1: Write a balanced equation for the reaction

P4 (s) + 5 O2 (g)  P4O10 (s)

Step 2: Determine which the limiting reactant is. To determine which between P4 and O2 is limiting,
compute the amount of P4O10 based on the amounts of P4 and O2 given. The reactant that will give the lower
amount of the product is the limiting reagent.

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 10 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

1 mol P4 1 mol P4 O10 284 g P4 O10

25.0 g P4 x
124 g P4 x 1 mol P4 x 57. 3 g P4O10
1 mol P4O10

1 mol O2 1 mol P4 O10 284 g P4 O10

50.0 g O2 x
32.0 g O2 x 5 mol O2 x = 88. 8 g P4O10
1 mol P4O10

Since the mass of P4O10 produced when all P4 is consumed is less than the mass when O2 is used, the
limiting reactant is P4 while the excess reactant is O2. The amount of product formed is based on the limiting
reactant, thus, 57. 3 g of P4O10 will be produced. When this amount of P4O10 is produced the reaction will
stop leaving an amount of the excess reactant, O2, unreacted.

Step 3: To know the amount of excess reagent left after the reaction, subtract the actual amount of the
excess reagent used from the initial amount given.

The amount of O2 that will react with the limiting reactant P4 is:
1 mol P4 5 mol O 32.0 g O2
25.0 g P4 x
124 g P4 𝑥 1 mol P2 x = 32.3 g O2
4 1 mol O2

The excess amount of O2 left is: 50.0 g – 32.3 g = 17.7 g excess O2

Sample Problem 2:

Acrylonitrile (C3H3N) is the starting material for the production of acrylic, a common synthetic fiber. This
compound prepared from the reaction between propylene (C 3H6) and nitrogen monoxide (NO) based on
the following balanced chemical reaction:
4 C3H6 + 6 NO  4 C3H3N + 6 H2O + N2

If 126 g of C3H6 and 175 g of NO were initially used, determine:

a. The limiting and excess reactants
b. The mass of acrylonitrile produced
c. The mass of excess reactant left

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 11 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022
Solution:
a. The mass of mass of C3H3N produced from C3H6:
1 mol C3H6 4 mol C3H3 N 53 g C3H3 N
126 g C3H6 x x = 159g C3H3N
42 g C3H6 4 mol C3H6 1 mol C3H3 N

The mass of C3H3N produced from NO:

1 mol NO 4 mol C3H3 𝑁 53 g C3H3 𝑁

175 g NO x 𝑥 x 1 mol C = 206 g C3H3N
30 g NO 6 mol NO 3H3 𝑁

Based on the above calculations, the limiting reagent is C3H6 and the excess reactant is NO

b. The mass of C3H3N produced is 159 g based on the limiting reactant C3H6
c. The mass of NO that is required to react with the limiting reactant is:

1 mol C3H6 6 mol NO 30 g NO

126 g C3H6 x x 𝑥 1 mol NO = 135g NO
42 g C3H6 4 mol C3H6

The excess mass of NO left is:

175 g- 135 g= 40.0 g NO left in excess

Activity 3: Answer the following problems involving limiting and excess reactant. Show complete solution.
Answers should be in 3 significant figures.

1. A mixture of 1.5 mol of Al and 3.0 mol of Cl2 are allowed to react. The balanced chemical equation
for the reaction is:
2 Al (s) + 3 Cl2 (g)  2AlCl3 (s)
a. What is the limiting reactant?
b. How many grams of AlCl3 are formed?

2. 2 moles of propane (C3H8) reacts with 8 moles of oxygen gas. The balanced chemical equation for
the reaction is:

C3H8 + 5 O2  3 CO2 + 4 H2O

a. How many moles of CO2 are formed?

b. How much of the excess reactant is left?

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 12 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Lesson 5.2: Percent yield and Theoretical yield

Suppose you were a basketball player who wants to improve in making three-point shots. You practice
every morning and one morning you were able to make 35 successful three-point shots out of 55 tries.
Theoretically, you could have been successful 55 times, but in reality, that usually does not happen. Your
efficiency in making three-point shots can be computed as percent.

35 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝑥 100 = 64% 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠
55 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠

The computed percentage, 64%, means that if you do 100 three-point shot attempts you could expect to be
successful 64 times.

The same computation applies when you want determine the success of a chemical reaction. When
chemical reactions are actually done in the lab, the amount of product produced are not equal to the
amount predicted by stoichiometric calculations. This is because not every reaction goes into completion.
In most cases, reaction stops before all the reactants are consumed, thus, the amount of product actually
formed is less than what is expected. This observation can be attributed to many factors such as the use of
impure reactants, loss of products during purification, and formation of products other than the ones
expected due to competing reactions.

The Percent Yield of a Chemical Reaction

So far you have practicing stoichiometric calculations wherein you obtain the amount of a product from a
given amount of reactant. In such calculations, you actually assume that the reactions go into completion,
thus, what you are getting are the theoretical yields of the reactions. The theoretical yield is the maximum
amount of product that can be produced from a given amount reactant. This amount is rarely produced
when you actually perform a chemical reaction in the lab. What you will get during an experiment is the
actual yield. The actual yield is the amount of product obtained when a reaction is carried out in an
experiment. The efficiency of a chemical reaction can be determined by the percent yield which is the ratio
of the actual yield to the theoretical yield multiplied by 100.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 13 | Page

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SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Sample problems

1. The reaction between potassium chromate (K 2CrO4) and silver nitrate (AgNO3) produces a red
precipitate of silver chromate (Ag2CrO4). Suppose you conduct this reaction in the lab by adding a
solution of K2CrO4 in a solution containing 0.150g AgNO3:

K2CrO4 (aq) + 2AgNO3 (aq)  Ag2CrO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

a. Calculate the theoretical yield of Ag2CrO4 precipitate

b. If you obtain 0.115 g of Ag2CrO4, what is the percent yield of the reaction?
Solution:

The theoretical yield of Ag2CrO4:

1 mol AgNO3 1 mol Ag2CrO4 332 g Ag2CrO4

0.150 g AgNO3 x x x = 0.146 g Ag 2 CrO4
170 g AgNO3 2 mol AgNO3 1 mol Ag2CrO4

0.115 g
Percent yield = x 100 = 78.8 %
0.146 g

2. 10.0g of Bromic Acid (HBrO3) is reacted with excess HBr according to the reaction:

HBrO3 (aq) + 5 HBr (aq)  3 H2O (l) + 3 Br2 (aq)

a. What is the theoretical yield of Br2 for this reaction?

b. If 22.3 g of Br2 is produced, what is the percentage yield of Br 2?
Solution:
1 mol HBrO3 3 mol Br2 160 g Br
a. 10.0g HBrO3 x x x 1 mol Br 2 = 37.2g Br2
129g HBrO3 1 mol HBrO3 2

22.3𝑔
b. Percent yield= 𝑥 100 = 59.9
37.2𝑔

Activity 4: Answer the given problem below. Show complete solution

1. 30g of propane (C3H8) burns in air to produce 70 g of CO2.

C3H8 + 5 O2  3 CO2 + 4 H2O

a. What is the theoretical yield of CO2?
b. Calculate the percent yield of CO2

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 14 | Page

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SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

4. Progress Check:
To be submitted via Google Classroom

Answer the following:

1. Given: 2H2(g) + O2 (g)  2H2O

a. How many moles of water will be formed from 25 g hydrogen gas?

b. How many moles Oxygen gas is needed?

2. The toxic gas hydrogen fluoride, HF, is produced from the double displacement reaction of calcium
fluoride, CaF2, and concentrated sulfuric acid H2SO4. Starting with 10.0g of CaF2 and 15.5g of H2SO4:
CaF2 + H2SO4  CaSO4 + 2 HF
a. Which is the limiting reactant?
b. How many grams of HF will be produced?
c. What mass of the excess reactant will be left after the reaction?

3. 50 g of benzene (C6H6) is placed in a container with 160 g of oxygen gas. After the reaction, 30 g of H 2O
were formed.
2 C6H6 + 15 O2  6 H2O + 12 CO2
a. What is the percent yield?
b. How much of the excess reactant is left after the reaction?

5. Generalization:

- End of discussion for Module : Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions –

In this module, you have learned about stoichiometry- how to use the mole concept and
balanced chemical equations to solve for the amount of products produced or the amount of
reactants required for a specific reaction. Moreover, you have learned how to determine the
limiting and excess reactants. In any stoichiometric calculations, you have to determine first
which reactant is limiting because the amount of product is always based on the limiting
reactant. In reality, the amount of product produced is not exactly equal to the amount
predicted by stoichiometric calculations or the theoretical yield. You also learned how to relate
the theoretical yield of a reaction to the actual yield.

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 15 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

6. Evaluation:

To be posted in the Google Classroom

References:
Ilao, L., Lontoc, B., & Paderna-Gayon, E. (2016). General Chemistry 1. Manila, Philippines: REX Book Store

Quiming, N., & Sacramento, J. (2016). General Chemistry 1. Quezon City, Philippines: Vibal Group Inc.

Ms. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 16 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Module No. 6: Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas

Time Frame: September 27-October 1, 2021

Week 7

1. Overview
In the previous lessons, you have learned how to compute molar masses from the atomic masses of
elements given the periodic table and related them to the number of moles and number of particles. You can
use your knowledge of these quantities to obtain important information about chemical compounds. In this
module, you will learn about the percent composition of compounds and how to determine the empirical
formula and molecular formula of compounds.

2. Most Essential Learning Competencies

1. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound
2. Calculate molecular formula given the molar mass

3. Content / Discussion / Learning Resources / Links

Activity 1: Motivation

Look at the tag of your shirt. Is it 100 % cotton, or its fabric a combination of two or more fibers?
There are fabrics that are combinations of cotton and nylon, cotton and spandex, cotton and polyester
rayon and linen, etc.
One tag may read 43% cotton and 57% nylon. This is the percent composition of the shirt’s fabric.

(Ilao L., Lontoc B., & Paderna-Gayon E., 2016)

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 1 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Lesson 6.1: The Percent Composition of a compound

In chemistry, the relative amounts of the elements in a compound are expressed as the percent
composition or the percent by mass of each element in a compound. The percent by mass of an
element in a compound is the mass in grams of the element divided by the mass in grams of the
compound multiplied by 100%.

mass of element
% mass = x 100
mass of compound

(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

Sample Problems:

1. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), also called baking soda, is used as a natural cleaner and is an active
ingredient in antacids. Calculate the percent composition of each of the element present in NaHCO 3

Molar mass of NaHCO3

Na= (1x23) = 23
H= (1x1) = 1
C= (1x12) = 12
O= (3x16) = 48
84 g/mol

23.0 g Na
% Na x 100 = 27.38 %
84.0 g NaHCO3

1.00 g H
%H x 100 = 1.19 %
84.0 g NaHCO3

12.0 g C
%C x 100 = 14.29 %
84.0 g NaHCO3

48.0 g O
%O x 100 = 57.14 %
84.0 g NaHCO3

To check if your solution is correct, the sum of all the percent composition of each element should be 100 %
(99.99 % or 100.01 % because of rounding off)

(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 2 | Page

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SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

2. What are the mass % of C, % H and % O in C2H5OH?

Molar mass of C2H50H

C= (2x12) = 24

H= (6x1) = 6

O= (1x16) = 16

46.0 g/mol

24.0 g C
%C x 100 = 52.17 %
46.0 g 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻

6.00 g H
%H x 100 = 13.04 %
46.0 g 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻

16.0 g O
%O x 100 = 34.78 %
46.0 g 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻

Activity 2: Calculate the percent composition of each element in the given compounds.

1. Calculate the percentage by mass composition of the atoms of vanillin- C8H8O3

2. Calculate the percentage by mass composition of the atoms of Sulfuric acid H 2SO4

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 3 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Lesson 6.2: Finding the Empirical and Molecular Formulas of a Compound

When chemists synthesize or discover a new compound, the compound is analyzed quantitatively to
determine its percent composition. From the compound’s percent composition, the empirical formula is then
determined. (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

An Empirical formula (also known as the simplest formula) consists of the symbols of all the elements
present in the compound, with the subscripts showing the smallest whole-number ratio of the atoms in the
compound. On the other hand, the Molecular formula (also known as the actual formula) gives the actual
number of each kind of atom present in a molecule of the compound. (Quiming N., & Sacramento J, 2016)

For example, hydrogen peroxide has the molecular formula H2O2. The actual number of hydrogen and oxygen
atoms in one molecule of H2O2, as shown by the subscripts in the chemical formula, are both 2. The lowest
ratio, however, of hydrogen to oxygen in hydrogen peroxide is 1:1. Therefore, the empirical formula of
hydrogen peroxide is HO. Other examples of compounds and their empirical formula and molecular formula
are shown in the table below: . (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

Name of Compound Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

Acetylene C2H2 CH
Benzene C6H6 CH
Formaldehyde CH2O CH2O
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Water H2O H2O

Some compounds like acetylene and benzene have the same empirical formula. But it is noted that benzene
and acetylene are two distinct compounds with very different physical and chemical properties.
(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 4 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

Lesson 6.2.1: Determining the Empirical Formula of a Compound

Information on the percent composition of a compound or the actual masses of the elements in a given mass
of the compound is necessary to determine the empirical formula of that compound. If percent composition
is given, you can assume 100g of the sample so that the given percent composition of each element is also
equal to the mass in grams of the element.

Sample Problems:

1. An analytical chemist analyzed a sample of a compound that is found to contain 40.0% Sulfur and
60.0% Oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the compound?

Solution:

Since you are given the percent composition and must find the empirical formula, you can assume
100.0 g of the compound. Based on the given percentage this will mean 40.0 g and 60.0 g.
The mass of each element in the compound is used to find the number of moles of sulfur and oxygen:

1 mol S
moles of S = 40.0 g x = 1.25 mol S
32 g S

1 mol O
moles of O = 60.0 g x = 3.75 mol O
16 g O

The mole ratio of sulfur to oxygen atoms is 1.25: 3.75. However, subscripts in a chemical formula should be
in whole numbers. Therefore these values should be converted to whole numbers. So, how do you do that?
To start, which do you think will have a smaller whole number subscript between S and O?
Since S has the smaller number of moles, it will have the smallest subscript possible, 1.
Thus, you can divide the mole values of sulfur and oxygen by the mole value of sulfur (1.25)

Whole number ratio of S- 1.25 mol S/1.25= 1 mol S

Whole number ratio of O- 3.75 mol O/1.25= 3 mol O
The simplest whole number mole ratio of S atoms to O atoms is 1:3
Hence, the empirical formula of the compound is SO3

(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 5 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2022

1. Methyl acetate is a solvent commonly used in some paints, inks, and adhesives. What is the
empirical formula for methyl acetate, which has a percent composition of 48.65% C, 8.11% H, and
43.24% O? (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

1 mol S
moles of C = 48.65 g x = 4.05 mol C
12.0 g C

1 mol H
moles of H = 8.11 g x = 8.11 mol H
1.00 g H

1 mol O
moles of O = 43.24 g x = 2.70 mol C
16.0 g O

4.05 mol C/ 2. 70= 1.5

8.11 mol H/ 2.70= 3
2.70 mol O/ 2. 70= 1
Multiply these numbers by integers (2) in order to get whole numbers; if an operation is done to
one of the numbers, it must be done to all of them.
4.05 mol C/ 2.70 = 1.5 x 2= 3
8.11 mol H/ 2.70 = 3 x2= 6
2. 70 mol O/ 2.70 = 1x2= 2
The empirical formula is C3H6O2

Activity 3: Determine the Empirical Formula for each compound

1. A blue solid is found to contain 36.84 % Nitrogen, and 63.16 % Oxygen. Find the empirical formula.

2. Determine the empirical formula for a compound with 60.98 % arsenic and 39.02 % sulfur.

3. Determine the empirical formula for a compound that contains 74.07 % C, 8.64 % H, and 17.28 % N

(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

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Lesson 6.2.2: Determining the Molecular Formula of a Compound

Knowledge about the exact molar mass of a compound is necessary to determine its molecular formula.
When the molar mass is already known, this is compared with the mass represented by the empirical
formula.

Sample Problems:

1. What is the molecular formula of a compound with a molar mass of 60.0 g/mol and an empirical
formula of CH4N?

The first step is to calculate the molar mass of CH 4N. Then, divide the given molar mass by the empirical
formula mass to determine n which is the number of times the empirical formula is found in the molecular
formula. Then, the subscripts of the symbols in the empirical formula are multiplied by the value of n to
determine the actual subscripts in the molecular formula.

Molar mass CH4N= 12.0g (C = 12 x 1) + 4.0g (H = 1 x4) + 14.0 g (N = 14 x 1))= 30.0 g/mol
Molar mass of compound is 60.0 g/mol
Solving for n:

60 g/mol
n= =2
30 g/ mol

Multiplying CH4N by 2, the molecular formula is C2H8N2

2. The empirical formula of decane is C5H11. Its molecular weight is 142. g/mol. What is the molecular
formula of decane?
Molar mass of C5H11 = 60g (C= 12 x5) + 11g (H= 1 x 11) = 71 g

142 𝑔
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑛 = =2
71 𝑔

Multiply C5H11 by 2- molecular formula = C10H22

(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

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Activity 4. Determine the molecular formula of the following compounds:

1. A piece of iron ore is found to contain a compound containing 77.78% iron and 22.22% oxygen with
a molecular mass of 216 g/mol. What is the molecular formula of the compound? What should be
done first?

2. Codeine, a narcotic drug used to treat cough, has an empirical formula C18H21NO3. What is the
molecular formula of codeine if its molar mass is 299 g/mol?

4. Progress Check:
To be submitted via Google Classroom

Answer the following:

1. An unknown compound contains 40.68% C, 5.08 %H and 54.24 % O by mass. Its molar mass is
177 g/mole. What is the molecular formula? What should be done first to solve this problem?

2. An unknown compound was analyzed and found to contain 75.0% C, 5.0% H, and 20.0% O by mass. The
molar mass of the compound is 240 g/mol. What are the empirical and molecular formulas of the
compound?

- End of discussion for Module 6 : - Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas –

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5. Generalization:

In this module, you have learned to apply the mole concept in solving for the percent composition of
compounds. You have also learned how to determine empirical and molecular formulas from percent
composition.

Values Integration

This lesson integrates the following core values:

Integrity- Students are able to demonstrate honesty and fairness in accomplishing the different
activities in this module.

Excellence- Students are able to learn and demonstrate the concepts in this module and achieve
the needed learning competencies.

Open Communication- Students are able to ask questions and seek clarifications on certain
topics; share and express their ideas to the teacher as well as to their classmates.

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 9 | Page

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6. Evaluation:

To be posted in Google Classroom

7. References:
Ilao, L., Lontoc, B., & Paderna-Gayon, E. (2016). General Chemistry 1. Manila, Philippines: REX Book Store

Quiming, N., & Sacramento, J. (2016). General Chemistry 1. Quezon City, Philippines: Vibal Group Inc.

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 10 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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Module No. 7: Gases

Time Frame: - October 4-8, 2021

1. Overview
This module covers the properties and behavior of gases and how they react. It also presents the
relationships among the parameters that are used to describe gases such as pressure, volume, temperature,
and number of moles. At the end of this module you are expected to solve problems involving gas laws and
their real life applications.

2. Most Essential Learning Competencies

1. Define pressure and give the common units of pressure

2. Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature of a gas under certain conditions of
change
3. Use the ideal gas equation to calculate pressure, volume, Temperature, or number of moles of a gas
4. Use Dalton’s law of partial pressures to relate mole fraction and partial pressure of gases in a
mixture
5. Apply the principles of stoichiometry to determine the amounts (volume, number of moles, or
mass) of gaseous reactants and products
6. Relate the rate of gas effusion with molar mass

3. Content / Discussion / Learning Resources / Link

Activity 1: Motivation

Opening thoughts…

Have you ever:

Seen a hot air balloon?

Had a soda bottle spray all over you?

Baked (or eaten) a nice, fluffy cake?

These are all examples of gases at work!

Can you give other examples?

(Prasad, 2014)

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Lesson 7: Gases

Properties of Gases

You can predict the behavior of gases based on the following properties:
Pressure, Volume, Amount (moles), Temperature

Pressure is the force of the gas exerting on a container. In the gaseous phase, molecules collide randomly
against other molecules and against the container walls. The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal,
Pa = 1 N/m2. (Ilao L., Lontoc B., & Paderna-Gayon E., 2016)

Some common units for pressure:

Unit Equivalent value in other units Equivalent value in Pascal

1 Pa Pascal= 1 N/m2
1 psi 1 lb/in2 6,894.76 Pa
1 bar 105 N/m2 100, 000 Pa or
100 kPa
1 torr 1 mm Hg 133.322 Pa or
0.133322 kpa
1 atm 760 mm Hg= 29.92 in Hg= 14.70 psi 101, 325 Pa or
101.325 kPa

Volume is the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object /container holding the gas. The
SI unit for volume is the cubic meter, m 3. A more common and convenient unit is the liter, L. (Prasad,
2014)

Amount (moles) - As we’ve already learned, the SI unit for amount of substance is the mole, mol. By
definition, one mole of a substance contains approximately 6.022 x 1023 particles of the substance.
Since we can’t count molecules, we can convert measured mass to the number of moles, n, using the
molecular or formula weight of the gas. (Prasad, 2014)

Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is; specifically, a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the particles in an object, which is a type of energy associated with motion.

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Lesson 7.1: Gas Laws

Gas behavior under certain conditions can be predicted using certain gas laws.

Boyle’s Law

At constant temperature, the volume of the gas increases as the pressure decreases. The volume of the
gas decreases and the pressure increases. (The Gas Laws, n.d)

Formula= P1V1=P2V2

P1/ P2= Pressure 1/ Pressure 2

V1/V2= Volume 1/ Volume 2

Practical applications of Boyle’s Law

Syringes operate by Boyle’s Law: when plunger is pulled, the volume

inside the syringe increases, causing a decrease in pressure inside the
syringe. The decrease in pressure causes the liquid to be drawn into the
syringe, thereby causing the volume of the air to decrease. (Ilao L., et. al
2016)

Pressure decreases with increasing altitude. At higher elevations,

there are fewer air molecules above a given surface than a similar
surface at lower levels. This is the reason why bags of chips
expand on high altitude places like Baguio City.

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1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

Sample Problems:

1. A gas sample exerts pressure of 3.0 kPa when it occupies a 12.0 L vessel at 20 °C. What pressure would
the gas exert at 20 °C if the same gas sample is transferred to a 9.0 L vessel? (Ilao L., et. al 2016)
How do you know that the formula for Boyle’s law should be used?

Solution:

2. An inflated balloon has a volume of 0.55 L at sea level= 1.0 atm and is allowed to rise to a height of 6.5
km, where the pressure is about 0.40 atm. Assuming that the temperature remains constant, what is the
final volume of the balloon? (Quiming N., & Sacramento J, 2016)

Activity 2: Answer the problem below involving Boyle’s Law:

A gas sample is observed to exert a pressure of 600 torr when confined to a 10.0 L vessel at 27 °C. What
will be the pressure in kPa when the gas is transferred to an 8.0 L vessel at the same temperature? *Exact
answer. (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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Charles’ Law

At a constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE. This
means, an increase in the absolute temperature of the gas increases the volume and a decrease in the
temperature decreases the volume. (The Gas Laws, n.d)

𝐕𝐈 𝐕𝟐
Formula= =
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐

V1/V2= Volume 1/ Volume 2

T1/T2= Temperature 1/ Temperature 2

Practical Applications of Charles’ Law

3. On ignition of the fuel, the air inside the envelope heats up. This
hot air expands as per Charles's law. As the temperature of the air
increases, the volume of the air also increases and consequently, the
density decreases. This makes the envelope lighter than the
atmospheric air surrounding it. The buoyant force pushes the lighter
envelope up in the air, and it flies. (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

Step outside with a helium balloon on a chilly day and chances are, the
balloon will crumble. Once you get back into the warmth, however, the
balloon will return to its original shape. In accordance with Charles’ Law, this
is because a gas, in this case, helium, takes up more space when it is warm.
(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2021
Sample Problems:

1. A gas sample is observed to occupy 12.0 L under a pressure of 101.325 kPa at 27 °C. What will be the
volume of the gas if it is heated to 57 °C under the same pressure? (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

2. A gas sample occupies a volume of 12.0 L at 25 °C and 750 torr. At what temperature in °C will the
gas occupy a volume of 15.0 L at 750 torr? (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

Activity 3: Answer the problem below involving Charles’ Law

A 254 mL sample of chlorine gas is heated from 23°C to 175°C at constant pressure. What is the final
volume? *answer 2 decimal places (Quiming N., & Sacramento J, 2016)

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 6 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

Gay-Lussac’s Law

The pressure and absolute temperature (K) of a gas are directly related at constant volume.

𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐
Formula= =
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐

P1/P2= Pressure 1/ Pressure 2

T1/T2= Temperature 1/ Temperature 2

Practical Applications of Gay-Lussac’s Law

As temperature increases, the pressure inside the pressure cooker

likewise increases, if the valve are malfunctioning and not releasing the
steam, the pressure cooker might explode
(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

On hot summer days, the inflated tires of vehicles may burst. The
inflated tires are under high pressure. When the temperature of the air
rises, the pressure of the gas in the tubes increases. After an
unbearable point, the tires fracture.
(Ilao L., et. al 2016)

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

Sample Problems:

1. A gas has a pressure of 3.00 atm at 127°C. What is its pressure at 227°C assuming that the volume
remains constant? (Quiming N., & Sacramento J, 2016)

2. A sample of sulfur dioxide gas kept in a sealed tank has a pressure of 135 kPa at a temperature of
30.0°C. The pressure in the container is then increased to 202 kPa. What would be the temperature
in °C of the gas at this new condition? (Quiming N., & Sacramento J, 2016)

Activity 4: Answer the problem below involving Gay-Lussac’s Law

A gas has a pressure of 0.370 atm at 50.0 °C. What is the pressure at standard temperature?

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 8 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

To remember which constants go with which law . . . (The Gas Laws, n.d)

Combined Gas Law

It is a law that combines the previous laws into one.

Sample Problems:

1. A 40.0 L balloon is filled with air at sea level (1 atm) at 25°C. It is tied to a rock and thrown in a
cold body of water, it sinks to the point where temperature is 4.0 °C and the pressure is 11.0 atm.
What will be its new volume?

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

2. A gas initially at 4.0 L, 1.2 atm and 66 °C undergoes a change so that its final volume and
temperature become 1.7 L and 42 °C. What is its final pressure? (Quiming N., & Sacramento J,
2016)

Activity 5: Answer the problem below involving Combined Gas Law

A sample of gas of unknown pressure occupies 667 mL at a temperature of 298 K. The same sample of gas
was subjected to known conditions and it was found that it occupies a volume of 446 mL and a pressure of
32.6 kPa at a temperature of 303 K. What was the original pressure of the gas? (Quiming N., & Sacramento
J, 2016)

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

Avogadro’s Law

Two gases that occupy equal volumes under the same temperature and pressure contain the same number
of molecules. At standard temperature (273 K or 0 °C) and pressure (1 atm or 101.3 kPa), one mole of any
ideal gas will occupy 22.413 L and contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules (The Gas Laws, n.d)

V1/V2 = Volume
n1/n2= mole

Practical Applications of Avogadro’s Law

Avogadro’s gas law, with other gas laws, explains why bread and other baked
goods rise. Yeast or other leavening agents cause the production of carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide forms bubbles which appear as holes in the
dough. As the yeast continues the leavening process, the number of particles
of carbon dioxide increases, hence causing an increase in the number, or
volume of bubbles and in the size of the dough (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

When a person inflates a balloon, he places more gas particles inside the
balloon, so as the number of gas particles increases, volume of the balloon
increases (Ilao L., et. al 2016)

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

Sample Problems:

1. A balloon has been filled to a volume of 1.90L with 0.0920 mol of helium gas. If 0.0210 mol of additional
helium is added to the balloon while the temperature and pressure are held constant, what is the new
volume of the balloon?

2. In a sample of gas, 47.0 g of oxygen gas (O2) takes up 45 L of volume. Keeping the pressure constant, the
amount of gas is changed until the volume is 76 L. How many g of gas are now in the container?

Activity 6. Answer the problem below involving Avogadro’s Gas Law

5.00 L of a gas is known to contain 0.965 mol. If the amount of gas is increased to 1.80 mol, what new
volume will result (at an unchanged temperature and pressure)?

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 12 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

Ideal Gases

A gas is considered ideal if its particles are so far apart that they do not exert any attractive forces upon one
another. In real life, there is no such thing as a truly ideal gas, but at high temperatures and low pressures
(conditions in which individual particles will be moving very quickly and be very far apart from one
another so that their interaction is almost zero), gases behave close to ideally; this is why the Ideal Gas Law
is such a useful approximation. (Madu, 2014)

Because the volume of a gas varies with pressure and temperature, chemists have agreed on a set of
conditions to report our measurements so that comparison is easy.
 We call these standard conditions.
 STP
• Standard pressure = 1 atm
Standard temperature = 273 K = 0 °C
•

Sample Problems:

1. Sulfur hexafluoride is a colorless, odorless, very unreactive gas. Calculate the pressure in atm
exerted by 1.28 moles of the gas in a steel vessel of volume 4.50 L at 79.5 °C. ? (Quiming N.,&
Sacramento J, 2016)

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SCI 3 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
1st Semester | AY 2021-2021
2. Calculate the volume occupied by 2.12 moles of nitric oxide at 6.54 atm and 76 °C ? (Quiming N., &
Sacramento J, 2016)

Activity 7: Answer the problem below involving Ideal Gas Law

A sample of argon gas at STP occupies 56.2 liters. Determine the number of moles of argon.

Mrs. Jerlyn R. Gamboa, LPT 14 | Page

 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Many gas samples are not pure, but are mixtures of gases. Dry air, for example, is a mixture containing
nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and a few other gases in trace amounts. (Madu, 2014)

The total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.
The pressure due to any individual component in a gas mixture is its partial pressure (Pn).
We can calculate partial pressure from the ideal gas law by assuming that each gas component acts
independently. (Madu, 2014)

For a multicomponent gas mixture, we calculate the partial pressure of each component from the ideal gas
law and the number of moles of that component as follows: (Madu, 2014)

The sum of the partial pressures of the components in a gas mixture equals the total pressure:

Mole Fraction

Each component in the mixture of gas contributes a fraction of the total number of moles in the mixture. In
any mixture, the sum of the mole fraction of all components equals to 1
The number of moles of a component in a mixture divided by the total number of moles in the mixture, is
the mole fraction (Xa). (Madu, 2014)

Pa
Xa 
Pt

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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Sample Problems:

1. A storage tank contains 2 moles of Ar, 3 moles of O2, and 5 moles of N2 at a total of 1,000 torr.
Calculate the partial pressure of each gas.

2. 56 g of N2 and 96 g of O2 are mixed in a 2.0 L container at 300 K. Calculate the partial pressure of
each gas and the total pressure

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 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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1st Semester | AY 2021-2021

3. A vessel contains N2, O2 and CO2. The partial pressure of N2 is 600 torr while O2 is 150 torr. The total
pressure is 825 torr. Find the partial pressure and mole fraction of CO 2.

Activity 8: Answer the problems below involving partial pressure

1. Deep-sea divers must use special gas mixtures in their tanks, rather than compressed air, to avoid
serious problems, most notably a condition called “the bends.” At depths of about 350 ft., divers are subject
to a pressure of approximately 10 atm. A typical gas cylinder used for such depths contains 51.2 g of O2 and
326.4 g of He and has a volume of 10.0 L. What is the partial pressure of each gas at 20.00°C, and what is
the total pressure in the cylinder at this temperature?

2. Venus is an inhospitable place, with a surface temperature of 560°C and a surface pressure of 90 atm.
The atmosphere consists of about 96% CO2 and 3% N2, with trace amounts of other gases, including
water, sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid. Calculate the partial pressures of CO 2 and N2.

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Diffusion and Effusion

The process of a collection of molecules spreading out from high concentration to low concentration is
called diffusion. (Madu, 2014)

When you smell the coffee in the coffee shop or the fish in the kitchen its diffusion of gas molecules that
bring the smell to your nose

The process by which a collection of molecules escapes through a small hole is called effusion.

For two different gases at the same temperature, the ratio of their rates of effusion is given by the following
equation:

The equation tells us that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
molecular mass. This means that the heavier the molecule, the slower its motion. (Madu, 2014)

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4. Progress Check:
To be submitted via Google Classroom

Answer the following:

1. A balloon has a volume of 4.0L when at sea level (1.0atm) at a room temperature of 28 °C. What will be
its volume when inflated with the same amount of gas at an elevation where the atmospheric pressure is
700 mm hg at 28 °C?

2. 450 mL of a gas occupies a container that has a temperature of 28 °C and a pressure of 788 mmHg. What
is the temperature if the volume is reduced to 50 mL at 760 mmHg?

3. A cylinder of argon gas contains 50.0 L of Ar at 18.4 atm and 127 °C. How many moles of argon is in the
cylinder?

4. A mixture of hydrogen (1.01 g) and chlorine (17.73 g) in a container at 300 K has a total gas pressure of
98.8 kPa. What is the partial pressure of hydrogen in the mixture?

- End of discussion for Module 7 : - Gases –

5. Generalization:

In this module, you have learned about the different Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, Gay-
Lussac’s Law, Avogadro’s Law, and Ideal Gas Law and their real- life application. Moreover, you
have also learned about the partial pressure of gases in which each gas contributes to the total
pressure of a gas mixture. Lastly, you have learned about diffusion which is the process of a
collection of molecules spreading out from high concentration to low concentration. That is
why you can smell the aroma of food and other things. And effusion which is the process by
which a collection of molecules escapes through a small hole. The heavier the mass of a gas is,
the slower it will be able to escape a hole.

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Values Integration

This lesson integrates the following core values:

Integrity- Students are able to demonstrate honesty and fairness in accomplishing the
different activities in this module.

Excellence- Students are able to learned and demonstrate the concepts in this module and
achieve the needed learning competencies.

Obedience- Students are able to respectfully follow and comply with instructions and rules
provided by the teacher and by their groupmates or leader in a group task.

Open Communication- Students are able to ask questions and seek for clarifications on
certain topics; share and express their ideas to the teacher as well as to their classmates.

Teamwork- Students are able to cooperate, contribute and work harmoniously with their
groupmates or classmates which will lead them to success.

6. Evaluation:

7. References:
Ilao, L., Lontoc, B., & Paderna-Gayon, E. (2016). General Chemistry 1. Manila, Philippines: REX Book Store

Quiming, N., & Sacramento, J. (2016). General Chemistry 1. Quezon City, Philippines: Vibal Group Inc.

Prasad, V. (2014). The Gas Laws [PowerPoint slides]. Slideshare

https://www.slideshare.net/vikashthebrilliant/gas-laws-38777826

Madu, M. (2014). Gases [PowerPoint slides]. https://www.northallegheny.org

The Gas Laws, n.d. [PowerPoint slides]. https://mpcs.instructure.com

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