In: The Story of Managing Projects: A Global, Cross– Disciplinary Collection of Perspectives,

Dr. E. G. Carayannis and Dr. Y. H. Kwak, editors,

Greenwood Press / Quorum Books, 2002

Chapter X.

AGILE PROJECT MANAGEMENT

METHODS FOR IT PROJECTS
Glen B. Alleman
Niwot, Colorado 80503

The difference between failure and success is the difference between doing
something almost right and doing something right.
— Benjamin Franklin

Agile project management methodologies used to develop, deploy, or

acquire information technology systems have begun to enter the vocabu-

lary of modern organizations. Much in the same way lightweight and

agile manufacturing or business management processes have over the past

few years. This chapter is about applying Agile methods in an environ-

ment that may be more familiar with high ceremony project manage-

ment methods – methods that might be considered heavy weight in

terms of today’s agile vocabulary.

Agile PM Methods 1
High ceremony projects include projects based on formal or semi– formal

project management methods, ones like Prince2 , PMI’s PMBOK

[1]
, or
[2]

processes based on the Software Engineering Institute’s Capability Matur-

ity Model . These methods are traditionally associated with organiza-

[3]

tions that operate in software engineering centric business domains. These

domains view software activities as an engineering process, rather than a

creative process based in the skill of individuals or small teams.

Organizations with mature processes often define their activities in a

formal manner, applying methods with rigor, and monitoring the proc-

esses and results carefully. These practices are many times built up over

time and come about through direct experiences – either good or bad.

Many times, they follow the formal structure of the underlying business

process.

1
Projects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE) is a structured project management method
used in the United Kingdom.
2
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is an ANSI Standard PMI– 99– 001– 2000
describing the various attributes of a project management method.
3
Capability Maturity Model is a collection of model frameworks for assessing the maturity of a
specific practice. Key Practice Areas are used to define the various levels of maturity. CMM
now consists of: Software, People, Software Acquisition, Systems Engineering, and Integrated
Product Development. This models are supported by a software process assessment standard
ISO/IEC 15504.

Agile PM Methods 2
It is common to talk about Agile methods for modern project manage-

ment processes in the context of a set of lightweight activities used to

manage the development or acquisition of software. These activities in-

clude requirements, design, coding, and testing processes based on a

minimal set of activities needed to reach the end goal — a working

software system. [4]

Although some of these agile development methods address the man-

agement aspects of software projects – people, processes, and technology

– they are primarily focused on coding, testing, and software artifact

delivery. [5]

Applying the concept of agility to the management of a software project

is a natural step in the evolution of software development. One impor-

tant question to be asked though is how can these minimalist approaches

be applied to traditional project management activities?

4
SCRUM, DSDM, Crystal, Adaptive Software Development, and Extreme Programming.
5
Some proponents of these lightweight methods contend delivery of software is the only goal.
Although this is an obvious outcome of the programming and integration process, there are
many other deliverable artifacts associated with large– scale software projects.

Agile PM Methods 3
 What project management process simplifications are appropriate for

a specific problem domain? [6]

Are all lightweight and agile project management process steps ap-

plicable to specific problem domains? If not which steps are appli-

cable to which domains? [6]

Weight versus Agility

In the information technology project management literature, lightweight

is often defined as not heavyweight, which is a tautology. Over time

lightweight has been superceded in the trade press and literature by the

term Agile. Lightweight and Agile are not interchangeable words how-

ever. This distinction is not well understood by many agile proponents,

so some clarification is needed here before we proceed.

Lightweight describes the weightiness of the process and its artifacts. The

amount of potentially non– value added artifacts produced by a specific

process. This weightiness can be attributed to the undesirable conse-

6
Capers Jones’ Software Assessments, Benchmarks, and Best Practices provides a taxonomy that is
useful for defining the various domains. Management Information Systems, Outsourced systems,
Systems software, Commercial software, Military software, End User software, and web appli-
cations and e– project.

Agile PM Methods 4
quences of the process – artifacts that don’t provide benefit to the out-

come. This weightiness can also be attributed to the mis– application of

a specific process. Agility describes the behavior of the participants and

their ability to move or adjust in new and possibly unforeseen situa-

tions.

Much like an overweight boat, airplane or athlete, the undesirable

weight needs to be removed in order to increase the efficiency of the

vehicle. This is a standard best practice in many engineering disciplines.

One problem with this analogy though is that anyone suggesting a spe-

cific methodology is over weight must answer the question:

… if a project management method were properly applied, in the proper

domain, to the proper set of problems, with properly trained participants,

would it be considered overweight and produce undesirable conse-

quences?

The usual answer is no, of course not. If everyone were doing their job

properly, in the proper engineering, regulatory, and contractual envi-

ronment, then the results would be accepted by all the participants –

this is the definition of a tautology.

Agile PM Methods 5
The problem of Agile project management methodology selection is

compounded by the behaviors of the method as well as the behaviors

of the participants using the method. In addition, the appropriateness of

the method for a specific problem domain remains an issue. Making a

process lightweight by removing activities or artifacts is most likely in-

appropriate and a possible source for project failure without careful con-

sideration of the consequences.

Project Management Framework

According to the Software Engineering Institute, a methodology must

posses certain attributes in order to meet the requirements of being

called a methodology. [7]

Another framework for methodologies is the

Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK) that contains

other knowledge development methods to be used by any professional

software engineer. [8]

For the moment, we’ll focus on the SEI’s descrip-

tion of the software project attributes. Figure 1 describes how these at-

7
“Software Development Taxonomy,” www.sei.cmu.edu/legacy/kit/taxonomy.html.
8
www.swebok.org

Agile PM Methods 6
tributes could be related in an agile project management method. [9]
This

structure is a process pattern view of project activities. [10]

This approach

focuses on the communication and people– centric aspects of project

management. Agile project management can be built on this framework.

Management
Quality Milestones
Methods

Activities Teams

Products Management
Processes
Techniques Roles

People

Standards Tools Skills

Development Work
Environment Environment

Figure 1 – Interrelation between Project Management Activities

9
“A Methodology per Project,” Alistair Cockburn, Humans and Technology Technical Report,
TR 99.04, October 1999.
http://www.crystalmethodologies.org/articles/mpp/methodologyperproject.html
10
One source of process patterns is http://i44pc48.info.uni-karlsruhe.de/cgi-bin/OrgPatterns.

Agile PM Methods 7
The Agile Software Delivery Process

Agile processes emphasize both the rapid and flexible adaptation to

changes in the process, the product, and the development environ-

ment . This is a very general definition and therefore not very useful
[11]

without some specific context.

Before establishing this context, Agile processes include three major

attributes, they are:

Incremental and Evolutionary – allowing adaptation to both internal

and external events.

Modular and Lean – allowing components of the process to come

and go depending on specific needs if the participants and stake-

holders.

Time Based – built on iterative and concurrent work cycles, which

contain feedback loops and progress checkpoints.

11
“New Age of Software Development: How Component Based Software Engineering Changes
the Way of Software Development,” Mikio Aoyama, 1998 International Workshop on Compe-
tent– Based Software Engineering, 1998.
“Agile Software Process and Its Experience,” Mikio Aoyama, International Conference on
Software Engineering, 1998.

Agile PM Methods 8
Common Problems with All Software Projects

The National Software Quality Experiment has been conducted each

year since 1992 with the following observations reoccurring over the

years: [12]

Common Problem Consequences

Software product source code com- Software product is not under the control and the
ponents are not traced to require- verification procedures are imprecise. Changes can-
ments. not be managed in a controlled manner.
Software engineering practices are Defect rates are unacceptable.
not applied in a systematic manner.
Product designs and source are The understandability, maintainability, and adapta-
managed in an ad hoc manner bility of the product is negatively impacted.
The construction processes for the Common patterns of the processes are not ex-
product are not clearly defined. ploited.
Rapidly changing code base has The code base services the only the short term
become the norm. benefits and mortgages the future where traceable
baseline requirements, specifications, and design
artifacts are the foundations of success.

Figure 2 – National Software Quality Experiment Results

12
In 1992, the DOD Software Technology Strategy set the objective to reduce software problem
rates by a factor of ten by the year 2000. The National Software Quality Experiment is a
mechanism for obtaining core samples of software product quality. This national database pro-
vides the means to benchmark and measure progress towards the national software quality ob-
jective and contains data from 1992 through 1998.
The centerpiece of the experiment is the Software Inspection Lab where data collection proce-
dures, product checklists, and participant behaviors are packaged for operational project use.
The uniform application of the experiment and the collection of consistent measurements are
guaranteed through rigorous training of each participant.

Agile PM Methods 9
The Problem of Change

Change continually takes place in the business world, at all levels

within an organization or market place. Change by itself is not the

problem. The world is always changing. It always has been changing. It

always will be changing. Businesses and the processes they use have al-

ways had to adapt to this changing world.

Often changes in the past have occurred incrementally. When a radical

change took place, the next change event was slow in coming. While

there has always been uncertainty in business, it was usually not signifi-

cant or sustained.

The problem in today’s world is that change is no longer incremental

or even linear. Radical non– linear changes occur in the normal course of

business. The pace of change is not only increasing, sustained uncer-

tainty is now commonplace.

Ready For Agility?

All organizations face problems that can be addressed by Agile methods,

but not all companies are ready for the radical ideas needed to become

an Agile organization. Agility is still an emerging topic and is at the

Agile PM Methods 10
stage where it is not possible to buy an off– the– shelf solution that has

been shown to behave in the same manner as heavier weight proc-

esses. [13]
Elements of agility can certainly be found in many processes,

but as the saying goes – one swallow does not a make summer. [14]

The introduction of an Agile process should only be undertaken by or-

ganizations that are risk aware if not risk adverse. Organizations who

need answers and concepts that are fully developed that result in a solu-

tion that can be implemented with little risk should stay clear of the

Agile Processes. The irony is though – there is no such process that can

deliver a fully developed plan that results in a fully developed project

or product. Let alone one that can be deployed without risk.

13
This of course is not the contention of XP, SCRUM, ASD, and other lightweight, and now
agile processes. But these processes have yet to enter the stage where analytical evidence has
been gathered to support the contention they produce superior results when compared to their
less– lightweight cousins. This is a continuing debate which will not be resolved in this short
chapter.
14
This English proverb can be traced to a Greek proverb. In the ancient world birds were asso-
ciated with the household gods and their presence was looked upon as fortuitous. Any harm
done to them would bode evil for the household.

Agile PM Methods 11
The Forces Driving Agility

Software acquisition and deployment is generally driven by a need to

solve a specific problem, to do things better, to modify or improve a

business or technical process. The software development process com-

munity has two schools of thought regarding the outcome of these ef-

forts:

Things are getting better

Things are getting worse

This conflicting set of opinions adds more confusion to an already con-

fusing question of — are we actually improving the outcome of the soft-

ware by improving the management processes?

A few years ago, methodologies and processes were the domain of aca-

demics. The methodology zoo has grown however and at the same time

become focused on the commercial aspects of selling these methodologies

to anxious managers, developers, and stakeholders. This selling process

has, in many cases, overtaken the rational application of these methods

of specific problem domains.

Agile PM Methods 12
Practical Agile Project Management

The deployment of an Agile project management methodology in an

existing organization faces several obstacles:

The legacy project management processes must be displaced in

some way to make room for the new process.

The gaps that existed in the legacy process must be filled with the

new process while maintaining the integrity provided by the legacy

process.

Common Threads of These Methods

In an attempt to simplify the many attributes of the methods, a list of

common threads can be built, using Figure 1 as a framework.

Thread Compliance
Requirements Gathering Some method of gathering requirements is needed.
Software Development or Software must be developed (or procured) that meets
Procurement the requirements.
Component and System testing are performed in some
Testing
structured manner.
The management of personnel is provided in some
Personnel Management
methods, but not all.
Some means of defining tasks, measuring progress,
Project Management providing feedback, and changing the course of the
participants.

Figure 3 – Common Aspects of All Methods

Agile PM Methods 13
Is Agile Yet Another Software Methodology Taxonomy?

Before selecting a software development method, some understanding of

what type of software is to be developed is appropriate. [15]

By partition-

ing software system into types, the appropriateness question can be ad-

dressed — what project management methods are appropriate for what

problem domains?

Software Type Attributes

Management Informa- Software that an enterprise uses to support business and ad-
tion Systems ministrative operations.
Outsourced systems Software projects built for client organizations.
Software that controls a physical device such as a computer or
Systems software
a telephone switch.
Software applications that are marketed to hundreds or even
Commercial software
millions of clients.
Military software Software produced for the uniformed services.
End User Software Small applications written for personal use.
Small, medium, and large scale projects with legacy system
Web Application and
integration, transaction processing, multimedia delivery, and
e– Projects
web browser based user interfaces

Figure 4 – Software Systems Taxonomy

15
Software Assessments, Benchmarks, and Best Practices, Capers Jones, Addison Wesley, 2000. This
partitioning is not unique, but it is based on an underlying assumption that there are funda-
mental differences between problem domains.

Agile PM Methods 14
Framework for Agile Project Management Methods

A framework for deploying Agile project management processes provides

a descriptive guideline rather than a proscriptive set of rules. This

framework approach provides the user a broader set of recommenda-

tions than is found in any particular named methodology.

This framework is based on two foundations:

The Software Program Managers Network Nine Best Practices [16]

–

which provides guidelines for project managers using practical sug-

gestions for daily application.

Scott Ambler’s Agile Modeling framework – which provides a broad

framework for creating agile processes applied to software pro-

jects. [17]

16
www.spmn.com
17
“Agile Modeling,” Scott Ambler, www.agilemodeling.com. Process Patterns: Building Large– Scale
Systems Using Object Technology, Scott Ambler, Cambridge University Press, 1998. More Process
Patterns: Delivering Large– Scale Systems Using Object Technology, Scott Ambler, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1999.

Agile PM Methods 15
Agile Project Management Guidelines

Building on the Software Program Managers Nine Best Practices, the well

established project management methods of the past, the fundamentals of

any project management method, and finally common sense, a frame-

work for Agile Project Management can be built.

Values of Agile Project Management

Before the principles of Agile Project Management can be defined, a set

of underlying values are useful.

Communication – of information within and outside an Agile pro-

ject is constant. It is the responsibility of the project manager to

ensure that the communication occurs effectively, clearly, and in a

timely manner between the management, the contributors, and the

stakeholders. Since change is constant in an Agile project, constant

communication is the only means of maintaining the connections

between all the participants. Going Dark for any significant amount

of time is simply not allowed.

Simplicity – defines the approach to identifying the critical success

factors of the project in terms of the simplest possible solution. All

Agile PM Methods 16
 activities must contribute a measurable value to the project man-

agement process. Measuring the value of a project management arti-

fact is the role of the stakeholders and the project manager. This is

done by asking what is the value of this specific task, artifact, or pro-

ject deliverable?

Feedback – “optimism is an occupational hazard of software devel-

opment, feedback is the cure”. [18]

Continuous feedback is a pri-

mary tool for defining and sustaining Agility.

Courage – all important decisions and changes in the direction of

the project need to be made with the courage. Change is part of

any realistic IT project. Dealing with the consequences of change

or discarding the outcome when the decision is proven inadequate

requires courage.

Humility – the best project managers acknowledge they don’t

know everything. The stakeholders, project participants, and cus-

tomers all have their our area of expertise and add value to the

18
Extreme Programming Explained, Kent Beck, Addison Wesley, 1999.

Agile PM Methods 17
 project. An effective approach is to assume that everyone involved

with the project has equal value and therefore should be treated

with respect.

Applying Agile Principles in Practice

Applying these principles in practice creates the foundation for manag-

ing IT projects in an Agile manner.

Assume Simplicity – as the project evolves it should be assumed

that the simplest solution is the best solution. [19]

Overbuilding the

system or any artifact of the project must be avoided. The project

manager should have the courage to not perform a task or produce

an artifact that is not clearly stated in the requirements as needed

for the immediate benefit of the stakeholders.

Embrace Change – since requirements evolve over time. The stake-

holder understanding of the requirements will change over time.

Project stakeholders themselves may change as the project makes

progress. Project stakeholders may change their point of view,

19
This may not always be the case but it is a good starting point.

Agile PM Methods 18
 which in turn will change the goals and success criteria of the pro-

ject management effort.

Enabling The Next Effort Is Also A Goal – the project can still be

considered a failure even when the team delivers a working system

to the users. Part of fulfilling the needs of the project stakeholders

is to ensure that the system is robust enough to be extended over

time. Using Alistair Cockburn concept, “when you are playing

the software development game your secondary goal is to setup to

play the next game.” [20]

The next phase may be the development

of a major release of the system or it may simply be the operation

and support of the current version of the system.

Incremental Change – the pressure to get it right the first time can

overwhelm the best project manager. Instead of futilely trying to

develop an all encompassing project plan from the start, put a

stake in the ground by developing a small portion of the system,

or even a high– level model of a larger portion of the system, and

20
http://crystalmethodologies.org/

Agile PM Methods 19
 evolve this portion over time. Or simply discard it when you no

longer need it in an incremental manner.

Maximize Stakeholder Value – the project stakeholders are investing

resources — time, money, facilities, etc. — to have a system de-

ployed that meets their needs. Stakeholders expect that their in-

vestment to be applied in the best way.

Manage With A Purpose – create artifacts of the project manage-

ment process that have stakeholder value. Identify why and for

whom the artifact is created. Identify a valid purpose for creating

the artifact and the audience for that artifact. This principle also

applies to a change to an existing artifacts.

Multiple Project Views – provide different views of the same process

for different audiences. Considering the complexity of any modern

information technology system construction or acquisition process,

there is a need for a wide range of presentation formats in order

to effectively communicate with the stakeholders, participants, and

providers.

Agile PM Methods 20
Rapid Feedback – the time between an action and the feedback on

that action must be minimized. Work closely with the stake-

holders, to understand the requirements, to analyze those require-

ments, and develop a actionable plan, which provides numerous

opportunities for feedback.

Working Software Is The Primary Goal of the Project – the goal of

any software project is to produce software that meets the needs of

the project stakeholders. The goal is not to produce extraneous

documentation, management artifacts, or even models of these arti-

facts. Any activity that does not directly contribute to the goal of

producing a working system should be examined.

Travel Light – every artifact that is created, and kept, will need to

be maintained over it’s life cycle. The effort needed to maintain

these artifacts must be balanced with their value. Not only must

the effort be considered, but the risk that the artifact will create

confusion over time if it is not properly maintained must be con-

sidered.

Agile PM Methods 21
Recommendations to Practitioners

Make incremental change to the requirements, project plan system,

and the resulting artifacts to enable agility.

Strive for rapid feedback to ensure the project meets the needs of

all the participants and stakeholder.

Manage with a purpose, performing only those tasks that add value

to business processes supported by the system.

Travel light, discarding processes and artifacts that don’t add endur-

ing value to the product — a working software system.

Agile PM Methods 22